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without a telegraph service, men ran carrying last-minute messages. With the information from these messengers, Carrera hatched a plan of defense leaving his brother Sotero in charge of troops who presented only slight resistance in the city. Carrera pretended to flee and led his ragtag army to the heights of
Aceituno, with few men, few rifles and two old cannons. The city was at the mercy of the army of Morazán, with bells of the twenty churches ringing for divine assistance. Once Morazán reached the capital, he took it easily and freed Guzman, who immediately left for Quetzaltenango to give the news that Carrera was defeated; Carrera then, taking advantage of what his enemies believed, applied a strategy of concentrating fire on the Central Park of the city and also employed surprise attack tactics which caused heavy casualties to the army of Morazán, finally forcing the survivors to fight for their lives. Morazán's soldiers lost the initiative and their previous numerical superiority. Furthermore, in unfamiliar surroundings in the city, they had to fight, carry their dead and care for their wounded while resentful and tired from the long march from
629:
commander had already become accustomed to disassemble and regroup, not just after defeats but also after victories. Carrera's pursuit of a military approach that combined alternately guerrilla and conventional warfare enabled him to reconstitute his forces while keeping some degree of pressure on the government. Without any permanent means of financing the struggle, Carrera was able to bring together large forces for significant operations, and then send his soldiers back to their farms after engagement. The government, on the other hand, had to spend precious resources fielding permanent forces. After recovering to some extent, he attacked a detachment in
Jutiapa and managed to get a small amount of booty which he handed to the volunteers who accompanied him and prepared to attack Petapa – near Guatemala City – where he was victorious, though with heavy casualties. In September of that year, he attempted an assault on the capital of Guatemala, but the liberal general
1399:, signed in 1852 and ratified by both parties in 1854. Through this, Guatemala gave the education of Guatemalan people to regular orders of the Catholic Church, committed to respect ecclesiastical property and monasteries, imposed mandatory tithing and allowed the bishops to censor what was published in the country; in return, Guatemala received dispensations for the members of the army, allowed those who had acquired the properties that the liberals had expropriated from the Church in 1829 to keep those properties, received the taxes generated by the properties of the Church, and had the right to judge certain crimes committed by clergy under Guatemalan law. The concordat was designed by Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol and not only reestablished but reinforced the relationship between Church and State in Guatemala. It was in force until the fall of the conservative government of Field Marshal
1239:
trenches. They were subsequently expelled. During the third attack, the Allied force advanced to a point where it was impossible to distinguish between
Guatemalan and Allied troops. Then, the fight became a melée, while the Guatemalan artillery severely punished the invaders. At the height of the battle when the Guatemalans faced an uncertain fate, Carrera ordered that sugar cane plantation around the meadow to be set on fire. The invading army was now surrounded: to the front, they faced the furious Guatemalan firepower, to the flanks, a huge blaze and to the rear, the river, all of which made retreat very difficult. The central division of the Allied force panicked and started a disorderly retreat. Soon, all of the Allied troops started retreating.
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from Spain in 1821, due to the
Central American civil war that ensued and lasted until 1860. On the other hand, slaves escaped from Caribbean island and pirates had set a small settlement there since middle of the 17th century, mainly as buccaneers quarters and then for fine wood production; the settlements were never recognized as British colonies, even though they were somewhat under the jurisdiction of the Jamaican British government. In the 18th century, Belize became the main smuggling center for Central America, even though the British accepted Spanish sovereignty over the region by means of treaties in 1783 and 1786, in exchange for a ceasefire and the authorization for the Britons to work with the precious woods from Belize.
847:
874:
452:
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162:
966:, the principal Maya leader of Chichimilá, accused of planning a revolt, and executed him at the town square of Valladolid. Furthermore, Méndez searching for other insurgents burned the town of Tepich and repressed its residents. In the following months, several Maya towns were sacked and many people arbitrarily killed. In his letter of 1849, Cecilio Chi noted that Santiago Mendez had come to "put every Indian, big and little, to death" but that the Maya had responded to some degree, in kind, writing "it has pleased God and good fortune that a much greater portion of them than of the Indians .
1266:
3249:
703:, where he imposed a harsh and hostile conservative regime instead of the liberals. Calling all council members, he told them flatly that he was behaving leniently towards them as it was the first time they had challenged him, but sternly warned them that there would be no mercy if there was a second time. Finally, Guzmán, and the head of state of Los Altos, Marcelo Molina, were sent to the capital of Guatemala, where they were displayed as trophies of war during a triumphant parade on February 17, 1840; in the case of Guzman, shackled, still with bleeding wounds, and riding a mule.
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liberal and conservatives in
Guatemala City that they would have to negotiate with Carrera or battle on two fronts – Quetzaltenango and Jalapa. Carrera went back to the Quetzaltenango area, while Zavala remained in Suchitepéquez as a tactical maneuver. Carrera received a visit from a Cabinet member of Paredes and told him that he had control of the native population and that he assured Paredes that he would keep them appeased. When the emissary returned to Guatemala City, he told the president everything Carrera said, and added that the native forces were formidable.
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696:, which contributed to the harsh criticism. Moreover, Los Altos was the region with the main production and economic activity of the former state of Guatemala; without Los Altos, conservatives lost much of the resources that had given Guatemala hegemony in Central America. Then, the government of Guatemala tried to reach to a peaceful solution, but altenses, protected by the recognition of the Central American Federation Congress, did not accept; Guatemala's government then resorted to force, sending Carrera as commanding general of the Army to subdue Los Altos.
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the invasion and were in
Mataquescuintla – swore they would never forgive Morazán even in his grave; they felt it impossible to respect anyone who would not avenge family members. After sending several envoys, whom Carrera would not receive – especially Barrundia whom Carrera did not want to murder in cold blood – Morazán began a scorched earth offensive, destroying villages in his path and stripping them of their few assets. The Carrera forces had to hide in the mountains . Believing that Carrera was totally defeated, Morazán and Barrundia marched on to
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948:, which was an important industrial fiber used to make rope. After discovering the value of the plant, the wealthier Yucateco criollos (local-born Spaniards) started plantations, beginning in 1833, to cultivate it on a large scale; not long after the henequen boom, a boom in sugar production led to more wealth. The sugar and henequén plantations encroached on native communal land, and native workers recruited to work on the plantations were mistreated and underpaid.
1680:
1601:, as Foreign Secretary, had made an extra effort to keep good relations with the British crown. In 1859, William Walker's threat loomed again over Central America; in order to get the weapons needed to face the filibuster, Carrera's regime had to come to terms about Belize with the British Empire. On 30 April 1859, the Wyke-Aycinena treaty was signed, between the British and Guatemalan representatives. The controversial Wyke-Aycinena from 1859 had two parts:
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1294:. The place had been chosen as the new city Central Square, saving the surroundings for the new Cathedral, Palace and houses for the richest families of the time, the Aycinena family, given that the family leader, Fermín de Aycinena, contributed considerably to the move of the city from its old place. However, the design approved by the Spanish crown had the Central Square in a different location, and this one became the Old Central Square.
