1894:(2001). They consider the government and a non-governmental organization (NGO) who can both make investments to provide a public good. Besley and Ghatak argue that the party who has a larger valuation of the public good should be the owner, regardless of whether the government or the NGO has a better investment technology. This result contrasts with the case of private goods studied by Hart (1995), where the party with the better investment technology should be the owner. However, it has been shown that the investment technology may matter also in the public-good case when a party is indispensable or when there are bargaining frictions between the government and the NGO. Halonen-Akatwijuka and Pafilis (2020) have demonstrated that Besley and Ghatak's results are not robust when there is a long-term relationship, such that the parties interact repeatedly. Moreover, Schmitz (2021) has shown that when the parties have private information about their valuations of the public good, then the investment technology can be an important determinant of the optimal ownership structure.
1034:, an economist from Sweden in 1919. His idea was to tax individuals, for the provision of a public good, according to the marginal benefit they receive. Public goods are costly and eventually someone needs to pay the cost. It is difficult to determine how much each person should pay. So, Lindahl developed a theory of how the expense of public utilities needs to be settled. His argument was that people would pay for the public goods according to the way they benefit from the good. The more a person benefits from these goods, the higher the amount they pay. People are more willing to pay for goods that they value. Taxes are needed to fund public goods and people are willing to bear the burden of taxes. Additionally, the theory dwells on people's willingness to pay for the public good. From the fact that public goods are paid through taxation according to the Lindahl idea, the basic duty of the organization that should provide the people with this services and products is the government.
1467:
1762:
killed during the course of his or her military service. On the other hand, the free rider knows that he or she cannot be excluded from the benefits of national defense, regardless of whether he or she contributes to it. There is also no way that these benefits can be split up and distributed as individual parcels to people. The free rider would not voluntarily exert any extra effort, unless there is some inherent pleasure or material reward for doing so (for example, money paid by the government, as with an all-volunteer army or
40:
1358:
definition: a public good is a good whose consumption does not reduce any other's consumption of that good. Public goods also incorporate private goods, which makes it challenging to define what is private or public. For instance, you may think that the community soccer field is a public good. However, you need to bring your own cleats and ball to be able to play. There is also a rental fee that you would have to pay for you to be able to occupy that space. It is a mixed case of public and private goods.
59:
803:
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1781:, an inventor of a new product may benefit all of society, but hardly anyone is willing to pay for the invention if they can benefit from it for free. In the case of an information good, however, because of its characteristics of non-excludability and also because of almost zero reproduction costs, commoditization is difficult and not always efficient even from a neoclassical economic point of view.
878:, such as wild fish stocks in the ocean, which is non-excludable but rivalrous to a certain degree. If too many fish were harvested, the stocks would deplete, limiting the access of fish for others. A public good must be valuable to more than one user, otherwise, its simultaneous availability to more than one person would be economically irrelevant.
1806:. One person is prepared to pay up to $ 200 for its use, while the other is willing to pay up to $ 100. The total value to the two individuals of having the park is $ 300. If it can be produced for $ 225, there is a $ 75 surplus to maintaining the park, since it provides services that the community values at $ 300 at a cost of only $ 225.
1728:. An example is that some firms in a particular industry will choose not to participate in a lobby whose purpose is to affect government policies that could benefit the industry, under the assumption that there are enough participants to result in a favourable outcome without them. The free rider problem is also a form of
1195:) only to a certain extent or only some of the time. For instance, some aspects of cybersecurity, such as threat intelligence and vulnerability information sharing, collective response to cyber-attacks, the integrity of elections, and critical infrastructure protection, have the characteristics of impure public goods.
1854:
said city. There is also a correlation of benefit and cost that you are now a part of. You are benefiting by not having to walk to your destination and taking a bus instead. However, others might prefer to walk so they do not become a part of the problem, which is pollution due to gas given out by auto mobiles.
1245:: final goods that are intrinsically private but that are produced by the individual consumer by means of private and public good inputs. The benefits enjoyed from such a good for any one individual may depend on the consumption of others, as in the cases of a crowded road or a congested national park.
1697:
are another example. The government's ability to collect, process and provide high-quality information to guide decision-making at all levels has been strongly advanced by technological progress. On the other hand, a public good's status may change over time. Technological progress can significantly
1837:
The basic theory of public goods as discussed above begins with situations where the level of a public good (e.g., quality of the air) is equally experienced by everyone. However, in many important situations of interest, the incidence of benefits and costs is not so simple. For example, when people
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Technological progress can create new public goods. The most simple examples are street lights, which are relatively recent inventions (by historical standards). One person's enjoyment of them does not detract from other persons' enjoyment, and it currently would be prohibitively expensive to charge
1420:
Graphically, non-rivalry means that if each of several individuals has a demand curve for a public good, then the individual demand curves are summed vertically to get the aggregate demand curve for the public good. This is in contrast to the procedure for deriving the aggregate demand for a private
1152:
In the
Weisbrod model nonprofit organizations satisfy a demand for public goods, which is left unfilled by government provision. The government satisfies the demand of the median voters and therefore provides a level of the public good less than some citizens'-with a level of demand greater than the
1099:
If thereâs a chance that the contract will fail, a refund bonus incentivizes people to participate in the mechanism, making the all-pay equilibrium more likely. This comes with the drawback that the mechanism designer must pay the participants in some cases (e.g. when the contract fails), which is a
1080:
have a simple and intuitive appeal. Each funder agrees to spend a certain amount towards a public good conditional on the total funding being sufficient to produce the good. If not everyone agrees to the terms, then no money is spent on the project. Donors can feel assured that their money will only
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Quadratic funding has a close theoretical link with the VCG mechanism, and like VCG, it requires a subsidy in order to induce incentive compatibility and efficiency. Both mechanisms also fall prone to collusion between players and sybil attacks. However, in contrast to VCG, contributors only have to
1853:
An example of locally public good that could help everyone, even ones not from the neighborhood, is a bus. Let's say you are a college student who is visiting their friend who goes to school in another city. You get to benefit from this services just like everyone that resides and goes to school in
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Use of the term âdigital public goodâ appears as early as April, 2017 when
Nicholas Gruen wrote Building the Public Goods of the Twenty-First Century, and has gained popularity with the growing recognition of the potential for new technologies to be implemented at scale to effectively serve people.
1123:
They work by using an external source of funding to provide a lottery prize. Individual âdonorsâ buy lottery tickets for a chance to receive the cash prize, knowing that ticket sales will be spent towards the public good. A winner is selected randomly from one of the tickets and the winner receives
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The free-riding problem is even more complicated than it was thought to be until recently. Any time non-excludability results in failure to pay the true marginal value (often called the "demand revelation problem"), it will also result in failure to generate proper income levels, since households
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thinks about exerting some extra effort to defend the nation. The benefits to the individual of this effort would be very low, since the benefits would be distributed among all of the millions of other people in the country. There is also a very high possibility that he or she could get injured or
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have characteristics of public goods. For example, a poem can be read by many people without reducing the consumption of that good by others; in this sense, it is non-rivalrous. Similarly, the information in most patents can be used by any party without reducing consumption of that good by others.
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The main issue with the VCG mechanism is that it requires a very large amount of information from each user. Participants may not have a detailed sense of their utility function with respect to different funding levels. Compare this with other mechanisms that only require users to provide a single
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Lotteries are approximately efficient public goods funding mechanisms and the level of funding approaches the optimal level as the prize grows. However, in the limit of large populations, contributions from the lottery mechanism converge to that of voluntary contributions and should fall to zero.
1119:
have historically been used as a means to finance public goods. Morgan initiated the first formal study of lotteries as a public goods funding mechanism. Since then, lotteries have undergone extensive theoretical and experimental research. Combined with their historical success, lotteries are a
1740:
which are not remunerated. If private organizations do not reap all the benefits of a public good which they have produced, their incentives to produce it voluntarily might be insufficient. Consumers can take advantage of public goods without contributing sufficiently to their creation. This is
884:
may be used to produce public goods or services that are "...typically provided on a large scale to many consumers." Similarly, using capital goods to produce public goods may result in the creation of new capital goods. In some cases, public goods or services are considered "...insufficiently
1357:
both encourage the creation of such non-rival goods by providing temporary monopolies, or, in the terminology of public goods, providing a legal mechanism to enforce excludability for a limited period of time. For public goods, the "lost revenue" of the producer of the good is not part of the
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provision, networks that are more dense or close-knit in terms of how much people can benefit each other have more scope for improving on an inefficient status quo. On the other hand, voluntary provision is typically below the efficient level, and equilibrium outcomes tend to involve strong
1107:
There have been many variations on the idea of conditional donations towards a public good. For example, the
Conditional Contributions Mechanism allows donors to make variable sized commitments to fund the project conditional on the total amount committed. Similarly, the Binary Conditional
1457:
A digital public good is defined by the UN Secretary-General's
Roadmap for Digital Cooperation, as: âopen source software, open data, open AI models, open standards and open content that adhere to privacy and other applicable laws and best practices, do no harm, and help attain the SDGs.â
1745:, or occasionally, the "easy rider problem". If too many consumers decide to "free-ride", private costs exceed private benefits and the incentive to provide the good or service through the market disappears. The market thus fails to provide a good or service for which there is a need.
