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can, of course, inflict pain on people at whim. But this would be called 'spite' unless it were inflicted as a consequence of a breach of rules on the part of the sufferer. Similarly a person in authority might give a person ÂŁ5 as a consequence of his breaking a rule. But unless this were regarded as painful or at least unpleasant for the recipient it could not be counted as a case of 'punishment'. In other words at least three criteria of (i) intentional infliction of pain (ii) by someone in authority (iii) on a person as a consequence of a breach of rules on his part, must be satisfied if we are to call something a case of 'punishment'. There are, as is usual in such cases, examples that can be produced which do not satisfy all criteria. For instance there is a colloquialism which is used about boxers taking a lot of punishment from their opponents, in which only the first condition is present. But this is a metaphorical use which is peripheral to the central use of the term.
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further, or in the successful pursuit of questionable ends. These benefactors of humanity sacrificed their fellows to appease mythical gods and tortured them to save their souls from a mythical hell, broke and bound the feet of children to promote their eventual marriageability, beat slow schoolchildren to promote learning and respect for teachers, subjected the sick to leeches to rid them of excess blood, and put suspects to the rack and the thumbscrew in the service of truth. They schooled themselves to feel no pity—to renounce human compassion in the service of a higher end. The deliberate doing of harm in the mistaken belief that it promotes some greater good is the essence of tragedy. We would do well to ask whether the goods we seek in harming offenders are worthwhile, and whether the means we choose will indeed secure them.
1607:
people suggest that the ability to make intentional choices should instead be treasured as a source of possibilities of betterment, citing that complex cognition would have been an evolutionarily useless waste of energy if it led to justifications of fixed actions and no change as simple inability to understand arguments would have been the most thrifty protection from being misled by them if arguments were for social manipulation, and reject condemnation of people who intentionally did bad things. Punishment can be effective in stopping undesirable employee behaviors such as tardiness, absenteeism or substandard work performance. However, punishment does not necessarily cause an employee to demonstrate a desirable behavior.
1597:
of the prisoner's being. But these are only the minimum harms, suffered by the least vulnerable inmates in the best-run prisons. Most prisons are run badly, and in some, conditions are more squalid than in the worst of slums. In the
District of Columbia jail, for example, inmates must wash their clothes and sheets in cell toilets because the laundry machines are broken. Vermin and insects infest the building, in which air vents are clogged with decades' accumulation of dust and grime. But even inmates in prisons where conditions are sanitary must still face the numbing boredom and emptiness of prison life—a vast desert of wasted days in which little in the way of meaningful activity is possible.
1020:
1453:. The more heinous crimes such as murders have the lowest levels of recidivism and hence are the least likely offences to be subject to incapacitative effects. Antisocial behaviour and the like display high levels of recidivism and hence are the kind of crimes most susceptible to incapacitative effects. It is shown by life-course studies that long sentences for burglaries amongst offenders in their late teens and early twenties fail to incapacitate when the natural reduction in offending due to ageing is taken into account: the longer the sentence, in these cases, the less the incapacitative effect.
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as whether the sentence for murder is 40 years or life, most people still know the rough outlines such as the punishments for armed robbery or forcible rape being more severe than the punishments for driving too fast or misparking a car. These criminologists therefore argue that lack of deterring effect of increasing the sentences for already severely punished crimes say nothing about the significance of the existence of punishment as a deterring factor.
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relationship between the overall payoff and the employment of costly punishment. Individuals who achieve the highest total payoffs generally avoid using costly punishment. This indicates that employing costly punishment in cooperative games may be disadvantageous and suggests that it may have evolved for purposes other than promoting cooperation.
1471:, in which the goal is to try to rebalance any unjust advantage gained by ensuring that the offender also suffers a loss. Sometimes viewed as a way of "getting even" with a wrongdoer—the suffering of the wrongdoer is seen as a desired goal in itself, even if it has no restorative benefits for the victim. One reason
1412:
criminologists argue that the use of statistics to gauge the efficiency of crime fighting methods are a danger of creating a reward hack that makes the least efficient criminal justice systems appear to be best at fighting crime, and that the appearance of deterrence being ineffective may be an example of this.