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1079:, he received two altenses emissaries who told him that their soldiers were not going to fight his forces because that would lead to a native revolt, much like that of 1840; their only request from Carrera was to keep the natives under control. The altenses did not comply, and led by Guzmán and his forces, they started chasing Carrera; the caudillo hid helped by his native allies and remained under their protection when the forces of
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Villa Nueva. Taking advantage of
Salazar's good faith and Ferrera's weapons, Carrera took Guatemala City by surprise on April 13, 1839; Castro Salazar, Mariano Gálvez and Barrundia fled before the arrival of Carrera's militia men. Salazar, in his nightshirt, vaulted roofs of neighboring houses and sought refuge; reaching the border disguised as a peasant. With Salazar gone, Carrera reinstated Rivera Paz as Head of State of Guatemala.
25:
1031:—who at the time were terrified of the Caste War in Yucatán—and himself; but in 1848, the liberals were able to drive him from office, after the country had been in turmoil for several months. Carrera resigned of his own free will and left for México. The new liberal regime allied itself with the Aycinena family and swiftly passed a law ordering Carrera's execution if he dared to return to Guatemalan soil. The liberal criollos from
599:, a combination of guerrilla tactics and logistics with conventional combat operations. While his soldiers were not well equipped, their training in the local militias, going back to colonial times and the civil war that followed independence from Spain, enabled them to successfully fight conventional battles against the numerically superior forces of the Guatemalan and Federal governments. In 1838 the liberal forces of Morazán and
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955:, for example, wrote in 1848 that "what we want is liberty and not oppression, because before we were subjugated with the many contributions and taxes that they imposed on us." Pac's companion, Cecilio Chi added in 1849, that promises made by the rebel Santiago Imán, that he was "liberating the Indians from the payment of contributions" as a reason for resisting the central government, but in fact he continued levying them.
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about 50 metres (160 ft) above the level of the river. A meadow 300 metres (980 ft) deep lay between the hill and the river, and boarding the meadow was a sugar cane plantation. Carrera divided his army in three sections: the left wing was led by Cerna and
Solares; the right wing led by Bolaños. He personally led the central battalion, where he placed his artillery. Five hundred men stayed in
1617:, who worked with Aycinena in the Foreign Ministry at the time. Rafael Carrera ratified the treaty on 1 May 1859, while Charles Lennox Wyke, British consul in Guatemala, travelled to Great Britain and got the royal approval on 26 September 1859. there were some protests coming from the American consul, Beverly Clarke, and some liberal representatives, but the issue was settled.
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Panama in 1855; on the other hand, Guatemala needed a road to improve communication with its
Atlantic coast. However, the road was never built; first because Guatemalan and Belizeans could not reach an agreement of the exact location for the road, and later because the conservatives lost power in Guatemala in 1871, and the liberal government declared the treaty void.
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year to a rebel faction "La Montaña", in eastern
Guatemala, providing and distributing money and weapons. By late 1850, Vasconcelos was getting impatient at the slow progress of the war with Guatemala and decided to plan an open attack. Under that circumstance, the Salvadorean head of state started a campaign against the conservative Guatemalan regime, inviting
1064:, where he met with the native leaders and told them that they must remain united to prevail; the leaders agreed and slowly the segregated native communities started developing a new Indian identity under Carrera's leadership. In the meantime, in the eastern part of Guatemala, the Jalapa region became increasingly dangerous; former president
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military as the Latinos' means of social mobility, and even the alienation of Indian land and labor." His success was the result of his military brilliance, charisma, and his ability to quickly identify core issues and problems. His rule may have been arbitrary and severe, but not more so than that of other Latin American leaders.
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his native allies had occupied Quetzaltenango; Carrera appointed Ignacio Yrigoyen as Corregidor and convinced him that he should work with the k'iche', mam, q'anjobal and mam leaders to keep the region under control. On his way out, Yrigoyen murmured to a friend: Now he is the King of the Indians, indeed!
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In 1854, by anti-democratic initiative of Manuel Francisco Pavón Aycinena, Carrera was declared "supreme and perpetual leader of the nation" for life, with the power to choose his successor. He was in that position until he died on April 14, 1865. While he pursued some measures to set up a foundation
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After Carrera returned from exile in 1849, Vasconcelos granted asylum to the Guatemalan liberals, who harassed the Guatemalan government in several different forms: José Francisco Barrundia did it through a liberal newspaper established with that specific goal; Vasconcelos gave support during a whole
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to meet with another group of Paredes emissaries; they agreed that Los Altos would rejoin Guatemala, and that the latter would help Guzmán defeat his hated enemy and also build a port on the Pacific Ocean. Guzmán was sure of victory this time, but his plan evaporated when, in his absence, Carrera and
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with the small force that remained, but was defeated, losing his brother Laureano in the combat. With just a few men left, he managed to escape, badly wounded, to Sanarate. Under conventional warfare conditions, this defeat would have ended Carrera's military campaign. However, by this time the young
608:, where they were welcomed as saviors by the state governor Pedro Valenzuela and members of the conservative Aycinena Clan, who proposed to sponsor one of the liberal battalions, while Valenzuela and Barrundia gave Morazán all the Guatemalan resources needed to solve any financial problem he had. The
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that the liberals wanted. As a result, once the liberals took over power in Guatemala in 1871, Carrera's character and regime were dismissed and demonized, making him look as an illiterate who could not even write his own name and was a puppet of the aristocrats. Over the years, even Marxist writers
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After the Central America independence from Spain in 1821, Belize became the leading edge of the commercial entrance of Britain in the isthmus; British commercial brokers established themselves there and began prosper commercial routes with the Caribbean harbors of Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.