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where the mechanism designer gives every contributor a refund bonus if the contract fails. For example, in addition to returning their contributions, the mechanism designer might give all contributors an additional $ 5 if the total donations arenât sufficient to support the project.
1045:(VCG) are one of the best-studied procedures for funding public goods. VCG encompasses a wide class of similar mechanisms, but most work focuses on the Clarke Pivot Rule which ensures that all individuals pay into the public good and that the mechanism is individually rational.
1348:
provide a clear example of information goods that are public goods, since they are created to be non-excludable. Creative works may be excludable in some circumstances, however: the individual who wrote the poem may decline to share it with others by not publishing it.
1798:
that describes how much of that private good it costs to produce an incremental unit of the public good. This contrasts to the social optimality condition of private goods, which equates each consumer's valuation of the private good to its marginal cost of production.
1127:
Like the other mechanisms, this approach requires subsidies in the form of a lottery prize in order to function. It can be shown that altruistic donors can generate more funding for the good by donating towards the lottery prize rather than buying tickets directly.
1373:
mean that there are a general category of goods that share the same economic characteristics, manifest the same dysfunctions, and that may thus benefit from pretty similar corrective solutions...there is merely an infinite series of particular problems (some of
1789:
The socially optimal provision of a public good in a society occurs when the sum of the marginal valuations of the public good (taken across all individuals) is equal to the marginal cost of providing that public good. These marginal valuations are, formally,
1103:
Zubrickas proposed a simple modification of dominant assurance contracts where people are given a refund bonus proportional to the amount they offered to donate, this incentivizes larger contributions than the fixed refund from
Tabarrokâs original proposal.
1338:
The definition of non-excludability states that it is impossible to exclude individuals from consumption. Technology now allows radio or TV broadcasts to be encrypted such that persons without a special decoder are excluded from the broadcast. Many forms of
1405:" for a public good that is non-rivalrous and non-excludable throughout the whole world, as opposed to a public good that exists in just one national area. Knowledge has been argued as an example of a global public good, but also as a commons, the
1153:
median voter's-desire. This unfilled demand for the public good is satisfied by nonprofit organizations. These nonprofit organizations are financed by the donations of citizens who want to increase the output of the public good.
967:
problem, in which people not paying for the good may continue to access it. Thus, the good may be under-produced, overused or degraded. Public goods may also become subject to restrictions on access and may then be considered to be
1672:
is a standard example of a public good, since it is difficult to exclude ships from using its services. No ship's use detracts from that of others, but since most of the benefit of a lighthouse accrues to ships using particular
1087:
Assurance contracts can be used for non-monetary coordination as well, for example, Free State
Project obtained mutual commitments for 20,000 individuals to move to New Hampshire in a bid to influence the politics of the state.
1203:: The opposite of a public good which does not possess these properties. A loaf of bread, for example, is a private good; its owner can exclude others from using it, and once it has been consumed, it cannot be used by others.
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submit a single contribution â the total contribution to the public good is the sum of the square roots of individual contributions. It can be proved that there is always a deficit that the mechanism designer must pay.
3215:
1754:: purely rational and also purely selfishâextremely individualistic, considering only those benefits and costs that directly affect him or her. Public goods give such a person an incentive to be a free rider.
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contribution amount. This, among other issues, has prevented the use of VCG mechanisms in practice. However, it is still possible that VCG mechanisms could be adopted among a set of sophisticated actors.
1081:
be spent if there is sufficient support for the public good. Assurance contracts work particularly well with smaller groups of easily identifiable participants, especially when the game can be repeated.
1660:
Law enforcement, streets, libraries, museums, and education are commonly misclassified as public goods, but they are technically classified in economic terms as quasi-public goods because excludability
874:. Use by one person neither prevents access by other people, nor does it reduce availability to others. Therefore, the good can be used simultaneously by more than one person. This is in contrast to a
885:
profitable to be provided by the private sector.... (and), in the absence of government provision, these goods or services would be produced in relatively small quantities or, perhaps, not at all."
1813:, a situation already acknowledged in Wicksell (1896). Samuelson emphasized that this poses problems for the efficient provision of public goods in practice and the assessment of an efficient
1108:
Contributions
Mechanism allows users to condition their donation on the number of unique funders. Extensions such as the Street Performer Protocol consider time-limited spending commitments.
1770:
will not give up valuable leisure if they cannot individually increment a good. This implies that, for public goods without strong special interest support, under-provision is likely since
1657:, require special governmental incentives to be produced, but cannot be classified as public goods since they do not fulfill the above requirements (non-excludable and non-rivalrous.)
1223:', where the unfettered access to a good sometimes results in the overconsumption and thus depletion of that resource. For example, it is so difficult to enforce restrictions on
2054:
1774:
is being conducted at the wrong income levels, and all of the un-generated income would have been spent on the public good, apart from general equilibrium considerations.
1014:
which all enjoy in common in the sense that each individual's consumption of such a good leads to no subtractions from any other individual's consumption of that good...
1378:, some of underproduction, and so on), each with a particular solution that cannot be deduced from the theory, but that instead would depend on local empirical factors.
639:
1397:
The theoretical concept of public goods does not distinguish geographic region in regards to how a good may be produced or consumed. However, some theorists, such as
1084:
Several crowdfunding platforms such as
Kickstarter and IndieGoGo have used assurance contracts to support various projects (though not all of them are public goods).
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2121:
Knowledge is a pure public good: once something is known, that knowledge can be used by anyone, and its use by any one person docs not preclude its use by others.
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987:
There is a good deal of debate and literature on how to measure the significance of public goods problems in an economy, and to identify the best remedies.
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One technique to reduce collusion is to identify groups of contributors that will likely coordinate and lower the subsidy going to their preferred causes.
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1177:: when a good exhibits the two traits, non-rivalry and non-excludability, it is referred to as the pure public good. Pure public goods are rare.
1171:
that is, it is impossible to exclude any individuals from consuming the good. Pay walls and memberships are common ways to create excludability.
928:. This includes physical book literature, but also media, pictures and videos. For instance, knowledge is well shared globally. Information about
43:
Aids to navigation are often used as an example of a public good, as they benefit all maritime users, but no one can be excluded from using them.
2051:
Tatom, J. A. (1991). Should government spending on capital goods be raised?. Federal
Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, 73(3), 3â15. Accessed at
998:
is usually credited as the economist who articulated the modern theory of public goods in a mathematical formalism, building on earlier work of
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is common knowledge that every individual in the society can get without necessarily preventing others access. Also, sharing and interpreting
1817:
to finance public goods, because individuals have incentives to underreport how much they value public goods. Subsequent work, especially in
1825:
developed how valuations and costs could actually be elicited in practical conditions of incomplete information, using devices such as the
1424:
Some writers have used the term "public good" to refer only to non-excludable "pure public goods" and refer to excludable public goods as "
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keep an office clean or monitor a neighborhood for signs of trouble, the benefits of that effort accrue to some people (those in their
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1386:. Although it is often the case that government is involved in producing public goods, this is not always true. Public goods may be
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Many mechanisms have been proposed to achieve efficient public goods provision in various settings and under various assumptions.
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was turned into a mechanism for public goods funding by
Buterin, Hitzig, and Weyl and is now referred to as quadratic funding.
1042:
2621:"The Binary Conditional Contribution Mechanism for public good provision in dynamic settings â Theory and experimental evidence"
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Hardin, Russell, "The Free Rider Problem", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
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3415:"A Note on the Valuation of Collective Goods: Overlooked Input Market Free Riding for Non-Individually Incrementable Goods
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1829:. Thus, deeper analysis of problems of public goods motivated much work that is at the heart of modern economic theory.
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Digital technologies have also been identified by countries, NGOs and private sector entities as a means to achieve the
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For an example, consider a community of just two consumers and the government is considering whether or not to build a
3166:(2016) Competition and Strategy in Higher Education: Managing Complexity and Uncertainty, Business Horizons, Volume 59
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specialization, with a few individuals contributing heavily and their neighbors free-riding on those contributions.
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are also common social goods. Collective goods that are spread all over the face of the Earth may be referred to as
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Public goods provision is in most cases part of governmental activities. In the introductory section of his book,
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1989:
Oakland, W. H. (1987). Theory of public goods. In Handbook of public economics (Vol. 2, pp. 485â535). Elsevier.
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1882:(1995) have emphasized that ownership matters for investment incentives when contracts are incomplete. The
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Public goods are not restricted to human beings. It is one aspect of the study of cooperation in biology.
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Recently, economists have developed the theory of local public goods with overlapping neighborhoods, or
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accessible by all while one's usage of the product does not affect the availability for subsequent use.