988:
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Imprisonment means, at minimum, the loss of liberty and autonomy, as well as many material comforts, personal security, and access to heterosexual relations. These deprivations, according to
Gresham Sykes (who first identified them) "together dealt 'a profound hurt' that went to 'the very foundations
1092:
are examples of positive punishment, while removing an offending student's recess or play privileges are examples of negative punishment. The definition requires that punishment is only determined after the fact by the reduction in behavior; if the offending behavior of the subject does not decrease,
2086:
Unpleasantness inflicted without authority is revenge, and if whimsical, is spite.... There is no conceptual connection between punishment, or deterrence, or reform, for people can be punished without being prevented from repeating the offence, and without being made better. And it is also a further
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Punishment... involves the intentional infliction of pain or of something unpleasant on someone who has committed a breach of rules... by someone who is in authority, who has a right to act in this way. Otherwise, it would be impossible to distinguish 'punishment' from 'revenge'. People in authority
1919:
The search for a precise definition of punishment that exercised some philosophers (for discussion and references see Scheid 1980) is likely to prove futile: but we can say that legal punishment involves the imposition of something that is intended to be burdensome or painful, on a supposed offender
1407:
Some criminologists state that the number of people convicted for crime does not decrease as a result of more severe punishment and conclude that deterrence is ineffective. Other criminologists object to said conclusion, citing that while most people do not know the exact severity of punishment such
1403:
Two reasons given to justify punishment is that it is a measure to prevent people from committing an offence - deterring previous offenders from re-offending, and preventing those who may be contemplating an offence they have not committed from actually committing it. This punishment is intended to
2175:
H.R. 2179, the
Securities Fraud Deterrence and Investor Restitution Act of 2003 Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Capital Markets, Insurance, and Government Sponsored Enterprises of the Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, First Session, June
1959:
Punishment describes the imposition by some authority of a deprivation—usually painful—on a person who has violated a law, rule, or other norm. When the violation is of the criminal law of society there is a formal process of accusation and proof followed by imposition of a sentence by a designated
1770:
H. Grotius of the Rights of War and Peace: In Three
Volumes: In Which Are Explain'd the Laws and Claims of Nature and Nations, and the Principal Points That Relate Either to Publick Government, or the Conduct of Private Life: Together with the Author's Own Notes: Done into English by Several Hands:
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We ought not to impose such harm on anyone unless we have a very good reason for doing so. This remark may seem trivially true, but the history of humankind is littered with examples of the deliberate infliction of harm by well-intentioned persons in the vain pursuit of ends which that harm did not
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issues. That punishment of individuals with certain characteristics (including but, in principle, not restricted to mental abilities) selects against those characteristics, making evolution of any mental abilities considered to be the basis for penal responsibility impossible in populations subject
2040:
In so far as the different 'theories' of punishment are answers to questions about the meaning of 'punishment', only the retributive theory is a possible one. There is no conceptual connection between 'punishment' and notions like those of 'deterrence', 'prevention' and 'reform'. For people can be
1993:
Punishment under law... is the authorized imposition of deprivations—of freedom or privacy or other goods to which the person otherwise has a right, or the imposition of special burdens—because the person has been found guilty of some criminal violation, typically (though not invariably) involving
2229:
Because punishment is both painful and guilt producing, its application calls for a justification. In
Western culture, four basic justifications have been given: retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation. The history of formal punitive systems is one of a gradual transition from
1558:
A unified theory of punishment brings together multiple penal purposes—such as retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation—in a single, coherent framework. Instead of punishment requiring we choose between them, unified theorists argue that they work together as part of some wider goal such as the
1767:
Grotius, Hugo (1715). "H. Grotius of the Rights of War and Peace: In Three
Volumes: in which are Explain'd the Laws and Claims of Nature and Nations, and the Principal Points that Relate Either to Publick Government, Or the Conduct of Private Life: Together with the Author's Own Notes: Done Into
1606:
There are critics of punishment who argue that punishment aimed at intentional actions forces people to suppress their ability to act on intent. Advocates of this viewpoint argue that such suppression of intention causes the harmful behaviors to remain, making punishment counterproductive. These
1537:
Punishment can serve as a means for society to publicly express denunciation of an action as being criminal. Besides educating people regarding what is not acceptable behavior, it serves the dual function of preventing vigilante justice by acknowledging public anger, while concurrently deterring
1079:
category. Operant conditioning refers to learning with either punishment (often confused as negative reinforcement) or a reward that serves as a positive reinforcement of the lesson to be learned. In psychology, punishment is the reduction of a behavior via application of an unpleasant stimulus
1445:
Incapacitation as a justification of punishment refers to the offender's ability to commit further offences being removed. Imprisonment separates offenders from the community, for example, Australia was a dumping ground for early
British criminals. This was their way of removing or reducing the
1136:
However, other evolutionary biologists have argued against punishment to favour cooperation. Dreber et al. demonstrate that while the availability of costly punishment can enhance cooperative behavior, it does not improve the group's average payoff. Additionally, there is a significant negative
913:
If only some of the conditions included in the definition of punishment are present, descriptions other than "punishment" may be considered more accurate. Inflicting something negative, or unpleasant, on a person or animal, without authority or not on the basis of a breach of rules is typically
1411:
Some criminologists argue that increasing the sentences for crimes can cause criminal investigators to give higher priority to said crimes so that a higher percentage of those committing them are convicted for them, causing statistics to give a false appearance of such crimes increasing. These
1549:
problems with the notion that a feeling for punishment as a social signal system evolved if punishment was not effective. The critics argue that some individuals spending time and energy and taking risks in punishing others, and the possible loss of the punished group members, would have been
1509:
role in a process with their offenders who are encouraged to take responsibility for their actions, "to repair the harm they've done—by apologizing, returning stolen money, or community service." The restorative justice approach aims to help the offender want to avoid future offences.
878:
or informally in other kinds of social settings such as within a family. Negative or unpleasant impositions that are not authorized or that are administered without a breach of rules are not considered to be punishment as defined here. The study and practice of the punishment of
1994:
harm to the innocent. (The classical formulation, conspicuous in Hobbes, for example, defines punishment by reference to imposing pain rather than to deprivations.) This definition, although imperfect because of its brevity, does allow us to bring out several essential points.
926:" during a fight. In other situations, breaking a rule may be rewarded, and so receiving such a reward naturally does not constitute punishment. Finally the condition of breaking (or breaching) the rules must be satisfied for consequences to be considered punishment.
1734:
The salvation of all men strictly examined: and the endless punishment of those who die impenitent : argued and defended against the objections and reasonings of the late Rev. Doctor
Chauncy, of Boston ; in his book entitled "The Salvation of all Men,"
1101:, though an aversion that does not decrease behavior is not considered punishment in psychology. Additionally, "aversive stimulus" is a label behaviorists generally apply to negative reinforcers (as in avoidance learning), rather than the punishers.
2230:
familial and tribal authority to the authority of organized society. Although parents today retain much basic authority to discipline their children, physical beatings and other severe deprivations—once widely tolerated—may now be called child abuse
1430:
the culprit so that they will not commit the offence again. This is distinguished from deterrence, in that the goal here is to change the offender's attitude to what they have done, and make them come to see that their behavior was wrong.
