1419:
went and seized the man whom they thought had had intercourse with her and brought him to her. She said: Yes, this is he. Then they brought him to the
Messenger of Allah. When he (the Prophet) was about to pass sentence, the man who (actually) had assaulted her stood up and said: Messenger of Allah, I am the man who did it to her. He (the Prophet) said to her: Go away, for Allah has forgiven you. But he told the man some good words (Abu Dawud said: meaning the man who was seized), and of the man who had had intercourse with her, he said: Stone him to death. He also said: He has repented to such an extent that if the people of Medina had repented similarly, it would have been accepted from them.
1391:, Islamic scholars condemn when a husband uses violence to force his wife to sleep with him or asks his wife to have sexual intercourse during her menstrual period, in an abnormal sexual position, or during fasting hours in Ramadan. In response the wife has the right to take her husband to court and he must be punished for the act. According to this opinion, a wife has numerous grounds to refuse sexual relations with her husband, including if he has a contagious disease or if sexual intercourse hurts her body. Islamic law advises that the sexual intercourse between man and wife should be conducted with intimacy and love.
1208:
act of rape, only one of the parties does so. Jurists admitted a wide array of situations as being "coercive" in nature, including the application of physical force, the presence of duress, or the threat of future harm either to oneself or those close to oneself; they also included in their definition of "coercion" the inability to give valid consent, as in the case of minors, or mentally ill or unconscious persons. Muslim jurists from the earliest period of
Islamic law agreed that perpetrators of coercive
1571:), as not unlike the slave-owner who owns the sexuality of his female slave. For them, in the same way that the slave owner was entitled to compensation for sexual misappropriation, the free woman was also entitled to compensation. The amount of this compensation, they reasoned, should be the amount that any man would normally pay for sexual access to the woman in question – that is, the amount of her dower (
1268:‘One who puts people in fear on the road, whether or not with a weapon, at night or day, in urban areas or in open spaces, in the palace of a caliph or a mosque, with or without accomplices, in the desert or in the village, in a large or small city, with one or more people… making people fear that they’ll be killed, or have money taken, or be raped (hatk al ‘arad)… whether the attackers are one or many.'
46:
1546:‘“The scholars are in unanimous agreement that the rapist is to be subjected to the ḥadd punishment if there is bayyinah (four witnesses) against him, which would warrant the ḥadd punishment to be imposed. if the accused rapist admits to his crime himself. In a situation where the above two instances do not apply, then he would have to bear aqoobah ."
1418:
When a woman went out in the time of the
Prophet for prayer, a man attacked her and overpowered (raped) her. She shouted and he went off, and when a man came by, she said: That (man) did such and such to me. And when a company of the Emigrants came by, she said: That man did such and such to me. They
1207:
was defined as sexual intercourse between a man and a woman over whom the man has neither a conjugal nor an ownership right. What distinguished a prototypical act of zināʾ from an act of rape, for the jurists, was that in the prototypical case, both parties act out of their own volition, while in an
1522:
penalty upon the discretion of the authorities. To them, rape deserves a ta‘zīr penalty when a conviction is reached as a result of circumstantial evidence, such as marks of violence about the genitals, marks of violence on the body of the victim or accused, the presence of semen or blood-stains on
1613:
Rape charges can be brought and a case proven based on the sole testimony of the victim, providing that circumstantial evidence supports the allegations. It is these strict criteria of proof which lead to the frequent observation that where injustice against women does occur, it is not because of
1144:
Islamic law, like the legal systems of classical antiquity and the ancient Near East, does not contain a true equivalent of the modern concept of rape, which is in turn based on the modern notions of individual autonomy and inviolability of the body, particularly the female body. In modern terms,
1360:
differently from modern laws due to the fact that "sexual consent" is a modern concept and
Islamic law was formulated in the pre-modern era. Rather than being a violation of consent, sexual abuse within marriage was conceptualized as harm inflicted on the wife, and judges used the harm-reduction
1589:
Caliph Umar accepted the testimony of a single individual who heard the rape victim call for help as evidence that rape occurred. Imam Malik accepted physical injuries on the victim as evidence that rape occurred. If a woman claims to have been raped or sexually abused under duress, she will be
1383:
refers to "usurping something that belongs to another by force and against the person's will"; it denotes something "ugly" and "reprehensible". Nevertheless, some medieval jurists made a distinction between forced and consensual sex within marriage. While the majority of
Islamic jurists do not
1149:, a woman's sexuality was construed as something in control of her legal guardian or owner rather than in her individual control. Therefore, the category of coercive sexual violation was not clearly differentiated from other categories, such as consensual violation of sexual norms (seduction).