1057:
Quadratic funding (QF) is one of the newest innovations in public goods funding mechanisms. The idea of
1010:, he defined a public good, or as he called it in the paper a "collective consumption good", as follows:
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Halonen-Akatwijuka, Maija (2012). "Nature of human capital, technology and ownership of public goods".
1957:
3211:"Cellâcell contacts confine public goods diffusion inside Pseudomonas aeruginosa clonal microcolonies"
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available, or they may be produced by private individuals, by firms, or by non-state groups, called
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the entire lottery prize. All lottery proceeds from ticket sales are spent towards the public good.
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1970:, a mechanism to allocate funding for the production of public goods based on democratic principles
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Besley, Timothy; Ghatak, Maitreesh (2001). "Government Versus Private Ownership of Public Goods".
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3031:. The Cournot Centre for Economic Studies. Edward Elgar Publishing, Incorporated. p. 26.
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1842:) more than to others. The overlapping structure of these neighborhoods is often modeled as a
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1846:. (When neighborhoods are totally separate, i.e., non-overlapping, the standard model is the
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Debate has been generated among economists whether such a category of "public goods" exists.
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Digital public goods include software, data sets, AI models, standards and content that are
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Wicksell, Knut (1958). "A New Principle of Just Taxation". In Musgrave and Peackock (ed.).
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2467:"Beyond Collusion Resistance: Leveraging Social Information for Plural Funding and Voting"
1998:
For current definitions of public goods see any mainstream microeconomics textbook, e.g.:
1757:
For example, consider national defence, a standard example of a pure public good. Suppose
8:
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Samuelson, Paul A. (1955). "Diagrammatic Exposition of a Theory of Public Expenditure".
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3738:"Government versus private ownership of public goods: The role of bargaining frictions"
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Demsetz, Harold (October 1970). "Full Access The Private Production of Public Goods".
2510:"Provision of Public Goods: Fully Implementing the Core through Private Contributions"
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The classical theory of public goods defines efficiency under idealized conditions of
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Shamans, Software, and Spleens: Law and the Construction of the Information Society
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1947:
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can be seen as a non-excludable resource, but one which is finite and diminishing.
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197:
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63:
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have fallen dramatically, paving the way for detailed billing based on actual use.
39:
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1750:
1239:: are the goods that are excludable but are non-rivalrous such as private parks.
929:
905:
901:
629:
523:
518:
483:
443:
403:
305:
127:
4131:
2806:
2801:, Nonprofit and Civil Society Studies, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 53â65,
6744:
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6694:
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3786:
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3216:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3163:
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1822:
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1375:
1362:
1185:
981:
634:
586:
528:
448:
345:
340:
222:
187:
172:
50:
6479:
3523:
3452:
Brown, C. V.; Jackson, P. M. (1986), "The Economic Analysis of Public Goods",
3331:"Contributing or free-riding? Voluntary participationin a public good economy"
3298:
3271:
3141:
2794:
1861:: both their efficient provision, and how much can be provided voluntarily in
6844:
6709:
6699:
6674:
6614:
6609:
6604:
6584:
6574:
6544:
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6439:
6339:
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2605:
2317:
1999:
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1847:
1533:
1489:
1383:
1286:
1264:
999:
921:
913:
581:
355:
3237:
2667:
1732:, in which market-like behavior of individual gain-seeking does not produce
1665:
possible, but they do still fit some of the characteristics of public goods.
1382:
There is a common misconception that public goods are goods provided by the
58:
6739:
6684:
6579:
6569:
6564:
6489:
6334:
5859:
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4527:
4344:
4322:
4317:
4308:
4249:
4206:
3899:
3601:
3414:
3307:
3256:
3126:"Public Goods, Private Goods: The American Struggle Over Educational Goals"
2716:
2443:
2402:
1941:
1703:
1699:
1678:
1280:
1199:
1145:
1031:
1003:
945:
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909:
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728:
551:
503:
493:
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375:
330:
182:
177:
2590:"The Conditional Contribution Mechanism for the Provision of Public Goods"
2534:
6714:
6704:
6494:
6373:
6317:
5792:
5601:
5513:
5393:
5245:
5159:
4813:
4788:
4658:
4633:
4572:
4435:
4385:
4370:
4327:
4273:
4075:
2862:
2478:
2387:"Thirteen Reasons Why the VickreyâClarkeâGroves Process Is Not Practical"
2159:
1913:
1814:
1803:
1763:
1737:
1702:
to sell individual access to their programming. The costs for electronic
1654:
1443:
1321:
1228:
1027:
463:
438:
300:
260:
74:
31:
4396:
4066:
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2771:
2744:
Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations
2739:
802:
6624:
6424:
6201:
5361:
5113:
5032:
4987:
4843:
4833:
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4638:
4587:
4502:
4313:
4259:
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2675:
2651:
2543:
2509:
2278:
2249:
1925:
1887:
1669:
1512:
1425:
984:
with an encoded signal that can be decrypted only by paid subscribers.
973:
969:
867:
748:
688:
498:
488:
360:
290:
147:
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2970:
1412:
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5356:
5351:
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4818:
4457:
4380:
4264:
4211:
3089:
1748:
The free rider problem depends on a conception of the human being as
1538:
1528:
1484:
1398:
1350:
1306:
1235:
1215:. Such goods raise similar issues to public goods: the mirror to the
1116:
957:
889:
847:
778:
473:
92:
3874:
Education and Economics: Disciplinary Evolution and Policy Discourse
3102:
3063:. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. pp. 12â13.
2793:
Kingma, Bruce R. (2003), Anheier, Helmut K.; Ben-Ner, Avner (eds.),
2525:
2294:"Disposition, history and contributions in public goods experiments"
2270:
2241:
1794:
relative to some reference private good, and the marginal cost is a
1698:
impact excludability of traditional public goods: encryption allows
1647:
960:) is another source of knowledge that the people can freely access.
6253:
5464:
5459:
5334:
4947:
4878:
4783:
4492:
3942:
Distributive issues in the provision and use of global public goods
3915:
3554:
2962:
2740:"Public good theories of the non-profit sector: Weisbrod revisited"
2707:
2434:
1691:
individuals separately for the amount of light they presumably use.
1677:, lighthouse maintenance can be profitably bundled with port fees (
614:
533:
433:
380:
202:
132:
3389:(June 2008). "10: Private goods, public goods and externalities".
3347:
3330:
1922:, which explains the creation of public goods by private investors
5518:
5417:
5329:
5063:
4723:
4447:
4158:
365:
82:
3828:"Optimal ownership of public goods under asymmetric information"
1255:
Goods § Goods classified by exclusivity and competitiveness
5704:
5493:
4557:
4452:
4147:
1354:
423:
207:
87:
3176:
Campbell R. McConnell; Stanley L. Brue; Sean M. Flynn (2011).
2799:
The Study of the Nonprofit Enterprise: Theories and Approaches
1916:, a method proposed by Erik Lindahl for financing public goods
1784:
5378:
5260:
5240:
4497:
4462:
4190:
3061:
Understanding Knowledge as a Commons: From Theory to Practice
2836:
Kianpour, Mazaher; Kowalski, Stewart; Ăverby, Harald (2022).
2292:
Gunnthorsdottir, Anna; Houser, Daniel; McCabe, Kevin (2007).
1523:
1416:
Aggregate demand (ÎŁMB) is the sum of individual demands (MBi)
1369:
when professional economists talk about public goods they do
863:
718:
142:
97:
5730:
1736:
results. The production of public goods results in positive
5535:
4552:
4517:
4512:
2291:
1687:
1974). This has been sufficient to fund actual lighthouses.
1674:
232:
192:
162:
152:
3208:
1477:
4718:
4472:
3768:
3440:
Essay in Information, Public Policy and Political Economy
2838:"Advancing the concept of cybersecurity as a public good"
1518:
1333:
758:
112:
1421:
good, where individual demands are summed horizontally.
912:, free roads, and many television and radio broadcasts.
3000:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp.
1183:
the goods that satisfy the two public good conditions (
1091:
Alex Tabarrok suggested a modification called dominant
963:
Public goods problems are often closely related to the
2835:
990:
952:
with a cultural lexicon (particularly about protected
4136:
3769:
Halonen-Akatwijuka, Maija; Pafilis, Evagelos (2020).
2691:"A public good model with lotteries in large groups"
3584:Galeotti, Andrea; Goyal, Sanjeev (September 2010).
2618:
2559:"The provision point mechanism with refund bonuses"
3690:
3426:The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy
3269:
3209:Julou, Thomas; Mora, Thierry; et al. (2013).
3058:
3018:
2993:
2464:
2416:Buterin, Vitalik; Hitzig, Zoe; Weyl, Glen (2019).
2135:"Why Government is Needed to Supply Public Goods?"
1157:
1037:
3483:"Mechanism Design: How to Implement Social Goals"
3393:(paperback ed.). Philip Allan. p. 352.
3328:
3083:
2465:Miller, Joël; Weyl, Glen; Erichsen, Leon (2022).
2415:
2226:(1954). "The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure".