1364:
A principle often mentioned with respect to the degree of punishment to be meted out is that the punishment should match the crime. One standard for measurement is the degree to which a crime affects others or society. Measurements of the
2041:
punished without being prevented from repeating the offence, and without being made any better. It is also a further question whether they themselves or anyone else is deterred from committing the offence by punishment. But 'punishment'
874:, or be the removal or denial of something pleasant or desirable. The individual may be a person, or even an animal. The authority may be either a group or a single person, and punishment may be carried out formally under a system of
1171:
In the case of more complex brains, the notion of evolution selecting for specific punishment of intentionally chosen breaches of rules and/or wrongdoers capable of intentional choices (for example, punishing
1446:
offenders ability to carry out certain crimes. The death penalty does this in a permanent (and irrevocable) way. In some societies, people who stole have been punished by having their hands amputated.
910:. The last could include such measures as isolation, in order to prevent the wrongdoer's having contact with potential victims, or the removal of a hand in order to make theft more difficult.
1156:
workers with mutations that makes them fertile laying eggs only when other honey bees are not observing them, and that the few that are caught in the act are killed. This is corroborated by
1449:
Crewe however, has pointed out that for incapacitation of an offender to work, it must be the case that the offender would have committed a crime had they not been restricted in this way.
3191:
Raworth, John (1644). Buchanan, David (ed.). "The
Historie of the Reformation of the Church of Scotland Containing Five Books, Together with Some Treatises Conducing to the History": 358.
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Some people think that punishment as a whole is unhelpful and even harmful to the people that it is used against. Detractors argue that punishment is simply wrong, of the same design as "
1395:
There are many possible reasons that might be given to justify or explain why someone ought to be punished; here follows a broad outline of typical, possibly conflicting, justifications.
1534:
Punishment can be explained by positive prevention theory to use the criminal justice system to teach people what are the social norms for what is correct, and acts as a reinforcement.
1185:
to such selective punishment. Certain scientists argue that this disproves the notion of humans having a biological feeling of intentional transgressions deserving to be punished.
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proving that a few simple reactions well within mainstream views of the extremely limited intelligence of insects are sufficient to emulate the "political" behavior observed in
137:
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be sufficient that people would choose not to commit the crime rather than experience the punishment. The aim is to deter everyone in the community from committing offences.
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involve 'retribution', for 'retribution' implies doing something to someone in return for what he has done.... Punishment, therefore, must be retributive—by definition.
967:
refers to punishments in which physical pain is intended to be inflicted upon the transgressor. Punishments may be judged as fair or unfair in terms of their degree of
891:; in this context, the punishment process is euphemistically called "correctional process". Research into punishment often includes similar research into prevention.
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1039:
Various philosophers have presented definitions of punishment. Conditions commonly considered necessary properly to describe an action as punishment are that
2173:
Congress. House. Subcommittee on
Capital Markets, Insurance, United States. Committee on Financial Services. and Government Sponsored Enterprises (2003).
1148:
There are also arguments against the notion of punishment requiring intelligence, based on studies of punishment in very small-brained animals such as
772:
1748:
Bingham, Joseph (1712). "Volume 1 of A Scholastical History Of The Practice of the Church In Reference to the Administration of Baptism By Laymen".
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I, Lorge (1933). "The effect of the initial chances for right responses upon the efficacy of intensified reward and of intensified punishment".
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Especially applied to minor offenses, punishment may take the form of the offender "righting the wrong", or making restitution to the victim.
1960:
official, usually a judge. Informally, any organized group—most typically the family, in rearing children—may punish perceived wrongdoers.
3546:
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Punishments are applied for various purposes, most generally, to encourage and enforce proper behavior as defined by society or family.
2209:
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Criminal activities typically give a benefit to the offender and a loss to the victim. Punishment has been justified as a measure of
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that is deemed undesirable. It is, however, possible to distinguish between various different understandings of what punishment is.
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to the offense. Punishment can be an integral part of socialization, and punishing unwanted behavior is often part of a system of
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1320:), but sometimes they are general, with condemned sinners relegated to one or more chamber of Hell or to a level of suffering.
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future criminal activity by stigmatizing the offender. This is sometimes called the "Expressive Theory" of denunciation. The
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With the Addition of the Author's Life by the Translators: Dedicated to His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, Hugo Grotius
122:
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1627:
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M., A, Frankenhaeuser, Rissler (1970). "Effects of punishment on catecholamine release and efficiency of performance".
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Achieving a certain proportion of trust in the population can lead to self-governance without the need for punishment.
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the human (or other animal) to whom the loss is imposed should be deemed at least somewhat responsible for the offense.
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593:
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W, J.C, Furman, Masters (1980). "Affective consequences of social reinforcement, punishment, and neutral behavior".
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selected against if punishment served no function other than signals that could evolve to work by less risky means.
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the claim that punishment evolved as a strategy to deal with individuals capable of knowing what they are doing.
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333:
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Belief that an individual's ultimate punishment is being sent by God, the highest authority, to an existence in
1126:
922:
rather than punishment. In addition, the word "punishment" is used as a metaphor, as when a boxer experiences "
573:
553:
127:
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Lynch, James P.; Danner, Mona J.E. (1993). "Offense Seriousness Scaling: An Alternative to Scenario Methods".
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729:
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3477:"The Case against Punishment: Retribution, Crime Prevention, and the Law - 2004, Page III by Deirdre Golash"
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A Scholastical History of the Practice of the Church in Reference to the Administration of Baptism by Laymen
384:
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reference | Frank E. Hagan | 2010 | Introduction to Criminology: Theories, Methods, and Criminal Behavior
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Should the putative offender not be going to commit further crimes, then they have not been incapacitated
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31:
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question whether they themselves, or anyone else is deterred from committing the offence by punishment.
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273:
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107:
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The reasoning for punishment may be to condition a child to avoid self-endangerment, to impose social
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3514:
2099:
Amis, S. (1773). "Association for the Prosecution of Felons (WEST BROMWICH)". The British Library: 5.