2424:
The Hanafi view that husbands were entitled to have sex forcibly with their wives when the latter did not have a legitimate reason to refuse sex was not widely shared outside that school. Even the majority of Hanafi thinkers who accepted this doctrine recognized a distinction between forced
1605:
the actual penetration applies only to consensual illicit sexual relations (whether adultery or fornication), not to the non-consensual crime of rape. The role of the four male witnesses is to testify that they eyewitnessed not only an illicit sexual encounter, but to testify also that the
1172:). Al-Shāfi‘ī defined rape as: "Forcing a woman to commit zinā against her will". To the Ḥanafis, illegal intercourse is considered rape when there is no consent and no deliberate action from the victim. In Mālik's view, rape refers to any kind of unlawful sexual intercourse (
1718:
A woman who is being forced to commit zina is obliged to defend herself and should not give in, even if she kills the one who wants to do that to her. This self-defence is waajib (obligatory), and she is not at fault if she kills the one who wants to force her into zina.
2455:
Non-Hanafis do not penalize a husband for forcing sex on his wife, but neither do they explicitly authorize it in the way that al-Khassaf does. For all, marital rape is an oxymoron; rape (ightisab) is a property crime that by definition cannot be committed by a
1614:
Islamic law. It happens either due to misinterpretation of the intricacies of the Sharia laws governing these matters, or cultural traditions; or due to corruption and blatant disregard of the law, or indeed some combination of these phenomena.
2860:
1508:, as it puts fear in people going out or losing their property through violence. Thus, the rapist will be considered to be under the category of people who are outlaws and a danger towards the peace and security of the society.
1140:
Rape is considered a serious sexual crime in Islam and can be defined in
Islamic law as: "Forcible illegal sexual intercourse by a man with a woman who is not legally married to him, without her free will and consent".
1665:
When the pregnancy is unplanned and therefore unwanted, as in the case of rape, the parents, abort the fetus and thus prevent the disgrace that awaits both mother and child the child born of rape, like one born of
1328:(discretionary) crime by the judge and prosecuted based on circumstantial evidence (medical evidence, any number of witnesses, and other forensic evidence). It is fornication and adultery by mutual consent, or
1227:
and Mālikī jurists, is as an act of zinā. If the consent was granted under coercion or in a defective legal capacity such as by a mentally impaired person, it is considered non-consent or invalid consent.
1180:, similar to the Mālikites, consider the use of any kind of force as a denial of consent from the victim. The threat of starvation or suffering the cold of winter are also regarded as against one's will.
2374:
The followers of Imam Abu
Hanifah said: "The right of the sexual pleasure belongs to the man, not the woman, by that it is meant that the man has the right to force the woman to gratify himself sexually.
1364:
Historical records show that when experiencing sexual abuse, some women were able to go to court and force their husbands to desist and pay damages even in the pre-modern Muslim world. For example,
1344:, subject to discretionary punishments such as fining, imprisonment, or lashes). Nonetheless, gang rape or public rape, such as the sort that occurs during war, is still traditionally considered
1472:). They base their argument on a hadith which reports a rape case at the time of the Prophet, where the victim was excused and her rapist (who was married) was sentenced to be stoned to death.
1176:) by usurpation and without consent. This includes instances when the condition of the victims prevents them from expressing their resistance, such as insanity, sleep or being under age. The
1661:
is a legitimate child, and thus it would be sinful to kill this child. Scholars permit its abortion only if the fetus is less than four months old or if it endangers the life of its mother.
1527:(Islamic law of Tort), it is possible for a victim to make a claim for moral damages, which may include violation of a person's freedom, dignity, reputation, social or financial status.
1394:
One school, the Hanafi school, traditionally allowed the husband to forcibly have sex with his wife if she didn't have a legitimate reason to refuse sex; this is also indicated in the
1915:
1160:
have been used by traditional jurists when discussing sexual assault and its punishment. Most jurists hold that rape is committing zinā by force, hence rape is known as
1654:
in the context of rape, most jurists do not consider rape to be a valid reason: the sanctity of the new life takes precedence over the autonomy of the pregnant women.
1555:
According to the Mālikī, Ḥanbalī, and Shāfiʾī schools of law, the rape of a free woman consisted of not one but two violations: a violation against a "right of God" (
1216:
punishment normally applicable to their personal status and sexual status, but that the ḥadd punishment should not be applied to victims of coercive or nonconsensual
1372:
and lead to the prosecution of the husband and the wife obtaining divorce, but the punishments were not as severe as they are against other forms of rape.
1623:
In
Islamic law, if a woman becomes pregnant while out of wedlock and denies committing adultery, claiming she was raped by someone, most jurists of the
1203: – its definition, punishment, and establishment through evidence – were also applicable to rape; the prototypical act of
2003:
2145:
1609:
The requirements for proof of rape, by contrast, are less stringent, and do not require any extraneous witness testimony, eyewitness or otherwise:
1080:. Accordingly, sexual violation is regarded as a violation of moral and divine law. Islam divides claims of sexual violation into 'divine rights' (
1402:. This particular Hanafi position was not prevalent in other schools of thought, who neither authorized forced sex in marriage nor penalized it.