1648:Shedding light on some misclassified public goods
6842:
3505:
3087:(February 1965). "An Economic Theory of Clubs".
3994:
3775:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
2298:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
4012:The Future of the Internet: And How to Stop It
3506:Bramoullé, Yann; Kranton, Rachel (July 2007).
2795:"Public Good Theories of the Nonprofit Sector"
2652:"Financing Public Goods by Means of Lotteries"
2619:Reischmann, Andreas; Oechssler, Joerg (2018).
5746:
5079:
4412:
4174:
3898:
3870:
3583:
3180:Economics: Principles, Problems, and Policies
2507:
1886:paradigm has been applied to public goods by
1724:The free rider problem is a primary issue in
827:
3637:
3536:
3371:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3184:(19th ed.). McGraw-Hill/Irwin. p.
2688:
2418:"A Flexible Design for Funding Public Goods"
2068:
2066:
1142:Public Good Theories of the Nonprofit Sector
3272:"Evolutionary explanations for cooperation"
2102:. Cambridge University Press. p. 171.
1785:Efficient production levels of public goods
5753:
5739:
5086:
5072:
4419:
4405:
4181:
4167:
4071:, by The Linux Information Project (LINFO)
3537:Elliott, Matthew; Golub, Benjamin (2019).
3385:
2587:
1135:
834:
820:
4426:
3977:
3796:1983/d4ab15e6-27ed-40ce-ae87-62d296e07181
3794:
3753:
3704:
3651:
3625:Firms, Contracts, and Financial Structure
3356:
3346:
3297:
3246:
3236:
2861:
2706:
2556:
2533:
2433:
2256:
2222:
2075:, "Knowledge as a Global Public Good" in
2063:
1985:
1983:
1030:is a type of taxation brought forward by
27:Good that is non-excludable and non-rival
3468:Classics in the Theory of Public Finance
3465:
3059:Hess, Charlotte; Ostrom, Elinor (2007).
2891:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2878:
2842:Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory
2689:Cabrales, Antonio; Lugo, Haydée (2016).
2384:
2170:. The Library of Economics and Liberty.
1465:
1411:
38:
3951:
3902:(1974). "The Lighthouse in Economics".
3825:
3735:
3442:. University of Ottawa: Westview Press.
3270:West SA, Griffin AS, Gardner A (2007).
3123:
3024:
2948:
2893:. Springer Link. pp. 10973â10984.
2047:
2045:
1478:Common examples of public goods include
1431:
14:
6843:
3480:
3052:
2884:
2792:
2737:
2649:
2508:Bagnoli, Mark; Lipman, Barton (1989).
1980:
1938:, a standard of experimental economics
1920:Private-collective model of innovation
1473:, an example of an environmental good.
1334:Challenges in identifying public goods
1076:First proposed by Bagnoli and Lipman,
1071:
5734:
5067:
4400:
4162:
4074:
3501:
3499:
3130:American Educational Research Journal
2991:
2355:
2353:
2168:The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics
2158:
2095:
1832:
1713:
1311:eg. cinemas, software, private parks
1008:The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure
3958:Politics, Philosophy & Economics
3954:"Public Goods and Government Action"
3622:
3539:"A Network Approach to Public Goods"
3456:, 3rd Edition, Chapter 3, pp. 48â79.
3437:
2695:International Tax and Public Finance
2218:
2216:
2214:
2152:
2042:
1248:
1052:
5830:Agent-based computational economics
4664:Maintenance, repair, and operations
4121:â analysis from Global Policy Forum
3169:
1944:, government-financed constructions
1120:promising crowdfunding mechanism.
991:Academic literature on public goods
24:
5642:Microfoundations of macroeconomics
5093:
4188:
4068:Public Goods: A Brief Introduction
3931:
3771:"Common ownership of public goods"
3640:The Quarterly Journal of Economics
3496:
3438:Babe, Robert (1995). "Chapter 3".
3124:Labaree, David F. (23 June 2016).
2350:
2259:Review of Economics and Statistics
2229:Review of Economics and Statistics
2174:from the original on 28 March 2010
25:
6882:
4968:Controlled-access highway systems
4089:Concise Encyclopedia of Economics
4031:
4027:, Chapter 7, What Things Regulate
2330:
2211:
2132:
1557:Further examples of public goods
6288:neoclassicalâKeynesian synthesis
5715:
5714:
5703:
5028:San FranciscoâOakland Bay Bridge
4849:Sustainable urban infrastructure
4146:
4094:Library of Economics and Liberty
4002:(11 ed.). pp. 281â283.
3481:Maskin, Eric (8 December 2007).
3329:Furusawa, Konishi, T, H (2011).
2361:"Public Good | Learning to Give"
2333:"Lindahl Equilibrium Definition"
2139:newsandsociety.expertscolumn.com
1043:VickreyâClarkeâGroves mechanisms
801:
791:
790:
57:
4983:Hong Kong International Airport
4609:Infrastructure asset management
3892:
3819:
3762:
3729:
3684:
3631:
3616:
3577:
3530:
3474:
3459:
3446:
3431:
3407:
3379:
3322:
3263:
3202:
3156:
3117:
3077:
2985:
2942:
2885:Sandmo, Agnar (20 March 2017).
2829:
2786:
2731:
2682:
2643:
2612:
2594:Discussion Paper Series No. 586
2581:
2550:
2501:
2458:
2409:
2378:
2324:
2285:
2166:. In David R. Henderson (ed.).
1827:VickreyâClarkeâGroves mechanism
1796:marginal rate of transformation
1211:: A good that is rivalrous but
1158:Terminology, and types of goods
1038:VickreyâClarkeâGroves mechanism
972:; exclusion mechanisms include
764:Spanish autovias and autopistas
4092:(2nd ed.). Indianapolis:
3871:Chattopadhyay, Saumen (2012).
2899:10.1057/978-1-349-95189-5_1696
2656:The Review of Economic Studies
2514:The Review of Economic Studies
2186:
2126:
2089:
1992:
1792:marginal rates of substitution
1021:
13:
1:
6224:Critique of political economy
5760:
3844:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2021.104424
3755:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2015.09.009
3715:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2012.07.005
2637:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.02.009
2575:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.10.006
1974:
1863:a non-cooperative equilibrium
1508:free and open-source software
1452:Sustainable Development Goals
1365:has suggested the following:
774:Power transmission in the USA
625:Brazilian energy independence
286:European green infrastructure
30:For the general concept, see
4998:Kansai International Airport
4859:Transit-oriented development
4057:Resources in other libraries
3904:Journal of Law and Economics
3826:Schmitz, Patrick W. (2021).
3736:Schmitz, Patrick W. (2015).
3543:Journal of Political Economy
2951:Journal of Law and Economics
2854:10.1016/j.simpat.2022.102493
2588:Reischmann, Andreas (2015).
2557:Zubrickas, Robertas (2014).
2194:Principles of Microeconomics
2099:A Course in Public Economics
1873:
1865:. When it comes to socially
1111:
1006:. In his classic 1954 paper
514:Transit-oriented development
7:
5587:Civil engineering economics
5572:Statistical decision theory
5212:Income elasticity of demand
4973:Electric power transmission
3877:. Oxford University Press.
3832:Journal of Public Economics
3742:Journal of Public Economics
3693:Journal of Public Economics
2807:10.1007/978-1-4615-0131-2_3
2625:Journal of Public Economics
2563:Journal of Public Economics
2192:Rittenberg and Tregarthen.
1897:
1878:Economic theorists such as
1684:The Lighthouse in Economics
1461:
674:British offshore wind-power
10:
6887:
6362:Real business-cycle theory
5222:Price elasticity of supply
5217:Price elasticity of demand
5207:Cross elasticity of demand
5053:Transcontinental railroads
4699:Publicâprivate partnership
4126:The Nature of Public Goods
3952:Anomaly, Jonathan (2015).
3787:10.1016/j.jebo.2020.10.002
3662:10.1162/003355301753265598
3627:. Oxford University Press.
3512:Journal of Economic Theory
3508:"Public goods in networks"
2385:Rothkopf, Michael (2007).
2310:10.1016/j.jebo.2005.03.008
2198:Chapter 6, Section 4. p. 2
2028:; or Gravelle & Rees,
1958:Tragedy of the anticommons
1726:collective decision-making
1717:
1641:Underuse (entry barriers)
1627:Underuse (lack of access)
1435:
1252:
336:Publicâprivate partnership
29:
6802:
6760:
6402:
6136:
5885:
5850:
5768:
5698:
5665:
5544:
5101:
4958:Bus rapid transit systems
4935:
4887:
4732:
4596:
4434:
4197:
4052:Resources in your library
3524:10.1016/j.jet.2006.06.006
3299:10.1016/j.cub.2007.06.004
3142:10.3102/00028312034001039
2738:Kingma, Bruce R. (1997).
2208:. Retrieved 20 June 2012.