1813:
The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man: Mental and Social Condition of Savages
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800:, commonly, is the imposition of painful consequences upon an individual or group, meted out by an
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97:
2846:
Allen, Elizabeth, et al. (1975). "Against 'Sociobiology'". New York Review of Books 22 (Nov. 13).
1885:
Navy Department, United States (1940). "Compilation of Court-martial Orders, 1916-1937, 1940-41".
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have administered punishments is to diminish the perceived need for retaliatory "street justice",
3632:
1568:
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578:
413:
219:
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1904:
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True Passive Obedience Restor'd in 1710. In a Dialogue Between a Country-man and a True Patriot
2015:
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reference | Anthony Walsh, Craig Hemmens | 2008 | Introduction to Criminology: A Text/Reader
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3636:
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K. M., Carlsmith (2006). "The roles of retribution and utility in determining punishment".
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2634:
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2172:
1788:
Casper, Johann Ludwig (1864). "A Handbook of the practice of forensic medicine v. 3 1864".
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521:
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268:
102:
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C., Mungan, Murat (2019). "Salience and the severity versus the certainty of punishment".
8:
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1255:, still apply quite rigid internal discipline, even with a judicial system of their own (
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reference | J. Mitchell Miller | 2009 | 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook
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1217:, pupils and other trainees may be punished by their educators or instructors (mainly
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847:—under which the social group is governed. Punishment may be self-inflicted as with
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516:
369:
239:
2867:"Observational Learning in Octopus vulgaris." Graziano Fiorito, Pietro Scotto. 1992.
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180:
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3232:
3223:
Falls, Margaret (April 1987). "Retribution, Reciprocity, and Respect for Persons".
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364:
310:
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Blackwood, William (1830). "The Southern Review. Vol. V. February and May, 1830".
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Fehr, Gätcher, Ernst, Simon (10 January 2002). "Altruistic punishment in humans".
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1978:
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1251:. Most hierarchical organizations, such as military and police forces, or even
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863:
460:
87:
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Dreber, Anna; Rand, David G.; Fudenberg, Drew; Nowak, Martin A. (March 2008).
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Punishment may also be applied on moral, especially religious, grounds, as in
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committed during their life. Sometimes these distinctions are specific, with
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Hester Prynne at the Stocks—an engraved illustration from an 1878 edition of
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256:
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2533:
T.H., G.A., Clutton-brock, Parker (1995). "Punishment in animal societies".
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for a supposed crime, by a person or body who claims the authority to do so.
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There are a large number of different understandings of what punishment is.
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or compensation orders are examples of this sort of penalty. In models of
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871:
809:
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185:
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G.T, Gwinn (1949). "The effects of punishment on acts motivated by fear".
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2316:
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1071:, punishment has a more restrictive and technical definition. Along with
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1302:, a place believed to exist in the after-life, typically corresponds to
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2946:
2929:"An Economic Analysis of the Criminal Law as Preference-Shaping Policy"
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1577:
The Case against Punishment: Retribution, Crime Prevention, and the Law
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987:
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3134:
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2511:
2498:
Church, R.M. (1963). "The varied effects of punishment on behavior".
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1271:
1213:; detainees risk further punishments for breaches of internal rules.
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Lippke, Richard (2001). "Criminal Offenders and Right Forfeiture".
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reference | Gennaro F. Vito, Jeffrey R. Maahs | 2015 | Criminology
2947:"Retribution, Crime Reduction and the Justification of Punishment"
2178:. Purdue University: Committee on Financial Services. p. 50.
1247:. Employees can still be subject to a contractual form of fine or
1243:, domestic and other servants were subject to punishment by their
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How the Body Shapes the Way We Think: A New View of Intelligence
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Punishments differ in their degree of severity, and may include
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67:
3515:"Punishment in the workplace creates undesirable side effects"
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and violates the law or rules by which the group is governed.
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J. Robert Lilly, Francis T. Cullen, Richard A. Ball (2014).
2822:, Rolf Pfeifer, Josh Bongard, foreword by Rodney Brooks. 2006
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880:
855:
in the religious setting, but is most often a form of social
835:, to protect against future harms (in particular, those from
428:
209:
2060:
Kleining, John (October 1972). "R.S. Peters on Punishment".
1125:, leading evolutionary biologists to conclude that it is an
2886:
Lyman Julius Nash, Wisconsin (1919). "Wisconsin Statutes".
2836:
Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future
2244:"Incapacitation and just deserts as motives for punishment"
1834:
Lee Hansen, Marcus (1918). "Old Fort Snelling, 1819-1858".
1299:
1279:
950:
3448:. the University of California: S. H. Parker. p. 149.
1545:
Some critics of the education and denunciation model cite
1310:
suffering for each sin committed (see for example Plato's
1303:
875:
840:
2689:
979:
or behavioral modification which also includes rewards.
883:, particularly as it applies to imprisonment, is called
1887:
Compilation of Court-martial Orders, 1916-1937, 1940-41
1143:
998:
3555:
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Legal Punishment
2135:. Switzerland: Oxford University Press. pp. xiii.
1340:
Seriousness of a crime; punishment that fits the crime
1898:
1896:
3444:
Edgeworth, Edgeworth, Maria, Richard Lovell (1825).
3443:
3180:. Michigan State University: William Blackwood: 871.
3105:
Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Criminology
3075:
Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Criminology
3048:
Criminological Theories: Introduction and Evaluation
1972:
1970:
1968:
1777:. D. Brown..., T. Ward..., and W. Meares, 1715: 524.
3446:
Works of Maria Edgeworth: Practical education. 1825
1542:was a method for carrying out public denunciation.
1043:
it is imposed by an authority (single or multiple),
3550:. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 653.