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with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favor of Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador, and dominated Honduras and Nicaragua. He continued to act in concert with the Clerical Party, and tried to maintain friendly relations with the European governments. Before his death, Carrera
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presented Carrera with a new plan. Once approved, Carrera commissioned Matheu himself and Miguel Ruiz de Santisteban to build the theater. Initially it was in charge of engineer Miguel Rivera Maestre, but he quit after a few months and was replaced by German expert José Beckers, who built the Greek
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An enthusiastic fan of opera, and following the advice of his mistress – Josefa Silva's-, Carrera started the construction of a massive National Theater that was called «Carrera Theater» in his honor, and was located in the old Central Square. The Old Central Square was located to the northeast side
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The 500 men of the rearguard pursued what was left of the Allied army, which desperately fled for the borders of their respective countries. The final count of the Allied losses were 528 dead, 200 prisoners, 1,000 rifles, 13,000 rounds of ammunition, many pack animals and baggage, 11 drums and seven
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convinced president Paredes to deal with Carrera. Back in Guatemala City within a few months, Carrera was commander-in-chief, backed by military and political support of the Indian communities from the densely populated western highlands. During the first presidency from 1844 to 1848, he brought the
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had been appointed as Corregidor in Suchitepéquez, Carrera and his hundred jacalteco bodyguards crossed a dangerous jungle infested with jaguars to meet his former friend. When they met, Zavala not only did not capture him, but agreed to serve under his orders, thus sending a strong message to both
969:
Cecilio Chi, the native leader of Tepich, along with Jacinto Pat attacked Tepich on 30 July 1847, in reaction to the indiscriminate massacre of Mayas, ordered that all the non-Maya population be killed. By spring of 1848, the Maya forces had taken over most of the Yucatán, with the exception of the
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ruler of much of Guatemala and led a large uprising of Indians and poor peasants of mixed race in the east and south of the country, an area known as The Mountain. The movement was strongly pro-Catholic and eager to restore many of the colonial religious institutions and traditions that the liberals
994:
By 1850, the natives occupied two distinct regions in the southeast and they were inspired to continue the struggle by the apparition of the "Talking Cross". This apparition, believed to be a way in which God communicated with the Maya, dictated that the War continue. Chan Santa Cruz, or Small Holy
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Governor Barbachano sought allies anywhere he could find them, in Cuba (for Spain), Jamaica (for the United Kingdom) and the United States, but none of these foreign powers would intervene, although the matter was taken seriously enough in the United States to be debated in Congress. Subsequently,
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heard the news, Carrera went back to Quetzaltenango with his volunteer army to regain control of the rebel liberal state once and for all. On April 2, 1840, after entering the city, Carrera told the citizens that he had already warned them after he defeated them earlier that year. Then, he ordered
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Meanwhile, despite insistent advice to definitely crush Carrera and his forces, Salazar tried to negotiate with him diplomatically; he even went as far as to show that he neither feared nor distrusted Carrera by removing the fortifications of the Guatemalan capital, in place in since the battle of
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invaded Guatemala and reached San Sur, where they executed Pascual García, Carrera's father-in-law. They impaled his head on a pike as a warning to all followers of the Guatemalan caudillo. On learning this, Carrera and his wife Petrona – who had come to confront Morazán as soon as they learned of
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began in the Yucatán Peninsula-native people raising that results in thousands of murdered European settlers- the Belize and Guatemala representatives were in high alert; Yucatan refugees fled into both Guatemala and Belize and even Belize superintendent came to fear that Carrera -given his strong
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from the Aycinena Clan, decided to support Carrera in the hope of regaining the power and privileges that they had lost in 1829 after Morazán's invasion of Guatemala. Under the leadership of Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol the conservatives aimed to regain their place as Guatemala's elite from which
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The seventh article was about the construction of a road between Belize City and Guatemala City, which would be of mutual benefic, as Belize needed a way to communicate with the Pacific coast of Guatemala, having lost its commercial relevance after the construction of the transoceanic railroad in
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but neglected by Spain and Guatemala, even though Spain made some exploratory expeditions in the 16th century that serve as her basis to claim the area as hers; Guatemala simply inherited that argument to claim the territory, even they never sent any expedition to the area after the Independence
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Carrera's strategy was to feign a retreat, forcing the enemy forces to follow the "retreating" troops to a place he had previously chosen; on February 1, 1851, both armies were facing each other with only the San José river between them. Carrera had fortified the foothills of La Arada, its summit
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and the rebel guerrilla army of Vicente and Serapio Cruz who were sworn enemies of Carrera. The interim government was led by Guzmán himself and had Florencio Molina and the priest Fernando Davila as his Cabinet members. On 5 September 1848, the criollos altenses chose a formal government led by
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Carrera did not significantly enhance the life of rural Indians, but he delayed the destruction of their culture that characterized the liberals' capitalist developments. Carrera's regime established the foundations of all following government, including "economic control by unified elites, the
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When Carrera came to power in 1840, stopped the complaints over Belize, and established a Guatemalan consulate in the region to oversee the Guatemalan interests in that important commercial location. Belize commerce was booming in the region until 1855, when the Colombians built a transoceanic
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The battle began at 8:30 AM, when Allied troops initiated an attack at three different points, with an intense fire opened by both armies. The first Allied attack was repelled by the defenders of the foothill; during the second attack, the Allied troops were able to take the first line of
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On March 18, 1840, liberal caudillo Morazán invaded Guatemala with 1500 soldiers to avenge the insult done in Los Altos. Fearing that such action would end with liberal efforts to hold together the Central American Federation, Guatemala had a cordon of guards from the border with El Salvador;
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On 28 January 1851, Vasconcelos sent a letter to the Guatemalan Ministry of Foreign Relations, in which he demanded that the Guatemalan president relinquish power, so that the alliance could designate a new head of state loyal to the liberals and that Carrera be exiled, escorted to any of the
911:
692:. The most important members of the Liberal Party of Guatemala and liberal enemies of the conservative regime moved to Los Altos, leaving their exile in El Salvador. The liberals in Los Altos began severely criticizing the Conservative government of Rivera Paz; they had their own newspaper –
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In Yucatán, then an independent republic north of Guatemala, a war started between the natives and the mestizo and criollo populations; this war seemed rooted in the defense of communal lands against the expansion of private ownership, which was accentuated by the boom in the production of
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Cross became the religious and political center of the Maya resistance and the rebellion came to be infused with religious significance. Chan Santa Cruz also became the name of the largest of the independent Maya states, as well as the name of the capital city which is now the city of
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therefore, he turned to Mexico, and accepted a return to Mexican authority. Yucatán was officially reunited with Mexico on 17 August 1848. Yucateco forces rallied, aided by fresh guns, money, and troops from Mexico, and pushed back the natives from more than half of the state.
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had prepared a decree for the evacuation of Mérida, but was apparently delayed in publishing it by the lack of suitable paper in the besieged capital. The decree became unnecessary when the republican troops suddenly broke the siege and took the offensive with major advances.
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the majority of the liberal city hall officials from Los Altos to be shot. Carrera then forcibly annexed Quetzaltenango and much of Los Altos back into conservative Guatemala. After the violent and bloody reinstatement of the State of Los Altos by Carrera in April 1840,
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a little later, forcing Morazán to return to El Salvador to fight to save his federal mandate. Along the way, Morazán increased repression in eastern Guatemala, as punishment for helping Carrera. Knowing that Morazán had gone to El Salvador, Carrera tried to take
1301:, issued a decree to build a theater in the Old Central Square site. However, political climate was very tense in the country and when the civil war between liberal and conservative parties escalated, Gálvez was overthrown and the theater could not be built.
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alliance with Guatemalan natives- could be support the native risings in Central America. In the 1850s, the British showed their good will to settle the territorial differences with the Central American countries: they withdrew from the Mosquito Coast in
818:. Even though the colony eventually crumbled due to the endemic diseases that plagued the area, Belgium continued to support Carrera in the mid-19th century, although Britain continued to be the main business and political partner to Carrera's regime.
751:. In Guatemala, survivors from his troops were shot without mercy, while Carrera was out in unsuccessful pursuit of Morazan. This engagement sealed the status of Carrera and marked the decline of Morazán, and forced the conservative Aycinena clan
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Guatemalan southern ports by a Salvadorean regiment. The Guatemalan government did not accept the terms and the Allied army entered Guatemalan territory at three different places. On 29 January, a 500-man contingent entered through Piñuelas,
577:
repeatedly drove Carrera's forces out of cities and towns, but Carrera's followers would retake places as soon as Morazán's army left. For almost a decade, he was content being a military commander and enjoyed the respect of his followers.
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By 1837, rural masses were voicing numerous grievances against the liberal government of Guatemala. Inexperienced in republican politics, the liberal leaders did not foresee the power of popular resistance and refused to change course. A
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and Carrera had to retreat. After an unsuccessful attempt to take the Quetzaltenango, Carrera was surrounded and wounded, and he had to capitulate to the Mexican General Agustin Guzman, who had been in Quetzaltenango since the time of
1195:, Honduras, where they signed an alliance against Guatemala. The Salvadorean army had 4,000 men, properly trained and armed and supported by artillery; the Honduran army numbered 2,000 men. The coalition army was stationed in
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in an effort to avoid the invasion of Honduras. They also signed a treaty about with Guatemala about Belize borders, which has been called by Guatemalans as the worst mistake made by the unelected regime of Rafael Carrera-.