2829:
1288:, relates a story in which a group was attacked and a woman in their party raped. Responding to the argument that the crime did not constitute
1145:
rape is at its most basic level a violation of another person's sexual autonomy. In the communally and patriarchically oriented societies of
976:
1670:(walad zina) is a more lowly member of society with regard of the rights he or she is guaranteed and the social status he or she can attain.
1907:
2278:
2044:
1756:
Wolf, Leslie F. (10 December 2016). "Leslie F. Wolf; Sexual
Violation in Islamic Law: Substance, Evidence, and Procedure By HINA AZAM".
2072:
Hina Azam (2013). "Competing
Approaches to Rape in Islamic Law". In Marie A. Failinger; Elizabeth R. Schiltz; Susan J. Stabile (eds.).
1523:
the body or clothes of the victim or accused, or a medical report, all of which are sufficient for ta‘zīr only. Under the principle of
1590:
acquitted of adultery in light of Qur'anic verse 24:33, which states that a woman has not sinned when compelled to commit this crime.
2805:
2097:
1280:
Al-Dasuqi, for example, a Maliki jurist, held that if a person forced a woman to have sex, his actions would be deemed committing
2898:
1642:
requires that a woman provide additional evidence to support such claims, if not, she is subjected to the stipulated punishment.
1498:(forcible and violent taking), i.e. a violent crime causing disorder in the land in the manner described in the Qur'an (5:33) as
867:
2718:
2425:
intercourse and more usual sexual relations between spouses; although both were equally licit, sex by force might be unethical
2680:
2649:
2448:
2081:
1859:
1825:
1492:
among others) have classified the crime of rape not as a subcategory of zinā, but rather a separate crime of violence under
2908:
1702:, took a different position than mainstream Muslim scholars. He ruled that Muslim women raped by their enemies during the
1368:
by the husband was criminalized and entitled the wife to monetary compensation. Marital rape could also be classified as
855:
2624:
2367:
275:
1815:
1567:), requiring a monetary compensation. These jurists saw the free woman, in her proprietorship over her own sexuality (
2750:
2417:
2246:
2180:
2020:
1986:
840:
2913:
425:
1191:
Classical Islamic law defined what today is commonly called "rape" as a coercive form of fornication or adultery (
1849:
1733:
1384:
recognize marital rape as rape, some modern interpretations of Islamic law prohibit marital rape in other ways.
1348:
as that is more in line with its classical definition as a war crime or crime against civilization and society.
482:
1489:
1063:
997:
522:
23:
1231:
On the other hand, women who have experienced rape or sexual assault may fear being prosecuted themselves for
2830:"What is self-defense? What does Islam say about killing a person in self-defense? » Questions on Islam"
2918:
1449:
729:
684:
311:
2065:
2903:
2767:
2530:
2142:
1779:
Semerdjian, Elyse (18 July 2017). "Sexual Violation in Islamic Law: Substance, Evidence, and Procedure".
797:
2492:
1300:
involving the taking of money, and that anyone would rather be subjected to the latter than the former.
962:
240:
1460:
Most classical scholars argued for applying the ḥadd penalty for zinā to a convicted rapist, which is
2279:"World's Largest Gathering of Female Muslim Clerics Issue Fatwa Against Marital Rape, Child Marriage"
1448:
Muslim jurists agreed that the punishment would not be averted even if the perpetrator claimed to be
1028:
330:
1183:
Jurists agree that a woman who has been subject to force and raped is not liable to any punishment.
2303:
1452:. This is because of the immorality of the crime of rape and the severe harm it causes the victim.
1388:
872:
706:
2861:"Rape as a variant of fornication (Zinā) Inislamic Law: An Examination of the Early Legal Reports"
1710:
medicine, because otherwise the children born to those women might one day fight against Muslims.
2739:"Chapter 4: The Right Not to Be Born: Abortion of the Disadvantaged Fetus in Contemporary Fatwas"
2473:
2012:
454:
967:
1445:
as well as in some circumstances by the ḥadd of ḥirābah and it is also complemented by ta‘zīr.
878:
503:
430:
2806:"Does a woman have to defend herself against a would-be rapist? - Islam Question & Answer"
2438:
2387:
2236:
2738:
2360:
Islamic Jurisprudence According To The Four Sunni Schools Al Fiqh 'ala Al Madhahib Al Arba'ah
2049:
1976:
1948:
Noor, Azman Mohd (1 January 2010). "Rape: A Problem of Crime Classification in Islamic Law".