3343:"Theory, Sources, and Limitations of Criminal Law"
3117:
2402:
2242:J.M.,K.M, P.H., Darley, Catsman, Robinson (2000).
1893:
1384:
27:Imposition of an undesirable or unpleasant outcome
3103:Crewe, D. (2021). "Punitiveness and Resentment".
2885:
2598:Mary Stohr; Anthony Walsh; Craig Hemmens (2008).
2216:. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Archived from
2146:Mary Stohr; Anthony Walsh; Craig Hemmens (2008).
1965:
1946:. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Archived from
1084:punishment") or removal of a pleasant stimulus ("
3743:
3073:Crewe, D (2021). "Punitiveness and Resentment".
1093:it is not considered punishment. There is some
3363:Criminological Theory: Context and Consequences
3087:
1884:
1790:A Handbook of the Practice of Forensic Medicine
1373:is generally considered to be a crime of "high
1046:it involves some loss to the supposed offender,
3118:Sir William Draper, Junius (1772). "Lettres".
2394:
2241:
2139:
1838:. State Historical Society of Iowa, 1918: 124.
1737:, C. Ewer and T. Bedlington, 1824, p. 157
3390:"Thom Brooks on Unified Theory of Punishment"
3297:. The British Library: S. Popping. p. 8.
3060:"What's the Best Way to Discipline My Child?"
2755:Battu, Balaraju; Rahwan, Talal (2023-01-21).
2624:
2400:
2055:
2053:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1513:
766:
3687:
3564:
3458:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2675:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2583:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2456:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2386:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2337:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2280:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1426:Some punishment includes work to reform and
2975:
2754:
2210:"Justification for punishment (Punishment)"
1571:". Critics argue that punishment is simply
3090:An Introduction to Life-Course Criminology
2876:Aliens of the deep sea, documentary. 2011.
2532:
2409:(7th revised ed.). Cengage Learning.
2203:
2201:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2050:
1999:
1833:
1623:Capital and corporal punishment in Judaism
1602:Destructiveness to thinking and betterment
812:—as a deterrent to a particular action or
773:
759:
3601:
3471:
3469:
3268:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
3171:
2905:Doing Justice – The Choice of Punishments
2857:Twelve misunderstandings of kin selection
2796:
2731:
2354:International Review of Law and Economics
1869:
1121:; it has been observed in all species of
3729:"The Moral Permissibility of Punishment"
3512:
2133:Punishment, Communication, and Community
2059:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1517:
1327:
1323:
1274:with a religious police (as in a strict
1018:
1005:
997:
986:
862:The unpleasant imposition may include a
784:
3292:
3190:
2935:, Feb 1990, Vol. 1, Kenneth Dau-Schmidt
2207:
2192:
1937:
1766:
1747:
1731:
1575:. Professor Deirdre Golash, author of
1188:
14:
3744:
3610:
3466:
2497:
2429:
2405:Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials
2062:British Journal of Educational Studies
2020:British Journal of Educational Studies
2014:
1977:Hugo, Adam Bedau (February 19, 2010).
1903:Hugo, Adam Bedau (February 19, 2010).
1787:
1643:List of people executed for witchcraft
1286:) or (though not a true theocracy) by
1176:for murder while not punishing lethal
894:Justifications for punishment include
3265:
3222:
3102:
3072:
2944:
2294:
1925:
1633:List of methods of capital punishment
1293:
1270:(which is voluntary) or imposed in a
3631:
3586:"Is restorative justice punishment?"
3583:
3513:Milbourn, Gene Jr. (November 1996).
2130:
2098:
1976:
1902:
1854:"Is restorative justice punishment?"
1851:
1144:Examples against sociobiological use
3734:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3720:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3408:
2978:Journal of Quantitative Criminology
2969:
2208:McAnany, Patrick D. (August 2010).
1983:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1938:McAnany, Patrick D. (August 2010).
1909:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1628:List of capital crimes in the Torah
1104:
1049:it is in response to an offense and
823:(in particular, in the contexts of
24:
3646:The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
3411:Journal of Experimental Psychology
3328:"A New Kind of Criminal Justice",
2888:Legislative Reference Bureau, 1919
2473:Journal of Experimental Psychology
2351:
1369:of a crime have been developed. A
25:
3778:
3707:
3132:
3088:Carlson, C.; Sarnecki, J (2015).
2470:
1905:"Punishment, Crime and the State"
1806:
1638:List of people burned as heretics
1553:
1434:
1415:
3503:, Kurt Fischer, Christina Hinton
2757:"Cooperation without punishment"
2018:(1966). "Ethics and Education".
1056:
1034:
937:, deprivations of privileges or
128:Risk & actuarial criminology
51:
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2951:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
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2092:
1648:Religion and capital punishment
1385:Possible reasons for punishment
1180:) is subject to criticism from
1109:Punishment is sometimes called
1878:
1852:Gade, Christian B. N. (2020).
1827:
1800:
1781:
1760:
1741:
1725:
1486:
1456:
1164:. The authors argue that this
1127:evolutionarily stable strategy
1088:punishment"). Extra chores or
982:
13:
1:
3590:Conflict Resolution Quarterly
3532:
2074:10.1080/00071005.1972.9973352
1858:Conflict Resolution Quarterly
1398:
1129:, selected because it favors
1023:Punishment of an offender in
887:, or, often in modern texts,
3613:Journal of Social Philosophy
1718:
1562:
1197:are punished judicially, by
7:
3692:. Hants, England: Ashgate.
3135:"Punishment as retribution"
2907:, A Vonhirsch, 1976, p. 220
1610:
32:Punishment (disambiguation)
10:
3783:
3690:Punishment and retribution
3663:10.4135/9781412965811.n263
3280:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.06.007
2781:10.1038/s41598-023-28372-y
2601:Corrections: A Text/Reader
2444:10.1037/0012-1649.16.2.100
2366:10.1016/j.irle.2019.01.002
2149:Corrections: A Text/Reader
1796:. New Sydenham Society: 2.
