2766:
34:
2790:
127:); in most protocols, the validators receive a reward for doing so. For the blockchain to remain secure, it must have a mechanism to prevent a malicious user or group from taking over a majority of validation. PoS accomplishes this by requiring that validators have some quantity of blockchain tokens, requiring potential attackers to acquire a large fraction of the tokens on the blockchain to mount an attack.
2778:
204:, and are unfeasible in the PoW schemes due to the sheer volume of calculations required. The early stages of a blockchain are much more malleable for rewriting, as they likely have much smaller group of stakeholders involved, simplifying the collusion. If the per-block and per-transaction rewards are offered, the malicious group can, for example, redo the entire history and collect these rewards.
507:, by voting proportionally to their stakes, then the witnesses take turns in a round-robin fashion to propose new blocks that are then voted upon by the witnesses, usually in the BFT-like fashion. Since there are fewer validators in the DPoS than in many other PoS schemes, the consensus can be established faster. The scheme is used in many chains, including EOS, Lisk, Tron.
130:
Proof of work (PoW), another commonly used consensus mechanism, uses a validation of computational prowess to verify transactions, requiring a potential attacker to acquire a large fraction of the computational power of the validator network. This incentivizes consuming huge quantities of energy. PoS
581:
Critics have argued that the proof of stake will likely lead cryptocurrency blockchains being more centralized in comparison to proof of work as the system favors users who have a large amount of cryptocurrency, which in turn could lead to users who have a large amount of cryptocurrency having major
266:
This is essentially a modification of the PoW scheme, where the competition is based not on applying brute force to solving the identical puzzle in the smallest amount of time, but instead on varying the difficulty of the puzzle depending on the stake of the participant; the puzzle is solved if on a
252:
Bribery attack, where the attackers financially induce some validators to approve their fork of blockchain, is enhanced in PoS, as rewriting a large portion of history might enable the collusion of once-rich stakeholders that no longer hold significant amounts at stake to claim a necessary majority
223:
attack: the participation in a successful validation increases the validator's earnings, so there is a built-in incentive for the validators to accept all chain forks submitted to them, thus increasing the chances of earning the validation fee. The PoS schemes enable low-cost creation of blockchain
515:
In the liquid PoS anyone with a stake can declare themselves a validator, but for the small holders is makes sense to delegate their voting rights instead to larger players in exchange for some benefits (like periodic payouts). A market is established where the validators compete on the fees,
528:
The exact definition of "stake" varies from implementation to implementation. For instance, some cryptocurrencies use the concept of "coin age", the product of the number of tokens with the amount of time that a single user has held them, rather than merely the number of tokens, to define a
602:
on condition that they did not stake their coins. The level of staking of ether at 27% of total supply was low compared with
Cardano (66%) and Solana (63%). However, not staking their tokens meant that the funds were losing about 3% of potential returns a year.
623:
was about a thousand times higher than that of the highest consuming proof-of-stake system that was studied even under the most favorable conditions and that most proof of stake systems cause less energy consumption in most configurations.
1039:
Li, Wenting; Andreina, SĂ©bastien; Bohli, Jens-Matthias; Karame, Ghassan (2017). "Securing Proof-of-Stake
Blockchain Protocols". In Garcia-Alfaro, Joaquin; Navarro-Arribas, Guillermo; Hartenstein, Hannes; Herrera-JoancomartĂ, Jordi (eds.).
187:
The low amount of computing power involved allows a class of attacks that replace a non-negligible portion of the main blockchain with a hijacked version. These attacks are called in literature by different names,
442:
1088:
1533:
1304:
1209:
1563:
134:
Early PoS implementations were plagued by a number of new attacks that exploited the unique vulnerabilities of the PoS protocols. Eventually two dominant designs emerged: so called
1274:
1244:
560:, the world second largest cryptocurrency in 2022, switched from proof of work to a proof of stake consensus mechanism system, after several proposals and some delays.
179:
The additional vulnerabilities of PoS schemes are directly related to their advantage: a relatively low amount of calculations required when constructing a blockchain.
253:
at some point back in time, and grow the alternative blockchain from there, an operation made possible by the low computing cost of adding blocks in the PoS scheme.