1699:
1695:
1485:
1285:
2617:
Sharia, Muslim States and International Human Rights Treaty Obligations: A Comparative Study
2299:
2166:
1638:
suggest that the excuse of such a woman would be accepted without investigation, while the
1602:
945:
2506:
8:
1658:
1531:
540:
2340:
2213:
1796:
1056:
701:
443:
247:
2783:
2698:"Rape in Islamic law: Establishing the crime and upholding the rights of the innocent"
2583:"Rape in Islamic law: Establishing the crime and upholding the rights of the innocent"
2549:"Rape in Islamic law: Establishing the crime and upholding the rights of the innocent"
1908:"Victims of Rape and Law: How the Laws of the Arab World Protect Rapists, Not Victims"
1316:
to indicate its forced and non-consensual nature whereas fornication and adultery fit
2787:
2746:
2676:
2645:
2620:
2444:
2413:
2363:
2344:
2242:
2176:
2077:
2016:
1982:
1855:
1821:
1817:
Toward Our Reformation: From Legalism to Value-Oriented Islamic Law and Jurisprudence
1800:
1628:
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because no money was taken and no weapons used, Ibn 'Arabi replied indignantly that "
720:
461:
382:
320:
218:
197:
2872:
2779:
2515:
2330:
1957:
1788:
1761:
1461:
1425:
1324:, nonetheless, they are two categorically different crimes as rape is treated as a
387:
261:
2407:
2170:
2149:
1851:
Minors' Crimes in Saudi Arabia: An Analytical Study on the Saudi Juvenile Justice
1505:
1165:
1039:
589:
368:
347:
1312:
is taken to refer to illegal sexual intercourse, where rape is distinguished as
2768:"Abortion and Islam: Policies and Practice in the Middle East and North Africa"
1632:
1146:
361:
192:
2876:
2335:
2318:
1674:
Muslim scholars were urged to make exceptions in the 1990s following rapes of
2892:
2668:
1961:
1792:
1707:
1639:
1624:
1594:
1365:
1049:
111:
1224:
2791:
2211:
Azman Mohd Noor. "Rape: A Problem of Crime Classification in Islamic Law".
1357:
1129:
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598:
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354:
296:
2697:
2582:
2548:
1765:
1113:
787:
146:
1703:
1399:
416:
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1094:
penalties) and the latter belonging to the more flexible human realm.
2531:
PUNISHMENT FOR RAPE IN ISLAMIC LAW. Malayan Law Journal Articles 2009
2403:
1687:
1563:
punishment; and a violation against a "human" (interpersonal) right (
1518:
1481:
1018:
282:
255:
2745:. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. pp. 87–88.
2329:. Cambridge University Press (published January 20, 2017): 148–152.
1340:
provided there are four witnesses (absent which they too default to
1076:
In Islam, human sexuality is governed by Islamic law, also known as
16:
Sexual violation as interpreted in Islamic theological jurisprudence
2642:
Legal maxims in Islamic criminal law : theory and applications
2519:
2510:
2282:
2198:
Sexual Violation in Islamic Law: Substance, Evidence, and Procedure
1978:
Sexual Violation in Islamic Law: Substance, Evidence, and Procedure
1887:
Susila, Muh Endriyo (2013). "Islamic Perspective on Marital Rape".
1683:
1679:
1667:
1651:
1429:
1411:
1379:, but no medieval jurist classified marital rape as such. The term
1257:
956:
913:
815:
127:
2143:
The Islamization of Laws in Pakistan: The Case of Hudud Ordinances
1820:. International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). p. 228.
1468:), or a flogging of 100 lashes and deportation for the unmarried (
2130:
Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America
1635:
1598:
1494:
1245:
1177:
934:
822:
770:
567:
268:
120:
65:
1728:
1320:, which indicates consent. Though the terminology uses the term
1675:
1504:(destructive mischief). A similar crime, for example, would be
1337:
1305:
1273:
1253:
1199:" meant that all the normal legal principles that pertained to
1077:
920:
695:
688:
545:
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289:
100:
55:
1539:
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1012:
1005:
927:
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829:
763:
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749:
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578:
534:
409:
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393:
213:
206:
187:
166:
93:
86:
74:
2470:
Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: A Fresh Interpretation
2005:
Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: A Fresh Interpretation
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336:
175:
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31:
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is considered a crime in Islam. In Islam, rape is called
45:
2389:
The Hedaya, Or Guide: A Commentary on the Mussulman Laws
1475:
1441:
Rape is punishable in some circumstances by the ḥadd of
2385:
2076:. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate. pp. 328–329.
1120:) regarded the crime of sexual violation as a coercive
2743:
Islamic Ethics of Life: Abortion, War, and Euthanasia
1414:
would form the basis of later jurisprudence of rape:
1375:
Medieval jurists classified rape under the crime of
1530:According to an 11th Century Islamic scholar, Imam
1436:
1410:An incident during the time of the Islamic prophet
1235:, discouraging some from reporting these assaults.
2467:
2048:
2358:Al-jaziri, abd Al-rahman; Roberts, Nancy (2009).
2890:
2357:
2047:. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from
1899:
1516:Scholars maintain that offenders be allotted a
2204:
1981:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–17.
1854:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 125.
1195:). This basic definition of rape as "coercive
2736:
2644:. Leiden Boston: Brill Nijhoff. p. 141.