762:, had gone back to Quetzaltenango to bring the good news. The city liberal criollo leaders rapidly reinstated the Los Altos State and celebrated Morazán's victory. However, as soon as Carrera and the newly reinstated
1211:, led by General Vicente Baquero, but the majority of the invading force marched from Metapán. The Allied army was composed of 4,500 men led by Vasconcelos, as Commander in Chief. Other commanders were the generals
1002:
The government of Yucatán first declared the war over in 1855, but hopes for peace were premature. There were regular skirmishes, and occasional deadly major assaults into each other's territory, by both sides. The
619:, member of the Aycinena clan, although he did not return to that clan any property confiscated in 1829; in revenge, Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol voted for the dissolution of the Central American Federation in
594:
Even though Carrera is often portrayed as a "guerrilla" leader, an analysis of his military campaigns between 1837 and 1840 shows that he utilized a method of fighting that can be more accurately described as
742:
The disaster for the liberal general was complete: aided by Angel Molina who knew the streets of the city, had to flee with his favorite men, disguised, shouting "Long live Carrera!" through the ravine of
518:, and mestizo and indigenous peasants, he dominated politics in the first three decades of Guatemala's independence more than any other individual. He led the revolt against the liberal state government of
787:. Larrazabal ordered the priests Fernando Antonio Dávila, Mariano Navarrete and Jose Ignacio Iturrioz to cover the parishes of Quetzaltenango, San Martin Jilotepeque and San Lucas Toliman, respectively.
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façades and added a lobby. This was the first monumental building ever built in the Republican era of Guatemala, a sign that in the 1850s the country was finally enjoying some peace and prosperity.
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During the first term as president, Carrera had brought the country back from extreme conservatism to a traditional moderation and kept a stable relationship among the natives, the
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to take over the presidential office. They declared on 26 August 1848 that Los Altos was an independent state once again. The new state had the support of Vasconcelos' regime in
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epidemic added to the frustration over grievances, led to panic, and helped Carrera rally the peasants into armed resistance. Strongly supported by the Church, Carrera became
779:– capital of the would-be-state of Los Altos, Urban Ugarte and his coadjutor, José Maria Aguilar, were removed from their parish and likewise the priests of the parishes of
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1389:, committed to respect the ecclesiastical properties and monasteries, authorized mandatory tithing and allowed the bishops to censor what was published in the country.
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1251:, before he received orders from the Guatemalan President, Mariano Paredes, to return to Guatemala, since the Allies were requesting a cease-fire and a peace treaty.
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In the Conservative regime of Guatemala, the Catholic Church was entangled with the Government and the leaders of both were relatives, mostly of the Aycinena family.
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and illiterate. He first worked as a farmhand. He enlisted in the army during the civil war, which lasted from 1826 to 1829. In 1835, he left the army and moved to
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from 1844 to 1848 and from 1851 until his death in 1865, after being appointed President for life in 1854. During his military career and presidency, new nations in
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Rafael Carrera was appointed president in 1844 and on March 21, 1847, by executive order declared Guatemala an independent republic, becoming its first president.
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642:'s arrival in 1823. Morazán had the opportunity to shoot Carrera, but did not because he needed the support of the Guatemalan peasants to counter the attacks of
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railway, which allowed commerce to flow more efficiently to the port at the Pacific; from then on, Belize commercial importance began a steep decline. When the
1247:, while two Generals mounted on the same horse were seen crossing the Honduran border. Carrera regrouped his army and crossed the Salvadorean border, occupying
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The liberal criollos' defeat and execution in Quetzaltenango enhanced Carrera's status with the native population of the area, whom he respected and protected.
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Map of Yucatán, Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador region in 1839. Notice that the borders among México, Guatemala and Belize were not defined at all.
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Weaver, Frederic S. (March 1999). "Reform and (Counter) Revolution in Post-Independence Guatemala: Liberalism, Conservatism, and Postmodern Controversies".
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In 1840, Belgium began to act as an external source of support for Carrera's independence movement, in an effort to exert influence in Central America. The
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However, rebel leaders in their correspondence with British Honduras (Belize) were more often inclined to cite taxation as the immediate cause of the war;
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The first six articles clearly defined the Guatemala-Belize border: Guatemala acknowledged sovereignty of the United Kingdom over the Belize territory.
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Coat of Arms of the Republic of Guatemala between 1858 and 1871. A replica was carved on the front side of the theater before it was remodeled in 1892.
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In June 1847, Méndez learned that a large force of armed natives and supplies had gathered at the Culumpich, a property owned by Jacinto Pat, the Maya
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650:; instead, Morazán left Carrera in charge of a small fort in Mita, and without any weapons. Knowing that Morazán was going to attack El Salvador,
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who wanted to show how the native Guatemalans have been exploited by the elites completely ignored Carrera's interest in them and accused him of
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Martínez Peláez, Severo (1988). "Racismo y Análisis Histórico de la Definición del Indio Guatemalteco" (in Spanish). Guatemala: Universitaria.
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of both parties celebrated until dawn that they finally had a criollo caudillo like Morazán, who was able to crush the peasant rebellion.
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in 1854. One year after his death, coins were issued in his honor with his face and the title: “Founder of the Republic of Guatemala.”
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recognized the Chan Santa Cruz Maya as a "de facto" independent nation, in part because of the major trade between Chan Santa Cruz and
2839:. Collection de renseignements publiés ou recueillis par la Compagnie (in French). Original held and digitised by the British Library.
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Latin America's Martial Age. Warfare and Conflict in the Long Nineteenth Century. (Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2017), 77-97.
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tried to invade Guatemala for the second time in 1840 after having invaded in 1829 and expelled members of the Aycinena clan and
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Visoni-Alonzo, G.,"Hybrid Warfare: The 1837 Revolt of Rafael Carrera in Guatemala" in G. Visoni-Alonzo & F. Jacob, eds.
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Visoni-Alonzo, G.,"Hybrid Warfare: The 1837 Revolt of Rafael Carrera in Guatemala" in G. Visoni-Alonzo & F. Jacob, eds.
747:
to El Salvador. In his absence, Morazán had been supplanted as Head of State of his country, and had to embark for exile in
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1227:. Guatemala was able to recruit 2,000 men, led by Lieutenant General Carrera as Commander in Chief, with several colonels.
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and Santo Tomás district. Area in yellow is what had been given in perpetuity to the catholic Belgians by Carrera's regime.
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country back from excessive conservatism to a moderate regime, and – with the advice of Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol and
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and began talks that would end up in the restoration of the territory to Nicaragua in 1894: returned the Bay Islands to
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for economic prosperity to please the conservative landowners, military challenges at home and in a three-year war with
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771:– conservative member of the Aycinena Clan, then secretary general of the Guatemalan government of recently reinstated
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and rebel leader Vicente Cruz were both murdered there after trying to take over the Corregidor office in 1849.
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Carrera defeated General Agustin Guzman when the former Mexican officer tried to ambush him and then went on to
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to defend the city and to aid in a possible retreat, leaving only 1,500 Guatemalans against an enemy of 4,500.
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364:
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Miceli, Keith (1974). "Rafael Carrera: Defender and Promoter of Peasant Interests in Guatemala, 1837–1848".