769:Transcontinental Railroad
650:Curtiba rapid bus transit
5278:Incomeâconsumption curve
3970:10.1177/1470594X13505414
3590:American Economic Review
2606:10.11588/heidok.00018483
2017:, Whinston & Green,
1859:public goods in networks
1297:eg. fish stocks, timber
739:San Francisco Bay Bridge
6002:Industrial organization
5825:Computational economics
5612:Industrial organization
4468:Critical infrastructure
4255:(Post-)experience goods
4043:Public good (economics)
3454:Public Sector Economics
3238:10.1073/pnas.1301428110
2668:10.1111/1467-937X.00153
1604:Universal human rights
1562:Class and type of good
1136:The role of non-profits
954:cultural heritage sites
854:(also referred to as a
754:Spanish high-speed rail
694:Hong Kong Int'l Airport
679:Nuclear power in France
645:China's high-speed rail
620:Bicycle parking station
108:Critical infrastructure
6207:Modern monetary theory
5872:Experimental economics
5842:Pluralism in economics
5815:Mathematical economics
4912:Mechanical engineering
4907:Electrical engineering
4614:Buildâoperateâtransfer
4478:Electricity generation
4366:(Non-)excludable goods
4153:Business and economics
3602:10.1257/aer.100.4.1468
3028:Advancing Public Goods
3025:Touffut, J.P. (2006).
2717:10.1287/mnsc.2019.3337
2444:10.1287/mnsc.2019.3337
2403:10.1287/opre.1070.0384
2004:Microeconomic Analysis
1953:Tragedy of the commons
1884:incomplete contracting
1734:economically efficient
1613:Underuse (repression)
1474:
1471:Yosemite National Park
1417:
1380:
1322:free-to-air television
1221:tragedy of the commons
1219:for this case is the '
1155:
1016:
808:Engineering portal
684:Solar power in Germany
655:Cycling infrastructure
572:Mechanical engineering
266:Buildâoperateâtransfer
44:
5582:Engineering economics
5177:Costâbenefit analysis
5048:Trans-Alaska pipeline
4654:Life-cycle assessment
4629:Engineering contracts
4508:Municipal solid waste
4428:Public infrastructure
4362:(Non-)rivalrous goods
3695:. Fiscal Federalism.
3623:Hart, Oliver (1995).
3335:Theoretical Economics
2992:Boyle, James (1996).
2650:Morgan, John (2000).
2331:Staff, Investopedia.
2204:19 March 2013 at the
2057:17 April 2021 at the
1931:Public trust doctrine
1772:costâbenefit analysis
1469:
1415:
1367:
1293:Common-pool resources
1150:
1012:
888:Public goods include
610:Trans-Alaska pipeline
366:Replacement (upgrade)
316:Life-cycle assessment
296:Engineering contracts
42:
6081:Social choice theory
5837:Behavioral economics
5820:Complexity economics
5399:Price discrimination
5293:Intertemporal choice
4943:Akashi KaikyĆ Bridge
4809:Mobile data terminal
4583:Water supply network
4578:Wastewater treatment
4222:Common-pool resource
3586:"The Law of the Few"
3470:. London: Macmillan.
3420:30 June 2013 at the
3223:(31): 12â577â12582.
2479:10.2139/ssrn.4311507
2096:Leach, John (2004).
2019:Microeconomic Theory
1811:complete information
1438:Digital public goods
1432:Digital public goods
1285:eg. food, clothing,
1217:public goods problem
1208:Common-pool resource
1181:Impure public goods:
950:contemporary history
942:environmental issues
714:Kansai Int'l Airport
605:Akashi KaikyĆ Bridge
557:Chemical engineering
459:Mobile data terminal
311:Green infrastructure
6165:American (National)
5865:Economic statistics
5710:Business portal
5647:Operations research
5474:Substitution effect
5013:Offshore wind farms
4824:Renewable resources
4744:Air traffic control
4649:Infrastructure bond
4284:Global public goods
4250:(Non-)durable goods
4227:Complementary goods
4119:Global Public Goods
3490:Nobel Prize Lecture
3290:2007CBio...17.R661W
3229:2013PNAS..11012577J
2391:Operations Research
2077:Global Public Goods
1963:Rivalry (economics)
1695:Official statistics
1668:The provision of a
1558:
1503:official statistics
1494:environmental goods
1346:Official statistics
1093:assurance contracts
1078:assurance contracts
1072:Assurance contracts
926:global public goods
894:official statistics
704:Interstate highways
534:Wireless technology
399:Air traffic control
6851:Community building
5288:Indifference curve
5256:Goods and services
5197:Economies of scope
5192:Economies of scale
4854:Traffic congestion
4764:Congestion pricing
4568:Telecommunications
4483:Energy development
4304:Intermediate goods
4084:David R. Henderson
4007:Zittrain, Jonathan
2756:10.1007/BF02354191
2422:Management Science
2365:learningtogive.org
2224:Samuelson, Paul A.
2073:Joseph E. Stiglitz
1833:Local public goods
1821:and the theory of
1743:free rider problem
1720:Free rider problem
1714:Free rider problem
1556:
1475:
1418:
1403:global public good
1169:Non-excludability:
978:congestion pricing
944:, and maintaining
940:health awareness,
918:aids to navigation
724:Offshore wind port
640:Chicago wastewater
509:Traffic congestion
419:Congestion pricing
158:Pipeline transport
138:Irrigation schemes
103:Coastal management
45:
6856:Goods (economics)
6838:
6837:
6369:New institutional
5728:
5727:
5690:Political economy
5489:Supply and demand
5369:Pareto efficiency
5061:
5060:
4978:High-speed trains
4902:Civil engineering
4804:Land-use planning
4754:Bus rapid transit
4394:
4393:
4294:Information goods
4235:Independent goods
4103:978-0-86597-665-8
4038:Library resources
3699:(11â12): 939â45.
3400:978-0-340-94750-0
3284:(16): R661âR672.
3195:978-0-07-351144-3
3085:James M. Buchanan
3070:978-0-262-08357-7
3038:978-1-84720-184-3
3011:978-0-674-80522-4
2908:978-1-349-95188-8
2816:978-1-4615-0131-2
2600:(11): 5171â5187.
2428:(11): 5171â5187.
2162:(December 2007).
2109:978-0-521-53567-0
2085:978-0-19-513052-2
2015:Andreu Mas-Colell
1968:Quadratic funding
1936:Public goods game
1779:information goods
1653:Some goods, like
1645:
1644:
1499:information goods
1407:knowledge commons
1392:collective action
1341:information goods
1331:
1330:
1249:Definition matrix
1227:that the world's
1192:non-excludability
1053:Quadratic funding
996:Paul A. Samuelson
898:national security
844:
843:
709:Jamnagar Refinery
699:Intercity Express
669:Danish wind-power
469:Rapid bus transit
454:Land-use planning
218:Telecommunication
16:(Redirected from
6878:
6866:Public economics
6042:Natural resource
5877:Economic history
5803:Mechanism design
5755:
5748:
5741:
5732:
5731:
5718:
5717:
5708:
5707:
5450:Returns to scale
5308:Market structure
5088:
5081:
5074:
5065:
5064:
5043:Three Gorges Dam
5023:Port of Shanghai
4917:Public economics
4769:Containerization
4759:Carbon footprint
4669:Natural monopoly
4538:Public utilities
4533:Public transport
4421:
4414:
4407:
4398:
4397:
4299:Intangible goods
4269:Positional goods
4231:Substitute goods
4202:Anti-rival goods
4183:
4176:
4169:
4160:
4159:
4151:
4150:
4142:
4115:
4019:Lessig, Lawrence
4003:
3991:
3981:
3948:â, 88(1): 23â42.
3927:
3888:
3864:
3863:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3798:
3766:
3760:
3759:
3757:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3708:
3688:
3682:
3681:
3655:
3635:
3629:
3628:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3596:(4): 1468â1492.