2605:Al Istidkar 146/7, Bidayah al-Mujtahid 221/4)
2571:Al Istidkar 146/7, Bidayah al-Mujtahid 221/4)
2124:
2122:
1057:
2719:"Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World"
2323:International Journal of Middle East Studies
2294:
2292:
1249:has had support throughout Islamic history.
1243:The inclusion of rape within the purview of
1238:
2663:
2661:
2486:
2443:. Harvard University Press. pp. 120–.
2210:
1538:(The agreement of the Islamic scholars and
1296:with the private parts" is much worse than
1128:offence. There is a lack of recognition of
1088:): the former requiring divine punishment (
2264:Women of Jordan: Islam, Labor, and the Law
2119:
2045:"The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Law"
1778:
1064:
1050:
2639:
2633:
2436:
2402:
2334:
2289:
2266:. Syracuse University Press. p. 205.
2241:. Harvard University Press. p. 120.
2200:. Cambridge University Press. p. 19.
2165:
2071:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
1974:
1606:participants consensually partook in it.
1550:
1186:
2658:
2276:
2230:
2228:
2161:
2159:
2157:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1847:
1618:
2765:
1645:
2891:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2667:
2386:ibn Abī Bakr Marghīnānī, ʻAlī (1870).
2255:
2175:. Oneworld Publications. p. 283.
2029:
2001:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1905:
1886:
1813:
1781:Journal of Middle East Women's Studies
1751:
1749:
1597:, the required testimony of four male
1584:
1223:The crime of rape, according to Sunni
2710:
2695:
2614:
2580:
2546:
2412:. Oneworld Publications. p. 12.
2225:
2154:
1875:
1476:Ḥadd of Ḥirābah as a penalty for rape
1356:Islamic law has historically handled
2858:
2189:
2090:
1947:
1755:
1361:principle when judging these cases.
1272:It had significant support from the
2725:
2675:. New York: Routledge. p. 78.
2673:Controversies in Contemporary Islam
2440:Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam
2316:
2310:
2300:"Does marital rape exist in Islam?"
2238:Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam
2234:
1930:
1746:
1657:Muslim scholars have held that the
1488:) and more modern interpretations (
1169:
13:
2852:
2261:
2042:
1918:from the original on 16 April 2023
1405:
1370:act of aggression against the wife
1108:, and it falls under the rules of
14:
2930:
2884:
2741:. In Brockopp, Jonathan E (ed.).
2716:
1511:
2195:
2098:"Judged for more than her crime"
2002:Kamali, Mohammad Hashim (2019).
1437:Punishment of a convicted rapist
1336:punishments from the Qur'an and
1284:. In addition, the Maliki judge
44:
2822:
2798:
2759:
2689:
2608:
2599:
2574:
2565:
2540:
2524:
2499:
2480:
2461:
2430:
2396:
2379:
2351:
2270:
2135:
1713:
1455:
1351:
1332:, which retain their classical
1220:due to their reduced capacity.
573:(unlawful warfare and banditry)
2899:Islamic criminal jurisprudence
2737:Rispler-Chaim, Vardit (2003).
2235:Ali, Kecia (30 October 2010).
1995:
1968:
1841:
1814:Farooq, Mohammad Omar (2013).
1807:
1772:
1490:The Religious Council of Egypt
1084:) and 'interpersonal rights' (
1:
2784:10.1016/S0968-8080(06)29279-6
2437:Kecia Ali (30 October 2010).
1739:
1135:
1906:Haddad, Mais (10 May 2017).
1734:Islamic sexual jurisprudence
1542:) on this issue and states,
7:
2909:History of criminal justice
2865:Journal of Law and Religion
2772:Reproductive Health Matters
2074:Feminism, Law, and Religion
1848:Alotaibi, Hajed A. (2020).
1722:
1480:Certain classical jurists (
10:
2935:
2721:. Macmillan Reference USA.
2640:Zakariyah, Luqman (2015).
2493:Cambridge University Press
1758:Journal of Islamic Studies
2877:10.1017/S0748081400000102
2336:10.1017/S0020743816001203
2319:"Concubinage and Consent"
2262:Sonbol, Amira El-Azhary.
2105:deathpenaltyworldwide.org
1678:women by Iraqi soldiers (
1239:Relationship with hirabah
2696:Hakam, Al (2022-01-23).
2581:Hakam, Al (2022-01-14).
2547:Hakam, Al (2022-01-14).
2468:Mohammad Hashim Kamali.
2304:Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah
1962:10.1163/157302510X526724
1793:10.1215/15525864-3861356
1696:Grand Mufti of Palestine
1640:Maliki school of thought
1389:Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah
1308:school of law, the term
1132:by mainstream jurists.
594:("spreading corruption")
2914:Punishments in religion
2766:Hessini, Leila (2007).
2615:Abiad, Nisrine (2008).
2474:Oxford University Press
2409:Sexual Ethics and Islam
2141:Muhammad Taqi Usmani -
2013:Oxford University Press
1694:soldiers. In 1991, the
1593:According to Professor
2619:. BICIL. p. 136.