1078:
1525:
1364:
91:
that work by selecting validators in proportion to their quantity of holdings in the associated cryptocurrency. This is done to avoid the computational cost of
1334:
107:
For a blockchain transaction to be recognized, it must be appended to the blockchain. In the proof of stake blockchain the appending entities are named
1296:
1191:
1555:
208:
273:
232:, where a digital token can be spent more than once. This can be mitigated through penalizing validators who validate conflicting chains ("
459:
with probabilities of being elected higher with higher stake. Validators then randomly take turns producing blocks. NPoS is utilized by
1739:
789:
1266:
485:
A "proposer" with a "proposed block" is randomly selected by adding it to the temporary pool used to select just one consensual block;
219:
Since validators do not need to spend a considerable amount of computing power (and thus money) on the process, they are prone to the
1644:
1234:
628:
2726:
1386:
447:
The smaller amount of calculations required for solving the puzzle for high-value stakeholders helps to avoid excessive hardware.
591:
495:
The scheme works as long as no more than a third of validators are dishonest. BFT schemes are used in
Tendermint and Casper FFG.
516:
reputation, and other factors. Token holders are free to switch their support to another validator at any time. LPoS is used in
662:
Zhao, Wenbing; Yang, Shunkun; Luo, Xiong; Zhou, Jiong (26 March 2021). "On PeerCoin Proof of Stake for
Blockchain Consensus".
645:
from proof-of-work to proof-of-stake in an upgrade process known as "the Merge". This has cut
Ethereum's energy usage by 99%.
228:), submitting these forks to eager validators endangers the stability of the system. If this situation persists, it can allow
44:
2706:
1708:
1496:
1061:
816:
1502:
1465:
Platt, Moritz; Sedlmeir, Johannes; Platt, Daniel; Xu, Jiahua; Tasca, Paolo; Vadgama, Nikhil; Ibañez, Juan
Ignacio (2021).
634:
called on the EU to ban the proof of work model in favor of the proof of stake model due to its lower energy consumption.
1642:
Xiao, Y.; Zhang, N.; Lou, W.; Hou, Y. T. (2020). "A Survey of
Distributed Consensus Protocols for Blockchain Networks".
2381:
503:
Proof of stake delegated systems use a two-stage process: first, the stakeholders elect a validation committee, a.k.a.
2522:
2716:
1782:
1356:
1169:
1045:
553:
followed. However, as of 2017, PoS cryptocurrencies were still not as widely used as proof-of-work cryptocurrencies.
546:
1326:
1327:"Proof of stake vs. proof of work: key differences between these methods of verifying cryptocurrency transactions"
1112:"Proof-of-Stake Consensus Mechanisms for Future Blockchain Networks: Fundamentals, Applications and Opportunities"
2782:
2122:
1110:
Nguyen, Cong T.; Hoang, Dinh Thai; Nguyen, Diep N.; Niyato, Dusit; Nguyen, Huynh Tuong; Dutkiewicz, Eryk (2019).
706:
2217:
1732:
599:
2696:
2127:
1235:"Ethereum founder Vitalik Buterin says long-awaited shift to 'proof-of-stake' could solve environmental woes"
1441:
2173:
1832:
642:
594:
claiming that staking rewards are the equivalent of interest, so coins such as ether and ada are financial
84:
1777:
2285:
2610:
2247:
1471:
2021 IEEE 21st
International Conference on Software Quality, Reliability and Security Companion (QRS-C)
456:
455:
Also known as "committee-based", this scheme involves an election of a committee of validators using a
573:
Critics have argued that the proof of stake model is less secure compared to the proof of work model.
2821:
2770:
2736:
2711:
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2346:
2316:
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236:") or by structuring the rewards so that there is no economic incentive to create conflicts.
233:
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883:
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838:
811:
8:
2532:
56:
1608:
1127:
939:
927:
829:
812:"Evaluation of Energy Consumption in Block-Chains with Proof of Work and Proof of Stake"
748:"A Taxonomy of Blockchain Technologies: Principles of Identification and Classification"
52:
2336:
2290:
1841:
1812:
1792:
1679:
1653:
1630:
1622:
1589:
Deirmentzoglou, Evangelos; Papakyriakopoulos, Georgios; Patsakis, Constantinos (2019).