775:– obtained from the vicar Larrazabal authorization to dismantle the regionalist Church. Serving priests of
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Ms. Silva was a professional actress and singer who had taught Carrera how to behave, write, read and sing.
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Invención criolla, sueño ladino, pesadilla indigena, Los Altos de Guatemala: de región a Estado, 1740-1871
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Through this treaty, Guatemala gave the education of the Guatemalan people to the regular orders of the
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Rafael Carrera correspondence in the William J. Griffith Guatemala Collection of Manuscripts (MS 187)
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Years later it became a commercial site and on August 6, 1832, then State of Guatemala Governor, Dr.
730:. In 1840 he was defeated overwhelmingly by Carrera, marking the end of his career in Central America
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3011:
Historia del Benemérito Gral. Don Francisco Morazán, ex Presidente de la República de Centroamérica
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to Guatemala. Carrera, by then an experienced military man, was able to defeat Morazán thoroughly.
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Copy of the decree by which Rafael Carrera was appointed President for Life of Guatemala in 1854.
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State Coat of Los Altos, carved in stone on the grave of heroes in the Cemetery of Quetzaltenango
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3014:(in Spanish). Tegucigalpa: Ministerio de Educación Pública, Ediciones Técnicas Centroamericana.
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nominated his friend and loyal soldier, Army Marshall Vicente Cerna y Cerna, as his successor.
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of Guatemala City towards the end of the Spanish colonial period. He was of humble origin, a
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1286:– then not larger than a village – and in 1776 was used to place the first block of the new
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and the south-west coast, with Yucatecan troops holding the road from Mérida to the port of
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General Carrera portrait celebrating the foundation of the Republic of Guatemala in 1847.
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Meanwhile, in Guatemala, where the invasion plans were perfectly well known, President
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1444:, which was followed by a truce. Honduras joined with El Salvador, and Nicaragua and
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La patria del criollo; ensayo de interpretación de la realidad colonial guatemalteca
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1199:, El Salvador, due to its proximity with both the Guatemalan and Honduran borders.
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started taking precautions to face the situation, while the Guatemalan Archbishop,
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Guzmán, who was freed by Morazán when the latter had seemingly defeated Carrera in
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Colonisation du district de Santo-Thomas de Guatemala par la Communauté de l'Union
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511:, a term that refers to charismatic populist leaders among the indigenous people.
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Latin America's Martial Age. Warfare and Conflict in the Long Nineteenth Century
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gave arms and ammunition to Carrera and convinced him to attack Guatemala City.
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2018:
For a detailed analysis of Carrera's approach to warfare see Visoni-Alonzo, G.
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In the meantime, Carrera decided to return to Guatemala and did so entering by
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Morazán used the proceeds to support Los Altos and then replaced Valenzuela by
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The Carrera Revolt and "Hybrid Warfare" in Nineteenth Century Central America
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2020:
The Carrera Revolt and "Hybrid Warfare" in Nineteenth Century Central America
1326:
Concordat between the Holy See and the President of the Republic of Guatemala
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488:
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2896:(in Spanish). Vol. Tomo III. Guatemala: Tipografía Sánchez y de Guise.
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Concordato entre la Santa Sede y el presidente de la República de Guatemala
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Guzmán then left for Jalapa, where he struck a deal with the rebels, while
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Define the borders between the British settlement of Belize and Guatemala.
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The Concordat of 1854 was an international treaty between Carrera and the
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Backed by the Catholic Church, conservatives of the Aycinena clan led by
3161:
Rafael Carrera and the Emergence of the Republic of Guatemala, 1821–1871
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2883:(1959). "El capítulo de las efemérides: José Milla y Rafael Carrera".
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Among those fighting in these battles was the famous Guatemalan poet
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Eastern Coast of Central America Commercial and Agricultural Company
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to negotiate with Carrera and his peasant revolutionary supporters.
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Altenses is how people from Quetzaltenango are known in Guatemala.
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1928:
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565:
544:
126:
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The Poverty of Progress: Latin America in the Nineteenth Century
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Maya Wars: Ethnographic Accounts from Nineteenth Century Yucatan
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Guatemala City Central Square during the Carrera administration.
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Proclamation Coin 1847 of the independent Republic of Guatemala
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Even though they distrusted and despised him, the conservative
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1988:
1976:
1964:
1952:
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802:(Belgian Colonization Company), commissioned by Belgian King
3062:
Incidents of travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan
2779:
Turbulent Passage: A Global History of the Twentieth Century
2459:
962:(leader), near Valladolid. Fearing revolt, Mendez arrested
939:. Carrera built this military base to defend Guatemala City.
2781:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
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2159:
522:
in Guatemala, and then was instrumental in breaking up the
152:
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1853:
1841:
1829:
3021:
Yucatan's Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War
1807:
1805:
1803:
999:. The followers of the Cross were known as the "Cruzob".
1304:
The project was revisited in 1852, when Juan Matheu and
2682:
2655:
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2578:
2308:
2230:
1904:
1882:
1880:
706:
661:
467:(24 October 1814 – 14 April 1865) was the president of
2264:[1847: the Republic of Guatemala is founded].
1865:
1800:
1753:
Angel Molina was the son of Guatemalan Liberal leader
539:
Carrera was born on 24 October 1814 in the Candelaria
2741:
2518:
2506:
2344:
2332:
2320:
2296:
1892:
3059:
Stephens, John Lloyd; Catherwood, Frederick (1854).
2953:(1). Academy of American Franciscan History: 72–95.
2530:
2377:
1877:
1453:
Wyke-Aycinena treaty: Limits convention about Belize
1115:– restored relations with the Church in Rome with a
2846:
La montaña infinita; Carrera, caudillo de Guatemala
2805:(in Latin and Spanish). Guatemala: Imprenta La Paz.
2284:
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3058:
2811:
2776:
2721:[General Rafael Carrera is born in 1814].
1794:
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2879:
2705:
2371:
2138:
2107:
2073:
2046:
1590:and even negotiated with the American filibuster
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2500:
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2153:
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2088:
2058:
2031:
2006:
1994:
1982:
1970:
1958:
1946:
1934:
551:where he married Petrona García and worked as a
3334:
2995:
2935:
2909:
2900:
2626:
2624:
2170:
1859:
1847:
1835:
1817:
1723:In Spanish: Republica Federal de Centroamérica.
1243:artillery pieces. Vasconcelos sought refuge in
1039:who occupied the city after Corregidor general
684:, a secessionist group founded the independent
133: and the second or maternal family name is
3084:(in Spanish). Guatemala: CIRMA. Archived from
1625:Rafael Carrera died in office April 14, 1865.
413:José, Francisco, María Mercedes Carrera García
3320:
3195:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992.
3117:. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2017.
3000:(in Spanish). Guatemala: Tipografía Nacional.
2996:Montúfar, Lorenzo; Salazar, Ramón A. (1892).
479:invasions, liberal attempts to overthrow the
2848:(in Spanish). Guatemala: Artemis y Edinter.
2621:
1432:, President of El Salvador, resulted in the
1184:, ordered peace prayers in the archdiocese.
3164:. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
2998:El centenario del general Francisco Morazán
2862:
2591:
1428:dominated his presidency. His rivalry with
3327:
3313:
2940:(in Spanish). México: Ediciones en Marcha.
2262:"1847: se funda la República de Guatemala"
160:
2777:Adas, M.; Stearns; Schwarz, S.B. (2009).