2537:, Retrieved 2024-01-25
1672:
1616:
1551:Financial compensation
1548:
1434:
1302:
1270:
1187:Relationship with zina
1663:
1619:Pregnancy due to rape
1611:
1544:
1416:
1278:
1266:
32:Islamic jurisprudence
2489:Doubt in Islamic Law
2406:(21 December 2015).
1646:Abortion due to rape
2919:Laws regarding rape
2317:Ali, Kecia (2017).
2167:A.C Brown, Jonathan
1585:Prosecution of rape
1450:ignorant of the law
1212:should receive the
2904:Sexuality in Islam
2834:Questions on Islam
2214:Arab Law Quarterly
2148:2012-10-21 at the
1975:Hina Azam (2015).
1950:Arab Law Quarterly
1889:Jurnal Media Hukum
1766:10.1093/jis/etw060
1700:Ekrima Sa'id Sabri
1682:) and the rape of
1162:zinā bī al-ikrāh
1124:, and therefore a
685:Gender segregation
248:Islamic leadership
2859:Azam, H. (2013).
2682:978-0-415-67613-7
2651:978-90-04-30487-1
2507:Jamiʽ al-Tirmidhi
2487:Intisar A. Rabb.
2450:978-0-674-05059-4
2172:Slavery and Islam
2083:978-1-4094-7481-4
1861:978-1-5275-4616-5
1827:978-1-56564-371-0
1636:school of thought
1559:), provoking the
1464:for the married (
1074:
1073:
988:
987:
846:
845:
660:
659:
513:
512:
438:
437:
231:
230:
2926:
2880:
2846:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2826:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2734:
2723:
2722:
2717:Moosa, Ebrahim.
2714:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2704:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2665:
2656:
2655:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2612:
2606:
2603:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2578:
2572:
2569:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2559:
2544:
2538:
2535:irep.iium.edu.my
2528:
2522:
2516:Sunan Abu Dawood
2503:
2497:
2496:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2338:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2296:
2287:
2286:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2232:
2223:
2222:
2208:
2202:
2201:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2163:
2152:
2139:
2133:
2128:Webb, Gisella -
2126:
2117:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2107:. September 2018
2102:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2053:on March 4, 2016
2052:
2040:
2027:
2026:
2010:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1945:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1884:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1753:
1532:Ibn 'Abd al-Barr
1462:stoning to death
1432:
1426:Sunan Abu Dawood
1366:perineal tearing
1171:
1066:
1059:
1052:
1029:Prisoners of war
1024:
982:
977:Comparison with
861:
860:
726:
725:
653:
642:
631:
614:
604:
595:
585:
574:
563:
552:
528:
527:
440:
439:
317:
316:
276:Wilayat al-faqih
262:Majlis-ash-Shura
61:
60:
48:
19:
18:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2855:
2853:Further reading
2850:
2849:
2839:
2837:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2814:
2812:
2804:
2803:
2799:
2764:
2760:
2753:
2735:
2726:
2715:
2711:
2702:
2700:
2694:
2690:
2683:
2666:
2659:
2652:
2638:
2634:
2627:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2591:
2589:
2587:www.alhakam.org
2579:
2575:
2570:
2566:
2557:
2555:
2553:www.alhakam.org
2545:
2541:
2529:
2525:
2504:
2500:
2485:
2481:
2466:
2462:
2451:
2435:
2431:
2420:
2401:
2397:
2384:
2380:
2370:
2356:
2352:
2315:
2311:
2298:
2297:
2290:
2275:
2271:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2233:
2226:
2209:
2205:
2194:
2190:
2183:
2164:
2155:
2150:Wayback Machine
2140:
2136:
2127:
2120:
2110:
2108:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2070:
2066:
2056:
2054:
2041:
2030:
2023:
2008:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1973:
1969:
1946:
1931:
1921:
1919:
1904:
1900:
1885:
1876:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1846:
1842:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1812:
1808:
1777:
1773:
1754:
1747:
1742:
1725:
1716:
1648:
1621:
1587:
1553:
1525:al-fi‘l al-darr
1514:
1506:highway robbery
1484:and the Maliki
1478:
1458:
1439:
1433:
1423:
1408:
1406:Islamic sources
1354:
1241:
1189:
1138:
1070:
1040:Islamic studies
1034:
1033:
1022:
1000:
990:
989:
975:
972:
940:
858:
848:
847:
835:
783:
723:
713:
712:
711:
672:
662:
661:
651:
640:
630:(discretionary)
629:
612:
602:
593:
590:Mofsed-e-filarz
583:
572:
561:
550:
525:
515:
514:
509:
422:
374:
342:
314:
304:
303:
302:
243:
233:
232:
227:
135:
134:
106:
58:
33:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2932:
2922:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2886:
2885:External links
2883:
2882:
2881:
2871:(2): 441–466.