1732:Edwards, Jonathan (1824),
1588:Golash also writes about
1514:Education and denunciation
1490:
1460:
1438:
1419:
1388:
1353:
1343:
1060:
853:mortification of the flesh
804:—in contexts ranging from
789:The old village stocks in
108:Expressive function of law
29:
3501:Mind, Brain and Education
3332:, October 25, 2009, p. 6.
2855:Dawkins, Richard (1979).
1441:Incapacitation (penology)
1422:Rehabilitation (penology)
3584:Gade, Christian (2020).
3046:Ronald L. Akers (2013).
2432:Developmental Psychology
1680:Extrajudicial punishment
1526:(early 16th century) in
994:is a feature of prisons.
98:Differential association
3637:"Retribution for Crime"
3625:10.1111/0047-2786.00080
3569:. New York: Routledge.
3547:Encyclopædia Britannica
2260:10.1023/A:1005552203727
2016:Peters, Richard Stanley
1768:English..., Volume 2".
1569:two wrongs make a right
1063:Punishment (psychology)
839:), and to maintain the
158:Symbolic interactionism
3204:Cite journal requires
2692:"Winners don't punish"
2401:Diana Kendall (2009).
2248:Law and Human Behavior
2131:Duff, Anthony (2001).
2112:Cite journal requires
1979:"Theory of Punishment"
1599:
1586:
1559:protection of rights.
1531:
1336:
1028:
1016:
1003:
995:
794:
791:Chapeltown, Lancashire
138:Social disorganization
3688:Zaibert, Leo (2006).
3649:. Thousand Oaks, CA:
3565:Brooks, Thom (2012).
1809:"Laws. In J. Lubbock"
1756:. Knaplock, 1712: 25.
1696:Nulla poena sine lege
1594:
1581:
1521:
1367:degree of seriousness
1331:
1324:History and rationale
1118:moralistic aggression
1075:it belongs under the
1022:
1009:
1001:
990:
788:
647:Biosocial criminology
354:Uniform Crime Reports
73:Biosocial criminology
3657:. pp. 429–431.
3311:. La-articles.org.uk
3293:Popping, S. (1710).
2945:David, Wood (2002).
2500:Psychological Review
1189:Scope of application
1158:computer simulations
1152:. There is proof of
1131:cooperative behavior
1077:operant conditioning
949:, the infliction of
825:compulsory education
522:Solitary confinement
30:For other uses, see
3174:The Southern Review
3139:Theory and Decision
3133:D, Wittman (1974).
2832:Friedrich Nietzsche
2773:2023NatSR..13.1213B
2716:10.1038/nature06723
2708:2008Natur.452..348D
2639:2002Natur.415..137F
2604:. Sage. p. 3.
2547:1995Natur.373..209C
2297:Psychopharmacologia
2152:. Sage. p. 2.
1807:J, Lubbock (1882).
1660:Corporal punishment
1503:restorative justice
1493:Restorative justice
1469:retributive justice
1463:Retributive justice
1346:Retributive justice
1207:custodial sentences
1203:corporal punishment
964:Corporal punishment
829:military discipline
712:Radical criminology
83:Collective efficacy
3541:"Punishment"
3237:10.1007/BF00142639
3225:Law and Philosophy
3151:10.1007/BF00136647
3062:. 5 November 2018.
2990:10.1007/BF01064464
2761:Scientific Reports
2309:10.1007/BF00403809
1836:Mid-America Series
1618:Capital punishment
1532:
1505:, victims take an
1337:
1333:U.S. incarceration
1294:Hell as punishment
1097:of punishment and
1029:
1017:
1013:The Scarlet Letter
1004:
1002:A modern jail cell
996:
795:
3762:Social philosophy
3603:10.1002/crq.21293
3576:978-0-415-85051-3
3120:Letters of Junius
2919:, Larry J. Siegel
2702:(7185): 348–351.
2633:(6868): 137–140.
2611:978-1-4129-3773-3
2541:(6511): 209–216.