3581:
3575:
3574:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3503:
3494:
3493:
3487:
3478:
3472:
3471:
3463:
3457:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3435:
3429:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3391:AQA AS Economics
3383:
3377:
3376:
3370:
3362:
3360:
3350:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3301:
3267:
3261:
3260:
3250:
3240:
3206:
3200:
3199:
3183:
3173:
3167:
3162:Pucciarelli F.,
3160:
3154:
3153:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3045:
3022:
3016:
3015:
2999:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2933:
2929:
2927:
2919:
2917:
2915:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2865:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2710:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2616:
2610:
2609:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2537:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2437:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2357:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2253:
2220:
2209:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2145:
2130:
2124:
2123:
2118:
2116:
2093:
2087:
2070:
2061:
2049:
2040:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1948:Privileged group
1819:mechanism design
1559:
1555:
1543:national defense
1401:, use the term "
1326:national defense
1259:
1258:
1225:deep-sea fishing
1059:Quadratic voting
902:common languages
836:
829:
822:
806:
805:
794:
793:
744:Three Gorges Dam
734:Port of Shanghai
577:Public economics
414:Containerization
409:Carbon footprint
393:Issues and ideas
271:Designâbidâbuild
251:Asset management
198:Sewage treatment
64:Grand Coulee Dam
61:
47:
46:
21:
6886:
6885:
6881:
6880:
6879:
6877:
6876:
6875:
6841:
6840:
6839:
6834:
6831:Business portal
6798:
6797:
6796:
6756:
6520:von Böhm-Bawerk
6408:
6407:
6398:
6170:Ancient thought
6148:
6147:
6141:
6132:
6131:
6130:
5881:
5846:
5798:Contract theory
5783:Decision theory
5764:
5759:
5729:
5724:
5702:
5694:
5661:
5540:
5182:Deadweight loss
5119:Consumer choice
5097:
5092:
5062:
5057:
4953:Brooklyn Bridge
4931:
4889:
4883:
4869:Waste-to-energy
4829:Reverse osmosis
4799:Hybrid vehicles
4794:High-speed rail
4779:Fuel efficiency
4749:Brownfield land
4736:
4734:
4728:
4644:Government debt
4592:
4488:Hazardous waste
4440:
4438:
4430:
4425:
4395:
4390:
4350:Household goods
4333:Necessity goods
4240:Composite goods
4193:
4187:
4157:
4145:
4137:
4104:
4063:
4062:
4061:
4046:
4045:
4041:
4034:
3996:Lipsey, Richard
3946:Studi economici
3938:Acoella, Nicola
3934:
3932:Further reading
3895:
3885:
3867:
3824:
3820:
3767:
3763:
3734:
3730:
3706:10.1.1.173.3797
3689:
3685:
3653:10.1.1.584.6739
3636:
3632:
3621:
3617:
3582:
3578:
3535:
3531:
3504:
3497:
3485:
3479:
3475:
3464:
3460:
3451:
3447:
3436:
3432:
3422:Wayback Machine
3413:Graves, P. E.,
3412:
3408:
3401:
3384:
3380:
3364:
3363:
3327:
3323:
3277:Current Biology
3268:
3264:
3207:
3203:
3196:
3174:
3170:
3161:
3157:
3122:
3118:
3103:10.2307/2552442
3082:
3078:
3071:
3057:
3053:
3043:
3041:
3039:
3023:
3019:
3012:
2990:
2986:
2947:
2943:
2931:
2930:
2921:
2920:
2913:
2911:
2909:
2883:
2879:
2834:
2830:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2791:
2787:
2736:
2732:
2687:
2683:
2648:
2644:
2617:
2613:
2586:
2582:
2555:
2551:
2526:10.2307/2297502
2506:
2502:
2463:
2459:
2414:
2410:
2383:
2379:
2369:
2367:
2359:
2358:
2351:
2341:
2339:
2329:
2325:
2290:
2286:
2271:10.2307/1925849
2254:
2242:10.2307/1925895
2221:
2212:
2206:Wayback Machine
2191:
2187:
2177:
2175:
2157:
2153:
2143:
2141:
2131:
2127:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2094:
2090:
2071:
2064:
2059:Wayback Machine
2050:
2043:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1981:
1977:
1904:Anti-rival good
1900:
1876:
1835:
1787:
1777:In the case of
1759:Homo economicus
1751:Homo economicus
1722:
1716:
1650:
1571:Common problem
1480:
1464:
1440:
1434:
1336:
1319:
1310:
1296:
1284:
1269:Non-excludable
1257:
1251:
1160:
1146:Bruce R. Kingma
1138:
1114:
1100:common theme.
1074:
1055:
1040:
1024:
993:
922:street lighting
906:law enforcement
860:collective good
840:
800:
783:
759:French TGV rail
630:Brooklyn Bridge
601:
600:
591:
548:
547:
546:Fields of study
538:
524:Waste-to-energy
519:Fuel efficiency
484:Reverse osmosis
449:Hybrid vehicles
444:High-speed rail
395:
394:
385:
306:Government debt
247:
246:
237:
128:Hazardous waste
79:
78:
66:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6884:
6874:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6861:Market failure
6858:
6853:
6836:
6835:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6800:
6799:
6795:
6794:
6789:
6779:
6774:
6768:
6767:
6766:
6764:
6758:
6757:
6755:
6754:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6722:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6667:
6662:
6657:
6652:
6647:
6642:
6637:
6632:
6627:
6622:
6617:
6612:
6607:
6602:
6597:
6592:
6587:
6582:
6577:
6572:
6567:
6562:
6557:
6552:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6532:
6527:
6522:
6517:
6512:
6507:
6502:
6497:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6477:
6472:
6467:
6462:
6457:
6452:
6447:
6442:
6437:
6432:
6427:
6422:
6417:
6411:
6409:
6403:
6400:
6399:
6397:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6365:
6364:
6354:
6353:
6352:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6331:
6330:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6309:
6308:
6307:
6306:
6296:
6291:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6234:Disequilibrium
6231:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6210:
6209:
6199:
6194:
6189:
6184:
6183:
6182:
6172:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6151:
6149:
6137:
6134:
6133:
6129:
6128:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6074:
6069:
6064:
6059:
6054:
6049:
6047:Organizational
6044:
6039:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5919:
5914:
5909:
5904:
5899:
5893:
5892:
5891:
5889:
5883:
5882:
5880:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5868:
5867:
5856:
5854:
5848:
5847:
5845:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5833:
5832:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5810:Macroeconomics
5807:
5806:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5778:Microeconomics
5774:
5772:
5766:
5765:
5758:
5757:
5750:
5743:
5735:
5726:
5725:
5723:
5722:
5712:
5699:
5696:
5695:
5693:
5692:
5687:
5685:Macroeconomics
5682:
5681:
5680:
5669:
5667:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5548:
5546:
5542:
5541:
5539:
5538:
5533:
5532:
5531:
5526:
5516:
5511:
5510:
5509:
5500:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5462:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5421:
5420:
5415:
5406:
5401:
5396:
5391:
5386:
5384:Price controls
5376:
5371:
5366:
5365:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5349:
5348:
5347:
5342:
5332:
5327:
5326:
5325:
5320:
5305:
5303:Market failure
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5269:
5268:
5263:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5237:
5236:
5226:
5225:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5174:
5173:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5156:
5155:
5145:
5140:
5130:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5105:
5103:
5099:
5098:
5095:Microeconomics
5091:
5090:
5083:
5076:
5068:
5059:
5058:
5056:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5003:Millau Viaduct
5000:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4963:Channel Tunnel
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4939:
4937:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4929:
4927:Urban planning
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4893:
4891:
4885:
4884:
4882:
4881:
4876:
4874:Weatherization
4871:
4866:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4826:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4740:
4738:
4730:
4729:
4727:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4684:Public finance
4681:
4679:Public capital
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4600:
4598:
4594:
4593:
4591:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4548:Rail transport
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4523:Public housing
4520:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4444:
4442:
4432:
4431:
4424:
4423:
4416:
4409:
4401:
4392:
4391:
4389:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4376:Superior goods
4373:
4368:
4359:
4354:
4353:
4352:
4342:
4340:Ordinary goods
4337:
4336:
4335:
4325:
4320:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4289:Inferior goods
4286:
4281:
4279:Global commons
4276:
4271:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4245:Credence goods
4242:
4237:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4198:
4195:
4194:
4186:
4185:
4178:
4171:
4163:
4156:
4155:
4135:
4134:
4129:
4122:
4116:
4102:
4080:"Public Goods"
4072:
4060:
4059:
4054:
4048:
4047:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4032:External links
4030:
4029:
4028:
4016:
4004:
3992:
3964:(2): 109â128.
3949:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3928:
3916:10.1086/466796
3910:(2): 357â376.
3894:
3891:
3890:
3889:
3883:
3866:
3865:
3818:
3761:
3728:
3683:
3646:(4): 1343â72.
3630:
3615:
3576:
3555:10.1086/701032
3549:(2): 730â776.
3529:
3518:(1): 478â494.
3495:
3473:
3458:
3445:
3430:
3406:
3399:
3378:
3341:(2): 219â256.
3321:
3262:
3201:
3194:
3168:
3164:Andreas Kaplan
3155:
3116:
3076:
3069:
3051:
3037:
3017:
3010:
2984:
2963:10.1086/466695
2957:(2): 293â306.
2941:
2932:|website=
2907:
2887:"Public Goods"
2877:
2828:
2815:
2785:
2750:(2): 135â148.
2730:
2681:
2662:(4): 761â784.
2642:
2611:
2580:
2549:
2535:2027.42/100743
2520:(4): 583â601.
2500:
2457:
2408:
2397:(2): 191â197.
2377:
2349:
2323:
2304:(2): 304â315.