2854:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2821:
2797:
2758:
2751:
2724:
2709:
2688:
2681:
2669:Leaman, Oliver
2657:
2650:
2632:
2626:978-1905221417
2625:
2607:
2598:
2573:
2564:
2539:
2523:
2498:
2495:. p. 223.
2479:
2460:
2449:
2429:
2418:
2395:
2392:. p. 141.
2378:
2369:978-1887752978
2368:
2362:. Fons Vitae.
2350:
2309:
2288:
2277:ELEANOR ROSS.
2269:
2254:
2247:
2224:
2203:
2188:
2181:
2153:
2134:
2118:
2089:
2082:
2064:
2043:Kassam, Zayn.
2028:
2021:
2015:. p. 67.
1994:
1987:
1967:
1956:(4): 417–438.
1929:
1898:
1874:
1860:
1840:
1826:
1806:
1787:(2): 315–317.
1771:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1724:
1721:
1715:
1712:
1647:
1644:
1620:
1617:
1586:
1583:
1552:
1549:
1513:
1512:Rape as Ta‘zīr
1510:
1477:
1474:
1457:
1454:
1438:
1435:
1421:
1407:
1404:
1353:
1350:
1330:zina bil ridha
1318:zina bil ridha
1240:
1237:
1188:
1185:
1147:Late Antiquity
1137:
1134:
1086:huquq al-'ibad
1072:
1071:
1069:
1068:
1061:
1054:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1016:
1009:
1001:
996:
995:
992:
991:
986:
985:
984:
983:
971:
970:
965:
960:
952:
949:
948:
942:
941:
939:
938:
931:
924:
917:
910:
903:
896:
889:
882:
875:
870:
864:
859:
854:
853:
850:
849:
844:
843:
837:
836:
834:
833:
826:
819:
812:
804:
801:
800:
794:
793:
792:
791:
782:
781:
767:
760:
753:
745:
742:
741:
733:
732:
724:
719:
718:
715:
714:
710:
709:
704:
699:
692:
682:
674:
673:
668:
667:
664:
663:
658:
657:
656:
655:
652:(compensation)
644:
633:
619:
618:
617:
616:
605:
596:
587:
576:
565:
554:
543:
538:
526:
521:
520:
517:
516:
511:
510:
508:
507:
500:
493:
486:
479:
472:
465:
458:
450:
447:
446:
436:
435:
434:
433:
428:
421:
420:
413:
406:
405:
404:
397:
385:
379:
376:
375:
373:
372:
365:
358:
351:
343:
341:
340:
333:
327:
324:
323:
315:
310:
309:
306:
305:
301:
300:
293:
286:
279:
272:
265:
258:
252:
251:
250:
244:
239:
238:
235:
234:
229:
228:
226:
225:
210:
203:
195:
183:
180:
179:
171:
170:
162:
161:
153:
152:
151:
150:
143:
136:
133:
132:
124:
115:
109:
105:
104:
97:
90:
82:
79:
78:
70:
69:
59:
54:
53:
50:
49:
41:
40:
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2931:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2857:
2856:
2836:. 4 July 2023
2835:
2831:
2825:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2778:(29): 75–84.
2777:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2754:
2752:9781570034718
2748:
2744:
2740:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2720:
2713:
2699:
2692:
2684:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2664:
2662:
2653:
2647:
2643:
2636:
2628:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2602:
2588:
2584:
2577:
2568:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2521:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2502:
2494:
2490:
2483:
2476:. p. 67.