1165:to participate in the alliance; only the
906:1864, with the portrait of Rafael Carrera
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
3157:
3077:
3044:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
3023:. San Antonio, TX: University of Texas.
2865:"Parques y plazas antiguas de Guatemala"
2833:Compagnie Belge de Colonisation (1844).
2795:
2719:"Nace el general Rafael Carrera en 1814"
2693:
2676:
2649:
2630:
2536:
2236:
2209:
1910:
1811:
1551:
1410:
1272:
1264:
1147:
1018:
1014:
931:
909:
894:
716:
671:
3193:Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America
3037:
3018:
2809:
2747:
2524:
2350:
2338:
2326:
2314:
2302:
2290:
1898:
1710:
1292:Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala
921:
589:
3781:
3120:
2944:
2512:
2383:
1886:
1871:
1613:Among those who signed the treaty was
3308:
2905:(in Spanish). Guatemala: Piedrasanta.
2729:from the original on 26 February 2018
1406:
1127:
3103:. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
3004:
2249:Compagnie Belge de Colonisation 1844
2225:Compagnie Belge de Colonisation 1844
1823:
1312:
1122:
1055:
997:Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Quintana Roo
824:Belgian colonization company in 1844
707:Morazán Second Invasion of Guatemala
662:Invasion and Absorption of Los Altos
245: – 17 August 1848
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
3814:Guatemalan people of Basque descent
3344:Federal Republic of Central America
2844:González Davison, Fernando (2008).
2272:from the original on March 23, 2016
2022:(London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).
1290:after the 1773 earthquakes destroy
890:
524:Federal Republic of Central America
495:, Belize boundary dispute with the
303: – 21 March 1847
195: – 14 April 1865
13:
3371:direct central rule, 1826–27
3354:direct central rule, 1823–24
3187:Biography on Catholic Encyclopedia
2903:Francisco Morazán y Rafael Carrera
2901:Marroquín Rojas, Clemente (1971).
2769:
1254:
14:
3840:
3819:Guatemalan people of Maya descent
3180:
793:
680:On April 2, 1838, in the city of
405:Petrona Garcia Morales de Carrera
3442:
3280:
3247:
3221:Kenneth Spencer Research Library
1795:Adas, Stearns & Schwarz 2009
1678:
1666:
1654:
1513:
1501:
1353:
1182:Francisco de Paula García Peláez
872:
860:
845:
830:
586:the liberals had expelled them.
558:
475:were facing numerous problems:
450:
23:
3824:Politicians from Guatemala City
2863:Guateantaño (17 October 2011).
2818:. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
2753:
2711:
2254:
2012:
1916:
1769:
1760:
1747:
1735:
1726:
1306:Manuel Francisco Pavón Aycinena
800:Compagnie belge de colonisation
688:which sought independence from
34:needs additional citations for
3804:19th-century Guatemalan people
2814:Guatemala: A Nation in Turmoil
1717:
1642:Order of St. Gregory the Great
1288:Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción
806:, became the administrator of
633:defeated him in the fields of
1:
3073:: Arthur Hall, Virtue and Co.
1782:
1376:Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol
879:Map of the Belgian colony in
814:replacing the failed British
534:
516:Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol
465:José Rafael Carrera y Turcios
421:Simón Carrera y Juana Turcios
3158:Woodward, Ralph Lee (1993).
1485:September 26, 1859
483:and aristocrats' power, the
283:State President of Guatemala
125:, the first or paternal
7:
3336:Heads of state of Guatemala
3205:Biography of Rafael Carrera
3123:Latin American Perspectives
2983:Biography of Rafael Carrera
2881:Hernández de León, Federico
2871:. Guatemala. Archived from
2761:Biography of Rafael Carrera
1836:Montúfar & Salazar 1892
1647:
1440:the Guatemalans suffered a
1261:Carrera Theater (Guatemala)
1052:Fernando Antonio Martínez.
531:and being a "little king".
10:
3845:
3135:10.1177/0094582x9902600207
2894:El libro de las efemérides
1700:History of Central America
1316:
1258:
1137:
1131:
1117:Concordat ratified in 1854
925:
710:
668:Los Altos, Central America
665:
493:Mayan uprising in the east
120:
3809:Conservatism in Guatemala
3763:
3451:
3440:
3342:
3293:
3278:
3270:
3260:
3245:
3237:
3232:
3078:Taracena, Arturo (1999).
2959:10.1017/S000316150008843X
1628:
1599:Pedro de Aycinena y Piñol
1564:was long occupied by the
1560:The Belize region in the
1542:
1536:Pedro de Aycinena y Piñol
1531:
1496:
1479:
1464:
1459:
1381:
1370:
1348:
1338:
1330:
1325:
1090:On learning that officer
982:. The Yucatecan governor
458:
446:
436:
425:
417:
409:
401:
391:
374:
347:
342:
338:
326:
314:
295:4 December 1844
288:
280:
268:
256:
230:
225:Pedro de Aycinena y Piñol
218:
206:
187:6 November 1851
180:
172:
168:
159:
142:
3254:Guatemala State Governor
2887:(in Spanish). Guatemala.
1620:
1468:April 30, 1859
1071:When Carrera arrived to
601:José Francisco Barrundia
507:. This led to a rise of
149:Rafael Carrera y Turcios
3349:Supreme Chiefs of State
3019:Rugeley, Terry (1996).
2810:Calvert, Peter (1985).
1755:Pedro Molina Mazariegos
1538:and Charles Lennox Wyke
1374:Fernando Lorenzana and
838:Santo Tomás de Castilla
808:Santo Tomas de Castilla
237:21 March 1847
3287:President of Guatemala
2923:Cite journal requires
2869:Guatepalabras Blogspot
2706:Hernández de León 1959
2372:Hernández de León 1930
2139:Hernández de León 1959
2108:Hernández de León 1959
2074:Hernández de León 1959
2047:Hernández de León 1959
1557:
1416:
1278:
1270:
1191:and Juan Lindo met in
1153:
1087:were looking for him.
1081:Miguel Garcia Granados
1024:
940:
915:
907:
781:San Martin Jilotepeque
731:
677:
175:President of Guatemala
16:President of Guatemala
3453:Republic of Guatemala
3264:Juan Antonio Martínez
2981:Minster, Christofer.
2616:González Davison 2008
2604:González Davison 2008
2573:González Davison 2008
2561:González Davison 2008
2549:González Davison 2008
2501:González Davison 2008
2486:González Davison 2008
2471:González Davison 2008
2454:González Davison 2008
2439:González Davison 2008
2420:González Davison 2008
2408:González Davison 2008
2396:González Davison 2008
2198:González Davison 2008
2186:González Davison 2008
2154:González Davison 2008
2120:González Davison 2008
2110:, p. January 29.