2416:978-0-495-59862-6
2185:978-0-16-070942-5
2159:978-1-4129-3773-3
1871:10.1002/crq.21293
1821:10.1037/13470-010
1675:Discipline (BDSM)
1499:Community service
1317:The Divine Comedy
849:self-flagellation
843:—and respect for
783:
782:
529:
528:
466:Prisoners' rights
370:Positivist school
16:(Redirected from
3774:
3767:Criminal justice
3738:
3724:
3703:
3684:
3628:
3607:
3605:
3580:
3560:Etymology Online
3551:
3543:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3521:
3510:
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3498:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3479:. Archived from
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3449:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3423:10.1037/h0062431
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2555:10.1038/373209a0
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2512:10.1037/h0046499
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2485:10.1037/h0070228
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1702:Preventive state
1391:Criminal justice
1261:canonical courts
1235:Child discipline
1105:In socio-biology
914:considered only
806:child discipline
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365:Crime statistics
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196:Archibald Reiss
191:Cesare Lombroso
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175:Major theorists
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143:Social learning
123:Rational choice
113:Labeling theory
93:Criminalization
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3708:External links
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3699:978-0754623892
3698:
3685:
3672:978-1412965804
3671:
3655:Cato Institute
3641:Hamowy, Ronald
3629:
3608:
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1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1651:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1564:
1561:
1555:
1554:Unified theory
1552:
1515:
1512:
1491:Main article:
1488:
1485:
1461:Main article:
1458:
1455:
1439:Main article:
1436:
1435:Incapacitation
1433:
1420:Main article:
1417:
1416:Rehabilitation
1414:
1400:
1397:
1386:
1383:
1350:Eye for an eye
1341:
1338:
1325:
1322:
1295:
1292:
1190:
1187:
1145:
1142:
1123:social animals
1106:
1103:
1067:Introduced by
1061:Main article:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1036:
1033:
984:
981:
943:incarcerations
908:incapacitation
904:rehabilitation
781:
780:
778:
777:
770:
763:
755:
752:
751:
748:
747:
742:
737:
732:
726:
723:
722:
719:
718:
715:
714:
709:
704:
699:
697:Organizational
694:
689:
684:
679:
674:
669:
664:
659:
654:
649:
644:
639:
633:
630:
629:
626:
625:
622:
621:
620:
619:
614:
606:
601:
596:
591:
586:
581:
576:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
546:
540:
537:
536:
533:
532:
527:
526:
525:
524:
519:
514:
509:
507:Transformative
504:
499:
491:
490:
483:
482:
481:
480:
475:
473:Rehabilitation
470:
469:
468:
463:
461:Prisoner abuse
453:
452:
451:
446:
441:
431:
426:
424:Incapacitation
421:
416:
406:
401:
400:
397:
396:
393:
392:
387:
382:
377:
372:
367:
362:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
330:
327:
326:
323:
322:
319:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
260:
259:
249:
248:
247:
242:
234:
233:
232:
227:
222:
213:
207:
206:
203:
202:
199:
198:
193:
188:
183:
181:Émile Durkheim
177:
174:
173:
170:
169:
166:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
133:Social control
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
88:Crime analysis
85:
80:
78:Broken windows
75:
70:
64:
61:
60:
57:
56:
48:
47:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3779:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3736:
3735:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3711:
3701:
3695:
3691:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3647:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3582:
3578:
3572:
3568:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3549:
3548:
3542:
3537:
3536:
3516:
3509:
3502:
3497:
3483:on 2019-05-18
3482:
3478:
3472:
3470:
3461:
3455:
3447:
3440:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3417:(2): 260–69.
3416:
3412:
3405:
3391:
3385:
3379:
3375:
3370:
3364:
3358:
3344:
3338:
3331:
3325:
3310:
3309:"restitution"
3304:
3296:
3289:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3262:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3219:
3211:
3198:
3187:
3179:
3175:
3168:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3129:
3121:
3114:
3106:
3099:
3091:
3084:
3076:
3069:
3061:
3055:
3049:
3043:
3034:
3025:
3016:
3007:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2984:(3): 309–22.
2983:
2979:
2972:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2918:
2913:
2906:
2901:
2893:
2889:
2882:
2873:
2864:
2858:
2852:
2843:
2837:
2833:
2828:
2821:
2816:
2808:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2743:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2678:
2672:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2621:
2613:
2607:
2603:
2602:
2594:
2586:
2580:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2529:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2467:
2459:
2453:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2418:
2412:
2407:
2406:
2397:
2389:
2383:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2348:
2340:
2334:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2283:
2277:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2231:
2220:on 2017-10-19
2219:
2215:
2211:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2187:
2181:
2177:
2169:
2161:
2155:
2151:
2150:
2142:
2134:
2127:
2119:
2106:
2095:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2068:(3): 259–69.
2067:
2063:
2056:
2054:
2046:
2044:
2033:
2029:
2026:(3): 267–68.
2025:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1995:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1961:
1950:on 2017-10-19
1949:
1945:
1941:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1921:
1910:
1906:
1899:
1897:
1888:
1881:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1846:
1837:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1795:
1791:
1784:
1776:
1772:
1763:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1736:
1728:
1724:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1608:
1598:
1593:
1591:
1585:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1560:
1551:
1548:
1543:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1511:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1464:
1454:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1432:
1429:
1423:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1396:
1392:
1382:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1361:
1357:
1351:
1347:
1334:
1330:
1321:
1319:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1291:
1289:
1285:
1282:or under the
1281:
1277:
1276:Islamic state
1273:
1269:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1257:court martial
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1229:, tutors and
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1141:
1138:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1113:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1073:reinforcement
1070:
1064:
1057:In psychology
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1035:In philosophy
1032:
1026:
1021:
1015:
1014:
1008:
1000:
993:
989:
980:
978:
974:
970:
966:
965:
960:
959:death penalty
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
927:
925:
921:
917:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
892:
890:
886:
882:
877:
873:
869:
865:
860:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
837:violent crime
834:
831:), to defend
830:
826:
822:
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
792:
787:
776:
771:
769:
764:
762:
757:
756:
754:
753:
746:
743:
741:
740:Organizations
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
727:
721:
720:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
687:Environmental
685:
683:
680:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
660:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
643:
640:
638:
635:
634:
628:
627:
618:
615:
613:
610:
609:
607:
605:
604:Postmodernist
602:
600:
597:
595:
594:Neo-classical
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
569:Environmental
567:
565:
562:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
541:
535:
534:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
497:Participatory
495:
494:
493:
492:
488:
485:
484:
479:
476:
474:
471:
467:
464:
462:
459:
458:
457:
454:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
436:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
411:
410:
409:
404:
399:
398:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
360:
359:Crime mapping
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
331:
325:
324:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
306:Transnational
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
274:International
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
258:
255:
254:
253:
250:
246:
243:
241:
238:
237:
235:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
217:
215:
214:
211:
205:
204:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
178:
172:
171:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
65:
59:
58:
54:
50:
49:
46:
42:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3732:
3718:
3715:"Punishment"
3689:
3645:
3619:(1): 78–89.
3616:
3612:
3593:
3589:
3566:
3545:
3520:November 21,
3518:. Retrieved
3508:
3500:
3496:
3485:. Retrieved
3481:the original
3445:
3439:
3414:
3410:
3404:
3393:. Retrieved
3384:
3377:
3369:
3362:
3357:
3346:. Retrieved
3337:
3329:
3324:
3313:. Retrieved
3303:
3294:
3288:
3271:
3267:
3261:
3231:(1): 25–51.