2284:
2210:
2185:
2164:"Public Goods"
2151:
2125:
2108:
2088:
2062:
2041:
2030:Microeconomics
1991:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1917:
1911:
1906:
1899:
1896:
1875:
1872:
1834:
1831:
1823:public finance
1786:
1783:
1730:market failure
1718:Main article:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1707:
1692:
1688:
1666:
1658:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1629:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1615:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1601:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1587:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1573:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1565:Nonexcludable
1563:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1496:
1487:
1479:
1476:
1463:
1460:
1436:Main article:
1433:
1430:
1376:overproduction
1363:Steven Shavell
1335:
1332:
1329:
1328:
1312:
1303:
1302:Non-rivalrous
1299:
1298:
1289:
1287:parking spaces
1277:
1271:
1270:
1267:
1262:
1253:Main article:
1250:
1247:
1213:non-excludable
1163:Non-rivalrous:
1159:
1156:
1137:
1134:
1113:
1110:
1073:
1070:
1054:
1051:
1039:
1036:
1023:
1020:
992:
989:
982:pay television
868:non-excludable
842:
841:
839:
838:
831:
824:
816:
813:
812:
811:
810:
798:
785:
784:
782:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
671:
666:
652:
647:
642:
637:
635:Channel Tunnel
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
598:
597:
596:
593:
592:
590:
589:
587:Urban planning
584:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
554:
545:
544:
543:
540:
539:
537:
536:
531:
529:Weatherization
526:
521:
516:
511:
506:
501:
496:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
401:
392:
391:
390:
387:
386:
384:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
346:Public finance
343:
341:Public capital
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
244:
243:
242:
239:
238:
236:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
173:Public housing
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
77:and facilities
73:
72:
71:
68:
67:
62:
54:
53:
51:Infrastructure
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6883:
6872:
6871:Public sphere
6869:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6848:
6846:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6801:
6793:
6790:
6787:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6769:
6765:
6763:
6759:
6753:
6752:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6676:
6673:
6671:
6668:
6666:
6663:
6661:
6658:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6648:
6646:
6643:
6641:
6638:
6636:
6633:
6631:
6628:
6626:
6623:
6621:
6618:
6616:
6613:
6611:
6608:
6606:
6603:
6601:
6598:
6596:
6593:
6591:
6588:
6586:
6583:
6581:
6578:
6576:
6573:
6571:
6568:
6566:
6563:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6521:
6518:
6516:
6513:
6511:
6508:
6506:
6503:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6458:
6456:
6453:
6451:
6448:
6446:
6443:
6441:
6438:
6436:
6433:
6431:
6428:
6426:
6423:
6421:
6418:
6416:
6415:de Mandeville
6413:
6412:
6410:
6406:
6401:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6363:
6360:
6359:
6358:
6357:New classical
6355:
6351:
6348:
6347:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6329:
6326:
6325:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6313:Malthusianism
6311:
6305:
6302:
6301:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6289:
6285:
6282:
6281:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6274:Institutional
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6262:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6208:
6205:
6204:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6181:
6178:
6177:
6176:
6173:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6152:
6150:
6145:
6140:
6135:
6127:
6124:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6078:
6077:Public choice
6075:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6053:
6052:Participation
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6012:Institutional
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5962:Expeditionary
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5952:Environmental
5950:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5894:
5890:
5888:
5884:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5870:
5866:
5863:
5862:
5861:
5858:
5857:
5855:
5853:
5849:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5835:
5831:
5828:
5827:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5780:
5779:
5776:
5775:
5773:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5756:
5751:
5749:
5744:
5742:
5737:
5736:
5733:
5721:
5713:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5700:
5697:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5679:
5676:
5675:
5674:
5671:
5670:
5668:
5664:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5617:Institutional
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5562:Computational
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5549:
5547:
5543:
5537:
5534:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5521:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5508:
5507:Law of supply
5504:
5501:
5499:
5498:Law of demand
5495:
5492:
5491:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5484:Social choice
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5469:Excess supply
5466:
5463:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5455:Risk aversion
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5390:
5389:Price ceiling
5387:
5385:
5382:
5381:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5346:
5345:Complementary
5343:
5341:
5338:
5337:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5315:
5314:
5311:
5310:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5258:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5235:
5232:
5231:
5230:
5227:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5154:
5151:
5150:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5135:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5128:non-convexity
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5106:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5089:
5084:
5082:
5077:
5075:
5070:
5069:
5066:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5008:Nuclear power
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4993:Humber Bridge
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4940:
4938:
4934:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4922:Public policy
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4894:
4892:
4886:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4850:
4847:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4741:
4739:
4731:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4694:Public sector
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4604:Appropriation
4602:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4563:State schools
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4528:Public spaces
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4422:
4417:
4415:
4410:
4408:
4403:
4402:
4399:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4346:
4345:Private goods
4343:
4341:
4338:
4334:
4331:
4330:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4323:Neutral goods
4321:
4319:
4318:demerit goods
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4207:Capital goods
4205:
4203:
4200:
4199:
4196:
4192:
4184:
4179:
4177:
4172:
4170:
4165:
4164:
4161:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4143:
4140:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4127:
4123:
4120:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4090:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4065:
4064:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4026:
4025:
4020:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4008:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3950:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3936:
3935:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3900:Coase, Ronald
3897:
3896:
3886:
3884:9780198082255
3880:
3876:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3861:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3822:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3765:
3756:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3732:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3687:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3634:
3626:
3619:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3580:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3502:
3500:
3491:
3484:
3477:
3469:
3462:
3455:
3449:
3441:
3434:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3416:
3410:
3402:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3382:
3374:
3368:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3348:10.3982/TE567
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3325:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3266:
3258:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3217:
3212:
3205:
3197:
3191:
3187:
3182:
3181:
3172:
3165:
3159:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3120:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3097:(125): 1â14.
3096:
3092:
3091:
3086:
3080:
3072:
3066:
3062:
3055:
3040:
3034:
3030:
3029:
3021:
3013:
3007:
3003:
2998:
2997:
2988:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2945:
2937:
2925:
2910:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2881:
2873:
2869:
2864:
2863:11250/2990939
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2832:
2818:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2789:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2734:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2646:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2615:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2584:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2553:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2504:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2461:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2412:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2381:
2366:
2362:
2356:
2354:
2338:
2334:
2327:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2288:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2265:(4): 350â56.
2264:
2260:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2236:(4): 387â89.
2235:
2231:
2230:
2225:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2189:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2155:
2140:
2136:
2129:
2122:
2111:
2105:
2101:
2100:
2092:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2067:
2060:
2056:
2053:
2048:
2046:
2038:
2037:0-582-40487-8
2034:
2031:
2027:
2026:0-19-507340-1
2023:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2011:0-393-95735-7
2008:
2005:
2001:
2000:Hal R. Varian
1995:
1986:
1984:
1979:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1909:Excludability
1907:
1905:
1902:
1901:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1871:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1849:
1848:Tiebout model
1845:
1841:
1840:neighborhoods
1830:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1782:
1780:
1775:
1773:
1767:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1746:
1744:
1739:
1738:externalities
1735:
1731:
1727:
1721:
1711:
1705:
1701:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1664:
1659:
1656:
1652:
1651:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1552:street lights
1551:
1549:flood defense
1548:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1534:herd immunity
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1482:
1481:
1472:
1468:
1459:
1455:
1453:
1447:
1445:
1439:
1429:
1427:
1422:
1414:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1384:public sector
1379:
1377:
1372:
1366:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1308:
1304:
1301:
1300:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1288:
1283:
1282:
1281:Private goods
1278:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1238:
1237:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1201:
1196:
1194:
1193:
1188:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1164:
1154:
1149:
1148:stated that;
1147:
1143:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1069:
1066:
1062:
1060:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
988:
985:
983:
979:
975:
971:
966:
961:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
914:Flood control
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
886:
883:
882:Capital goods
879:
877:
873:
872:non-rivalrous
869:
866:that is both
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
837:
832:
830:
825:
823:
818:
817:
815:
814:
809:
804:
799:
797:
789:
788:
787:
786:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
664:
660:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
602:
595:
594:
588:
585:
583:
582:Public policy
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
549:
542:
541:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
396:
389:
388:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
356:Public sector
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
256:Appropriation
254:
252:
249:
248:
241:
240:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
183:Public spaces
181:
179:
178:State schools
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
80:
76:
70:
69:
65:
60:
56:
55:
52:
49:
48:
41:
37:
33:
19:
6826:Publications
6782:Publications
6749:
6345:Neoclassical
6335:Mercantilism
6244:Evolutionary
6106:Sociological
6079: /
5977:Geographical
5957:Evolutionary
5932:Digitization
5897:Agricultural
5860:Econometrics
5788:Price theory
5652:Optimization
5637:Mathematical
5597:Experimental
5592:Evolutionary
5577:Econometrics
5435:Public goods
5434:
5409:Price system
5404:Price signal
5318:Monopolistic
5187:Distribution
5102:Major topics
5018:Panama Canal
4897:Architecture
4864:Urban sprawl
4839:Smart growth
4774:Ethanol fuel
4714:Supply chain
4688:
4674:Property tax
4619:Designâbuild
4543:Public works
4386:Veblen goods
4371:Search goods
4357:Public goods
4356:
4328:Normal goods
4309:Luxury goods
4274:Giffen goods
4217:Common goods
4125:
4087:
4076:Cowen, Tyler
4067:
4042:
4022:
4010:
3999:
3961:
3957:
3945:
3941:
3907:
3903:
3893:Bibliography
3873:
3835:
3831:
3821:
3778:
3774:
3764:
3745:
3741:
3731:
3696:
3692:
3686:
3643:
3639:
3633:
3624:
3618:
3593:
3589:
3579:
3546:
3542:
3532:
3515:
3511:
3489:
3476:
3467:
3461:
3453:
3448:
3439:
3433:
3425:
3409:
3390:
3381:
3367:cite journal
3358:10419/150153
3338:
3334:
3324:
3281:
3275:
3265:
3220:
3214:
3204:
3179:
3171:
3158:
3133:
3129:
3119:
3094:
3088:
3079:
3060:
3054:
3042:. Retrieved
3027:
3020:
2995:
2987:
2954:
2950:
2944:
2912:. Retrieved
2890:
2880:
2845:
2841:
2831:
2820:, retrieved
2798:
2788:
2747:
2743:
2733:
2698:
2694:
2684:
2659:
2655:
2645:
2628:
2624:
2614:
2597:
2593:
2583:
2566:
2562:
2552:
2517:
2513:
2503:
2470:
2460:
2425:
2421:
2411:
2394:
2390:
2380:
2368:. Retrieved
2364:
2340:. Retrieved
2337:Investopedia
2336:
2326:
2301:
2297:
2287:
2262:
2258:
2233:
2227:
2193:
2188:
2176:. Retrieved
2167:
2160:Cowen, Tyler
2154:
2142:. Retrieved
2138:
2128:
2120:
2113:. Retrieved
2098:
2091:
2076:
2029:
2018:
2003:
1994:
1942:Public works
1877:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1839:
1836:
1808:
1801:
1788:
1776:
1768:
1758:
1756:
1749:
1747:
1723:
1709:
1704:road pricing
1700:broadcasters
1682:
1679:Ronald Coase
1662:
1655:orphan drugs
1576:Ozone layer
1546:fire service
1456:
1448:
1441:
1423:
1419:
1396:
1387:
1381:
1370:
1368:
1360:
1337:
1316:Public goods
1315:
1314:
1305:
1291:
1279:
1242:
1241:
1234:
1233:
1216:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1200:Private good
1198:
1197:
1190:
1184:
1180:
1179:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1167:
1162:
1161:
1151:
1141:
1139:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1115:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1083:
1075:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1047:
1041:
1032:Erik Lindahl
1025:
1017:
1013:
1007:
994:
986:
965:"free-rider"
962:
946:biodiversity
910:public parks
887:
880:
859:
855:
851:
845:
729:Panama Canal
552:Architecture
504:Urban sprawl
494:Smart growth
429:Ethanol fuel
376:Supply chain
350:
331:Property tax
276:Designâbuild
228:Water supply
168:Mass transit
36:
18:Public goods
6620:von Neumann
6389:Supply-side
6374:Physiocracy
6318:Marginalism
6007:Information
5947:Engineering
5927:Development
5922:Demographic
5793:Game theory
5770:Theoretical
5602:Game theory
5567:Development
5514:Uncertainty
5394:Price floor
5374:Preferences
5313:Competition
5283:Information
5246:Externality
5229:Equilibrium
5170:Transaction
5148:Opportunity
5109:Aggregation
5038:Solar power
4814:Pork barrel
4789:Groundwater
4689:Public good
4659:Lindahl tax
4634:Externality
4573:Town square
4503:Lighthouses
4314:Merit goods
4260:Final goods
3781:: 555â578.
3428:9.1 (2009).
2914:10 December
2701:: 218â233.
2631:: 104â115.
2569:: 231â234.
2178:19 February
1914:Lindahl tax
1880:Oliver Hart
1815:Lindahl tax
1804:public park
1764:mercenaries
1741:called the
1590:Atmosphere
1444:open source
1229:fish stocks
1186:non-rivalry
1175:Pure public
1028:Lindahl tax
1022:Lindahl tax
876:common good
856:social good
852:public good
464:Pork barrel
439:Groundwater
351:Public good
321:Maintenance
301:Externality
261:Lindahl tax
213:Solid waste
148:Lighthouses
118:Electricity
32:Common good
6845:Categories
6777:Economists
6650:Schumacher
6555:Schumpeter
6525:von Wieser
6445:von ThĂŒnen
6405:Economists
6304:Circuitism
6269:Humanistic
6264:Historical
6239:Ecological
6229:Democratic
6202:Chartalism
6192:Behavioral
6155:Mainstream
6116:Statistics
6111:Solidarity
6032:Managerial
5997:Humanistic
5992:Historical
5937:Ecological
5902:Behavioral
5632:Managerial
5552:Behavioral
5425:Production
5362:Oligopsony
5202:Elasticity
5114:Budget set
5033:Suez Canal
4988:Hoover Dam
4844:Stormwater
4834:Smart grid
4704:Renovation
4639:Fixed cost
4588:Wind power
4441:facilities
4381:Used goods
4265:Free goods
4212:Club goods
3979:10161/9732
3838:: 104424.
3387:Ray Powell
2822:28 October
2708:1809.06421
2435:1809.06421
2370:28 October
2342:28 October
2133:Kumar, V.
1975:References
1926:Public bad
1670:lighthouse
1618:Knowledge
1519:television
1513:authorship
1501:, such as
1492:and other
1426:club goods
1351:Copyrights
1307:Club goods
1265:Excludable
1243:Mixed good
1236:Club goods
974:toll roads
970:club goods
749:Shinkansen
689:Hoover Dam
567:Electrical
499:Stormwater
489:Smart grid
479:Renewables
404:Brownfield
361:Renovation
291:Fixed cost
6695:Greenspan
6660:Samuelson
6640:Galbraith
6610:Tinbergen
6550:von Mises
6545:Heckscher
6505:Edgeworth
6384:Stockholm
6379:Socialist
6279:Keynesian
6259:Happiness
6219:Classical
6180:Mutualism
6175:Anarchist
6160:Heterodox
6057:Personnel
6017:Knowledge
5982:Happiness
5972:Financial
5942:Education
5917:Democracy
5852:Empirical
5762:Economics
5673:Economics
5545:Subfields
5440:Rationing
5357:Oligopoly
5352:Monopsony
5340:Bilateral
5273:Household
5124:Convexity
4819:Recycling
4709:Spillover
4493:Hospitals
4458:Broadband
4189:Types of
4112:237794267
4000:Economics
3988:154904308
3940:(2006), â
3924:153715526
3860:236397476
3852:0047-2727
3813:169842255
3805:0167-2681
3748:: 23â31.
3723:154075467
3701:CiteSeerX
3670:0033-5533
3648:CiteSeerX
3610:0002-8282
3571:158834906
3563:0022-3808
3136:: 39â81.
3090:Economica
3044:27 August
2979:154885952
2934:ignored (
2924:cite book
2872:1569-190X
2780:154163089
2764:0957-8765
2725:198858039
2487:255261051
2452:198858039
2318:0167-2681
2255:See also
2144:4 October
1874:Ownership
1867:efficient
1632:Internet
1568:Nonrival
1539:Knowledge
1529:invention
1490:clean air
1485:fireworks
1399:Inge Kaul
1388:naturally
1275:Rivalrous
1117:Lotteries
1112:Lotteries
958:monuments
916:systems,
890:knowledge
848:economics
779:Wind farm
474:Recycling
371:Spillover
223:Utilities
133:Hospitals
93:Broadband
6806:Category
6786:journals
6772:Glossary
6725:Stiglitz
6690:Rothbard
6670:Buchanan
6655:Friedman
6645:Koopmans
6635:Leontief
6615:Robinson
6500:Marshall
6350:Lausanne
6254:Georgism
6249:Feminist
6197:Buddhist
6187:Austrian
6086:Regional
6062:Planning
6037:Monetary
5967:Feminist
5912:Cultural
5907:Business
5720:Category
5666:See also
5557:Business
5529:Marginal
5524:Expected
5465:Shortage
5460:Scarcity
5335:Monopoly
5241:Exchange
5153:Implicit
5143:Marginal
4948:Autobahn
4936:Examples
4890:of study
4879:Wireless
4784:Fuel tax
4719:Taxation
4597:Concepts
4448:Airports
4078:(2008).
4024:Code 2.0
3998:(2008).
3944:â, in: â
3678:39187118
3418:Archived
3316:14869430
3308:17714660
3257:23858453
3150:36278539
2772:27927560
2202:Archived
2172:Archived
2055:Archived
1898:See also
1599:Overuse
1585:Overuse
1462:Examples
1454:(SDGs).
1000:Wicksell
796:Category
615:Autobahn
599:Examples
434:Fuel tax
381:Taxation
326:Monopoly
245:Concepts
203:Sewerage
83:Airports
6821:Outline
6792:Schools
6784: (
6745:Piketty
6740:Krugman
6605:Kuznets
6595:Kalecki
6570:Polanyi
6460:Cournot
6455:Bastiat
6440:Ricardo
6430:Malthus
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