2089:González Davison 2008
2059:González Davison 2008
2032:González Davison 2008
2007:González Davison 2008
1995:González Davison 2008
1983:González Davison 2008
1971:González Davison 2008
1959:González Davison 2008
1947:González Davison 2008
1935:González Davison 2008
1615:José Milla y Vidaurre
1555:
1414:
1401:Vicente Cerna y Cerna
1365:Congress of Guatemala
1276:
1268:
1221:José Trinidad Cabañas
1213:José Santos Guardiola
1151:
1144:Vicente Cerna y Cerna
1022:
1015:Brief exile to Mexico
935:
913:
898:
720:
675:
631:Carlos Salazar Castro
275:Juan Antonio Martínez
3225:University of Kansas
3201:by E. Bradford Burns
2759:Christofer Minster,
2171:Marroquín Rojas 1971
1860:Martínez Peláez 1988
1848:Martínez Peláez 1990
1743:José Batres Montúfar
1711:Notes and references
1695:History of Guatemala
1673:Biography portal
1661:Guatemala portal
1640:awarded Carrera the
1579:Caste War of Yucatán
1460:Wyke-Aycinena treaty
1035:were led by general
928:Caste War of Yucatán
922:Caste War of Yucatán
590:Battles with Morazán
365:Kingdom of Guatemala
263:Position established
43:improve this article
3829:Presidents for life
3191:Hamill, Hugh (ed.)
2875:on 27 January 2015.
2708:, p. April 30.
2575:, pp. 311–328.
2551:, pp. 316–317.
2410:, pp. 270–271.
2141:, p. March 16.
2091:, pp. 122–127.
2049:, p. April 20.
1685:Politics portal
1424:, El Salvador, and
1189:Doroteo Vasconcelos
1187:On 4 January 1851,
1140:Doroteo Vasconcelos
1108:Luis Batres Juarros
1083:– who arrived from
769:Luis Batres Juarros
3347:(1823–1839);
3241:Mariano Rivera Paz
3233:Political offices
3210:2014-03-19 at the
3099:Visoni-Alonzo, G.
2988:2014-03-19 at the
2797:Aycinena, Pedro de
2212:, p. 240-241.
2156:, p. 148-154.
1705:Mariano Rivera Paz
1558:
1417:
1407:President for life
1279:
1271:
1169:government led by
1154:
1134:Battle of La Arada
1128:Battle of La Arada
1092:José Víctor Zavala
1066:Mariano Rivera Paz
1025:
941:
916:
908:
773:Mariano Rivera Paz
764:Mariano Rivera Paz
732:
686:State of Los Altos
678:
617:Mariano Rivera Paz
499:, and the wars in
333:Position abolished
213:Mariano Rivera Paz
3776:
3775:
3303:
3302:
3297:Pedro de Aycinena
3294:Succeeded by
3261:Succeeded by
3030:978-0-292-77078-2
2855:978-84-89452-81-7
1874:, pp. 72–95.
1690:Francisco Morazán
1562:Yucatán Peninsula
1550:
1549:
1393:
1392:
1319:Concordat of 1854
1313:Concordat of 1854
1123:Second Presidency
1113:Pedro de Aycinena
1100:Antigua Guatemala
1056:Back to Guatemala
984:Miguel Barbachano
970:walled cities of
964:Manuel Antonio Ay
785:San Lucas Tolimán
723:Francisco Morazán
713:Francisco Morazán
652:Francisco Ferrera
644:Francisco Ferrera
575:Francisco Morazán
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461:
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3284:
3271:Preceded by
3251:
3238:Preceded by
3230:
3229:
3175:
3154:
3096:
3094:
3093:
3074:
3055:
3038:— (2001).
3034:
3015:
3001:
2978:
2941:
2936:— (1990).
2932:
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2911:
2906:
2897:
2892:— (1930).
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2592:Guateantaño 2011
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2268:. Mar 20, 2018.
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1269:Carrera Theater.
1009:British Honduras
891:First presidency
876:
867:Santo Tomás town
864:
849:
834:
640:Vicente Filísola
477:William Walker's
454:
432:, Guatemala City
384:Guatemala City,
381:
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343:Personal details
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3212:Wayback Machine
3183:
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2990:Wayback Machine
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2770:Further reading
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2725:. 14 Apr 2016.
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1430:Gerardo Barrios
1409:
1387:Catholic Church
1354:
1352:
1321:
1315:
1263:
1257:
1255:Carrera Theater
1225:Gerardo Barrios
1178:Mariano Paredes
1146:
1136:
1130:
1125:
1098:Guzmán went to
1058:
1041:Mariano Paredes
1017:
937:San José castle
930:
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670:
664:
592:
573:had abandoned.
561:
549:Mataquescuintla
537:
481:Catholic Church
473:Central America
430:Mataquescuintla
392:Political party
383:
379:
359:
358:24 October 1814
353:
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321:Mariano Paredes
315:
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3789:Rafael Carrera
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3688:Mejía Víctores
3685:
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3629:González López
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3182:
3181:External links
3179:
3177:
3176:
3171:978-0820314488
3170:
3155:
3129:(2): 129–158.
3118:
3111:
3109:978-3319583402
3097:
3075:
3056:
3051:978-0806133553
3050:
3035:
3029:
3016:
3002:
2993:
2979:
2942:
2933:
2925:|journal=
2907:
2898:
2889:
2885:Diario La Hora
2877:
2860:
2854:
2841:
2830:
2825:978-0865315723
2824:
2807:
2793:
2788:978-0205700325
2787:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2752:
2740:
2710:
2698:
2696:, p. 309.
2681:
2679:, p. 308.
2654:
2652:, p. 310.
2635:
2620:
2618:, p. 432.
2608:
2606:, p. 430.
2596:
2577:
2565:
2563:, p. 315.
2553:
2541:
2529:
2517:
2515:, p. 138.
2505:
2503:, p. 280.
2490:
2488:, p. 279.
2475:
2458:
2456:, p. 278.
2443:
2441:, p. 275.
2424:
2422:, p. 271.
2412:
2400:
2398:, p. 270.
2388:
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2343:
2331:
2319:
2307:
2295:
2283:
2253:
2241:
2239:, p. 498.
2229:
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2202:
2200:, p. 155.
2190:
2188:, p. 158.
2175:
2158:
2143:
2124:
2122:, p. 140.
2112:
2093:
2078:
2063:
2051:
2036:
2024:
2011:
1999:
1987:
1975:
1963:
1951:
1939:
1927:
1915:
1913:, p. 484.
1903:
1891:
1889:, p. 137.
1876:
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1814:, p. 456.
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1592:William Walker
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1525:Guatemala City
1509:United Kingdom
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1328:
1327:
1317:Main article:
1314:
1311:
1299:Mariano Gálvez
1284:Guatemala City
1259:Main article:
1256:
1253:
1132:Main article:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1085:Guatemala City
1057:
1054:
1045:Guatemala City
1043:was called to
1037:Agustín Guzmán
1033:Quetzaltenango
1016:
1013:
1005:United Kingdom
926:Main article:
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823:
822:
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795:
794:Belgian colony
792:
777:Quetzaltenango
760:Guatemala City
728:regular orders
711:Main article:
708:
705:
701:Quetzaltenango
682:Quetzaltenango
666:Main article:
663:
660:
606:Guatemala City
597:hybrid warfare
591:
588:
560:
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520:Mariano Gálvez
497:United Kingdom
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382:(aged 50)
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361:Guatemala City
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3476:
3473:
3470:
3469:López Requena
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3456:(since 1839);
3454:
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3102:
3098:
3088:on 2016-01-09
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2798:
2794:
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2784:
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2774:
2762:
2756:
2750:, p. 65.
2749:
2744:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2714:
2707:
2702:
2695:
2694:Woodward 1993
2690:
2688:
2686:
2678:
2677:Woodward 1993
2673:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2651:
2650:Woodward 1993
2646:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2632:
2631:Aycinena 1854
2627:
2625:
2617:
2612:
2605:
2600:
2593:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2574:
2569:
2562:
2557:
2550:
2545:
2538:
2537:Woodward 1993
2533:
2527:, p. 36.