2475:
2471:
2464:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2442:
2441:
2433:
2426:
2421:
2419:9781780748535
2415:
2411:
2410:
2405:
2399:
2391:
2390:
2382:
2375:
2371:
2365:
2361:
2354:
2346:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2313:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2293:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2265:
2258:
2250:
2248:9780674050594
2244:
2240:
2239:
2231:
2229:
2220:
2216:
2215:
2207:
2199:
2192:
2184:
2182:9781786076359
2178:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2151:
2147:
2144:
2138:
2131:
2125:
2123:
2106:
2099:
2093:
2085:
2079:
2075:
2068:
2051:
2046:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2024:
2022:9780190910648
2018:
2014:
2007:
2006:
1998:
1990:
1988:9781107094246
1984:
1980:
1979:
1971:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1902:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1863:
1857:
1853:
1852:
1844:
1829:
1823:
1819:
1818:
1810:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1752:
1750:
1745:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1720:
1711:
1709:
1708:abortifacient
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1669:
1662:
1660:
1659:child of rape
1655:
1653:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1615:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1595:Oliver Leaman
1591:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1547:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1534:has noted an
1533:
1528:
1526:
1521:
1520:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1502:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1486:Ibn al-'Arabi
1483:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1453:
1451:
1446:
1444:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1420:
1415:
1413:
1403:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1390:
1387:According to
1385:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1362:
1359:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1314:zina bil jabr
1311:
1307:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1275:
1269:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1252:The medieval
1250:
1248:
1247:
1236:
1234:
1229:
1226:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1148:
1142:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1093:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1067:
1062:
1060:
1055:
1053:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1037:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1015:
1014:
1010:
1008:
1007:
1003:
1002:
999:
994:
993:
981:
980:
974:
973:
969:
966:
964:
961:
959:
958:
954:
953:
951:
950:
947:
944:
943:
937:
936:
932:
930:
929:
925:
923:
922:
918:
916:
915:
911:
909:
908:
904:
902:
901:
897:
895:
894:
890:
888:
887:
883:
881:
880:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
865:
863:
862:
857:
852:
851:
842:
839:
838:
832:
831:
827:
825:
824:
820:
818:
817:
813:
811:
810:
806:
805:
803:
802:
799:
796:
795:
790:
789:
785:
784:
779:
778:
773:
772:
768:
766:
765:
761:
759:
758:
754:
752:
751:
747:
746:
744:
743:
740:
739:
735:
734:
731:
728:
727:
722:
717:
716:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
697:
693:
690:
686:
683:
681:
680:
676:
675:
671:
666:
665:
654:
649:
645:
643:
641:(retaliation)
638:
634:
632:
627:
623:
622:
621:
620:
615:
610:
606:
600:
597:
591:
588:
586:
581:
577:
575:
570:
566:
564:
562:(illicit sex)
559:
555:
553:
548:
544:
542:
539:
537:
536:
532:
531:
530:
529:
524:
519:
518:
506:
505:
501:
499:
498:
494:
492:
491:
487:
485:
484:
480:
478:
477:
473:
471:
470:
466:
464:
463:
459:
457:
456:
452:
451:
449:
448:
445:
442:
441:
432:
431:Breastfeeding
429:
427:
424:
423:
419:
418:
414:
412:
411:
407:
403:
402:
398:
396:
395:
391:
390:
389:
386:
384:
381:
380:
378:
377:
371:
370:
366:
364:
363:
359:
357:
356:
352:
350:
349:
345:
344:
339:
338:
334:
332:
329:
328:
326:
325:
322:
319:
318:
313:
308:
307:
299:
298:
294:
292:
291:
287:
285:
284:
280:
278:
277:
273:
271:
270:
266:
264:
263:
259:
257:
254:
253:
249:
246:
245:
242:
237:
236:
223:
222:
216:
215:
211:
209:
208:
204:
201:
200:
196:
194:
190:
189:
185:
184:
182:
181:
178:
177:
173:
172:
169:
168:
164:
163:
160:
159:
155:
154:
149:
148:
144:
142:
141:
137:
130:
129:
125:
123:
122:
117:
116:
114:
113:
112:Sunnah prayer
108:
107:
103:
102:
98:
96:
95:
91:
89:
88:
84:
83:
81:
80:
77:
76:
72:
71:
68:
67:
63:
62:
57:
52:
51:
47:
43:
42:
39:
37:
30:
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147:Nafl prayer
2893:Categories
2815:2023-03-07
2703:2023-07-07
2592:2024-05-11
2558:2024-05-11
1867:16 October
1833:16 October
1760:: etw060.
1740:References
1704:Kosovo War
1650:As far as
1565:ḥaqq ādamī
1557:ḥaqq Allāh
1400:Al-Hidayah
1286:Ibn 'Arabi
1178:Hanbalites
1152:The terms
1136:Definition
702:Honorifics
551:(gambling)
2404:Kecia Ali
2345:159722666
2221:(4): 429.
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1801:149104901
1690:women by
1599:witnesses
1482:Al-Tabari
1276:jurists.
1158:ightasaba
1020:Istijarah
670:Etiquette
613:(stoning)
541:Blasphemy
256:Caliphate
241:Political
2792:17512379
2671:(2013).
2456:husband.
2283:Newsweek
2169:(2019).
2146:Archived
1916:Archived
1723:See also
1688:Albanian
1668:adultery
1652:abortion
1422:—
1412:Muhammad
1381:ightisab
1377:ightisab
1260:defined
1258:Ibn Hazm
1106:Ightisab
1023:(asylum)
998:Military
957:Dhabihah
914:Tayammum
816:Murabaha
721:Economic
523:Criminal
462:Abortion
426:Adoption
383:Polygyny
331:Contract
321:Marriage
193:clothing
128:Tahajjud
24:a series
22:Part of
1684:Bosnian
1680:in 1991
1676:Kuwaiti
1633:Hanbali
1629:Shafi'i
1495:hirabah
1398:manual
1346:hirabah
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1294:hirabah
1262:hirabah
1256:jurist
1246:hirabah
1154:ghasaba
1118:Shari'a
1110:Hirabah
979:kashrut
963:Alcohol
946:Dietary
935:Istinja
879:Taharah
856:Hygiene
823:Takaful
798:Banking
774: (
771:Sadaqah
730:History
569:Hirabah
483:Hygiene
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388:Divorce
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