3228:
3224:
3218:
3197:cite journal
3186:
3177:
3173:
3167:
3142:
3138:
3128:
3119:
3113:
3107:(13): 64–91.
3104:
3098:
3089:
3083:
3077:(13): 64–91.
3074:
3068:
3054:
3047:
3042:
3033:
3024:
3015:
3006:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2954:
2950:
2940:
2932:
2924:
2916:
2912:
2904:
2900:
2894:: 2807–2808.
2891:
2887:
2881:
2872:
2863:
2856:
2851:
2842:
2835:
2827:
2819:
2815:
2764:
2760:
2750:
2699:
2695:
2685:
2671:cite journal
2630:
2626:
2620:
2600:
2593:
2579:cite journal
2538:
2534:
2528:
2503:
2499:
2493:
2476:
2472:
2466:
2452:cite journal
2435:
2431:
2425:
2404:
2396:
2382:cite journal
2357:
2353:
2347:
2333:cite journal
2300:
2296:
2290:
2276:cite journal
2251:
2247:
2237:
2228:
2222:. Retrieved
2218:the original
2213:
2174:
2168:
2148:
2141:
2132:
2126:
2105:cite journal
2094:
2085:
2065:
2061:
2042:
2035:
2023:
2019:
1992:
1986:. Retrieved
1982:
1958:
1952:. Retrieved
1948:the original
1943:
1940:"Punishment"
1918:
1912:. Retrieved
1908:
1886:
1880:
1861:
1857:
1835:
1829:
1812:
1802:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1774:
1769:
1762:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1733:
1727:
1694:
1690:Intimidation
1605:
1595:
1590:imprisonment
1587:
1582:
1576:
1566:
1557:
1547:evolutionary
1544:
1536:
1533:
1506:
1496:
1466:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1428:rehabilitate
1425:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1394:
1363:
1315:
1308:damned souls
1297:
1265:
1239:
1192:
1170:
1147:
1139:
1135:
1116:
1110:
1108:
1085:
1081:
1069:B.F. Skinner
1066:
1038:
1030:
1011:
962:
928:
923:
912:
893:
861:
818:
810:criminal law
797:
796:
692:Experimental
414:Denunciation
380:Quantitative
290:Public-order
245:White-collar
186:Hans Eysenck
3757:Punishments
3378:Criminology
3374:Tim Newburn
2917:Criminology
2767:(1): 1213.
1815:: 443–480.
1665:Devaluation
1487:Restoration
1481:vigilantism
1457:Retribution
1379:misdemeanor
1377:", while a
1375:seriousness
1360:Misdemeanor
1314:or Dante's
1288:Inquisition
1182:coevolution
1112:retaliatory
992:Barbed wire
983:Definitions
969:reciprocity
896:retribution
889:corrections
872:confinement
845:rule of law
682:Development
657:Criminology
579:Integrative
517:Utilitarian
512:Retributive
502:Restorative
489:in penology
375:Qualitative
349:Ethnography
334:Comparative
240:Blue-collar
163:Victimology
118:Psychopathy
41:Criminology
3752:Punishment
3746:Categories
3633:Mack, Eric
3567:Punishment
3533:References
3487:2017-09-10
3395:2014-09-03
3348:2011-09-26
3315:2012-08-27
3122:: 303–305.
2360:: 95–100.
2224:2010-09-16
1988:2010-08-04
1954:2010-08-04
1914:2010-08-04
1712:Telishment
1670:Discipline
1477:blood feud
1399:Deterrence
1389:See also:
1354:See also:
1312:myth of Er
1162:great apes
1095:conflation
955:amputation
935:reprimands
924:punishment
900:deterrence
821:conformity
798:Punishment
677:Demography
599:Positivist
478:Recidivism
419:Deterrence
311:Victimless
153:Subculture
3681:750831024
3454:cite book
3253:144282576
3159:153961464
2998:144528020
2789:2045-2322
2724:1476-4687
2374:147798726
1719:Citations
1707:Suffering
1563:Criticism
1530:, Germany
1473:societies
1272:theocracy
1223:guardians
1195:Criminals
1166:falsifies
1154:honey bee
1099:aversives
947:ostracism
941:, fines,
931:sanctions
802:authority
793:, England
702:Political
631:Subfields
554:Classical
544:Anarchist
439:abolition
339:Profiling
284:Political
279:Organized
264:Corporate
252:Cold case
208:Types of
18:Punishing
3635:(2008).
3431:18125723
2834:(1886).
2807:36681708
2742:18354481
2655:11805825
2571:21638607
2520:14049776
2268:11105478
1655:Coercion
1611:See also
1579:, says:
1381:is not.
1335:timeline
1253:churches
1249:demotion
1227:teachers
1215:Children
1209:such as
1090:spanking
1086:negative
1082:positive
977:pedagogy
957:and the
933:such as
885:penology
857:coercion
814:behavior
735:Journals
662:Critical
652:Conflict
637:American
608:Realism
574:Feminist
564:Critical
559:Conflict
456:Prisoner
403:Penology
269:Juvenile
220:Humanity
216:Against
103:Deviance
45:penology
3643:(ed.).
3245:3504678
2963:3600555
2798:9867775
2769:Bibcode
2733:2292414
2704:Bibcode
2663:4310962
2635:Bibcode
2563:7816134
2543:Bibcode
2325:9187358
2317:5522998
2176:5, 2003
2082:3120772
2032:3120772
1573:revenge
1540:pillory
1524:pillory
1522:Gothic
1284:Taliban
1268:penance
1245:masters
1231:coaches
1219:parents
1178:viruses
1150:insects
1025:Hungary
939:liberty
916:revenge
868:penalty
667:Culture
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