2526:
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2340:
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2305:, p. 51.
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2257:
2251:, p. 44.
2250:
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2238:
2237:Woodward 1993
2233:
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2219:
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2210:Taracena 1999
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2076:, p. 48.
2075:
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2061:, p. 96.
2060:
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2043:
2041:
2034:, p. 92.
2033:
2028:
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2015:
2008:
2003:
1997:, p. 89.
1996:
1991:
1985:, p. 88.
1984:
1979:
1973:, p. 87.
1972:
1967:
1961:, p. 86.
1960:
1955:
1949:, p. 85.
1948:
1943:
1936:
1931:
1925:
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1911:Woodward 1993
1907:
1901:, p. 64.
1900:
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1861:
1856:
1849:
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1813:
1812:Woodward 1993
1808:
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1442:severe defeat
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1077:Huehuetenango
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1062:Huehuetenango
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559:Rise to power
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505:Benito Juárez
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378:14 April 1865
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60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3735:Pérez Molina
3578:Ponce Vaides
3502:
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3192:
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3114:
3100:
3090:. Retrieved
3086:the original
3080:
3061:
3040:
3020:
3010:
2997:
2950:
2947:The Americas
2946:
2937:
2916:cite journal
2902:
2893:
2884:
2873:the original
2868:
2845:
2835:
2813:
2801:
2778:
2760:
2755:
2748:Calvert 1985
2743:
2731:. Retrieved
2723:Prensa Libre
2722:
2713:
2701:
2611:
2599:
2568:
2556:
2544:
2532:
2525:Calvert 1985
2520:
2508:
2415:
2403:
2391:
2379:
2351:Rugeley 2001
2346:
2339:Rugeley 2001
2334:
2327:Rugeley 2001
2322:
2315:Rugeley 2001
2310:
2303:Rugeley 2001
2298:
2291:Rugeley 1996
2286:
2274:. Retrieved
2266:Prensa Libre
2265:
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2027:
2019:
2014:
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1918:
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1899:Calvert 1985
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1749:
1737:
1728:
1719:
1638:Pope Pius IX
1636:
1632:
1624:
1612:
1597:
1575:
1571:
1566:Maya peoples
1559:
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1394:
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621:San Salvador
614:
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513:
464:
463:
426:Residence(s)
396:Conservative
380:(1865-04-14)
332:
328:Succeeded by
290:
270:Succeeded by
262:
232:
220:Succeeded by
182:
134:
130:
123:Spanish name
105:
99:October 2018
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
3799:1865 deaths
3794:1814 births
3383:de Aycinena
3006:Rosa, Ramón
2513:Weaver 1999
2384:Miceli 1974
1887:Weaver 1999
1872:Miceli 1974
1434:War of 1863
1245:El Salvador
1205:Agua Blanca
1049:El Salvador
953:Jacinto Pat
900:Silver coin
853:Izabal lake
745:El Incienso
737:El Salvador
648:El Salvador
635:Villa Nueva
316:Preceded by
258:Preceded by
208:Preceded by
3783:Categories
3770:† military
3751:Giammattei
3682:Ríos Montt
3545:M. Estrada
3458:Presidents
3415:Valenzuela
3377:J. Estrada
3291:1851–1865
3258:1844–1848
3092:2015-01-09
1783:References
1489:1859-09-26
1472:1859-04-30
1446:Costa Rica
1438:Coatepeque
1233:Chiquimula
1193:Ocotepeque
1173:accepted.
1171:Juan Lindo
1138:See also:
694:El Popular
535:Early life
437:Occupation
354:1814-10-24
307:1847-03-21
299:1844-12-04
249:1848-08-17
241:1847-03-21
199:1865-04-14
191:1851-11-06
69:newspapers
3766:* interim
3740:Maldonado
3529:Sinibaldi
3394:Barrundia
3365:Barrundia
3151:143757705
2975:197669388
1824:Rosa 1974
1584:Nicaragua
1532:Author(s)
1521:Guatemala
1426:Nicaragua
1371:Author(s)
1249:Santa Ana
1163:Nicaragua
904:Guatemala
902:: 1 peso
881:Guatemala
804:Leopold I
690:Guatemala
553:swineherd
509:caudillos
485:Civil War
469:Guatemala
447:Signature
386:Guatemala
369:New Spain
291:In office
233:In office
183:In office
3720:Portillo
3670:Laugerud
3647:Ydígoras
3623:Castillo
3594:Toriello
3556:Orellana
3535:Barillas
3508:Aycinena
3485:Martínez
3208:Archived
3008:(1974).
2986:Archived
2799:(1854).
2727:Archived
2270:Archived
1648:See also
1588:Honduras
1497:Location
1481:Ratified
1422:Honduras
1397:Holy See
1349:Location
1340:Ratified
1167:Honduran
1159:Honduras
1073:Chiantla
1029:criollos
972:Campeche
946:henequén
753:criollos
721:General
610:criollos
583:criollos
570:de facto
441:Military
410:Children
121:In this
3756:Arévalo
3746:Morales
3710:de León
3653:Peralta
3635:Mendoza
3583:Junta (
3551:Herrera
3524:Barrios
3503:Carrera
3497:Paredes
3491:Escobar
3480:Carrera
3427:Salazar
3404:Márquez
3388:Zenteno
3223:at the
3219:at the
3143:2634298
3071:England
2276:Oct 30,
1543:Purpose
1487: (
1470: (
1465:Created
1382:Purpose
1361:Vatican
1331:Created
1209:Jutiapa
1197:Metapán
566:cholera
545:mestizo
487:in the
305: (
297: (
247: (
239: (
197: (
189: (
135:Turcios
131:Carrera
127:surname
83:scholar
3725:Berger
3704:Espina
3694:Cerezo
3659:Méndez
3641:Flores
3617:Monzón
3606:Árbenz
3590:Árbenz
3561:Chacón
3475:Rivera
3464:Rivera
3433:Rivera
3421:Rivera
3410:Gálvez
3399:Molina
3168:
3149:
3141:
3107:
3067:London
3048:
3027:
2973:
2967:980382
2965:
2852:
2822:
2785:
2733:31 Oct
1629:Legacy
1518:
1506:
1358:
976:Mérida
812:Izabal
626:Salamá
541:barrio
529:racism
503:under
501:Mexico
418:Parent
402:Spouse
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
3730:Colom
3676:Lucas
3664:Arana
3586:Arana
3572:Ubico
3566:Reina
3540:Reina
3514:Cerna
3147:S2CID
3139:JSTOR
2971:S2CID
2963:JSTOR
1621:Death
1436:. At
980:Sisal
960:batab
90:JSTOR
76:books
3715:Arzú
3611:Díaz
3359:Díaz
3166:ISBN
3105:ISBN
3046:ISBN
3025:ISBN
2929:help
2850:ISBN
2820:ISBN
2783:ISBN
2735:2018
2278:2018
1511:and
1363:and
1344:1854
1334:1852
1223:and
1207:and
1161:and
1142:and
974:and
783:and
749:Perú
375:Died
348:Born
281:4th
173:1st
153:GCSG
62:news
3592:†,
3588:†,
3580:* †
3131:doi
2955:doi
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1075:in
840:bay
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