1474:
893:
878:
854:
761:
678:
616:
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1205:
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US regulators have argued over the legal status of the proof-of-stake model, with the
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843:
781:
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1945:
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833:
771:
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229:
1700:
1617:
1590:
1136:
1111:
631:
488:
The other participants, validators, obtain the pool, validate, and vote for one;
481:
The outline of the BFT PoS "epoch" (adding a block to the chain) is as follows:
2547:
2477:
2427:
2331:
2079:
1846:
1817:
1748:
1667:
1466:
1267:"'The Merge' to end cryptocurrency mining on gaming GPUs won't come until 2022"
124:
22:
1467:"The Energy Footprint of Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms Beyond Proof-of-Work"
1387:"SEC Says Binance Misused Customer Funds, Ran Illegal Crypto Exchange in U.S."
2810:
2600:
1866:
1856:
1675:
1626:
1397:
1196:
1083:
847:
785:
727:
120:
92:
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537:
The first functioning implementation of a proof-of-stake cryptocurrency was
2003:
1890:
55:
by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the
719:
2746:
2635:
2507:
2371:
1595:
1239:
1161:
211:) that rewrites just a small tail portion of the chain is also possible.
1192:"NFT developers say cryptocurrencies must tackle their carbon emissions"
2666:
2557:
2502:
2389:
2341:
2267:
1969:
1964:
1762:
1588:
1146:
945:
933:
902:
887:
860:
704:
Saleh, Fahad (2021-03-01). "Blockchain without Waste: Proof-of-Stake".
684:
95:(POW) schemes. The first functioning use of PoS for cryptocurrency was
88:
437:{\displaystyle Hash(ProposedNewBlock||ClockTime)<target*StakeValue}
2497:
2399:
2326:
2232:
2084:
99:
in 2012, although the scheme, on the surface, still resembled a POW.
598:. However, in 2024, the SEC sidestepped the question by recognising
2492:
2472:
2452:
2442:
2437:
2361:
2321:
2300:
2163:
2143:
2137:
2117:
2094:
2064:
1994:
1984:
1979:
1939:
1930:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1807:
1717:
1658:
1526:"Ban proof of work crypto mining to save energy, EU regulator says"
1479:
1385:
Michaels, Dave; Ostroff, Caitlin; Kowsmann, Patricia (2023-06-05).
1042:
Data
Privacy Management, Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain Technology
766:
664:
ICBCT'21: The 3rd
International Conference on Blockchain Technology
638:
582:
influence on the management and direction for a crypto blockchain.
557:
550:
538:
96:
1556:"Ethereum's Energy Revamp Is No Guarantee of Global Climate Gains"
2640:
2605:
2562:
2457:
2432:
2404:
2178:
1920:
1885:
1297:"Crypto's Energy Guzzling Sparks an Alternative That Merely Sips"
1079:"The Crypto World Is Getting Greener. Is It Too Little Too Late?"
620:
541:, introduced in 2012. Other cryptocurrencies, such as Blackcoin,
917:
915:
913:
911:
2615:
2542:
2462:
2447:
2394:
2198:
2132:
2024:
1974:
1955:
1357:"How to clean up crypto mining—and what's at stake if we don't"
240:
based PoS are generally considered robust against this threat (
2645:
2583:
2567:
2527:
2512:
2467:
2183:
2008:
1876:
1591:"A Survey on Long-Range Attacks for Proof of Stake Protocols"
1048:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 297–315.
1008:
908:
517:
16:
System that regulates the formation of blocks on a blockchain
1900:
1822:
491:
The BFT consensus is used to finalize the most-voted block.
2588:
2552:
2158:
1020:
966:
542:
998:
996:
983:
981:
956:
954:
1384:
1109:
1442:"Ethereum ETFs: The SEC's Surprising Shift in Stance"
1038:
993:
978:
951:
946:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
934:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
903:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
888:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
861:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
685:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
276:
1464:
866:
161:
1691:Bashir, Imran (2022). "Blockchain Age Protocols".
498:
436:
167:
2808:
746:Tasca, Paolo; Tessone, Claudio J. (2019-02-15).
1641:
1014:
921:
661:
510:
224:alternatives starting at any point in history (
1228:
1226:
655:
1733:
1032:
1547:
1183:
810:Zhang, Rong; Chan, Wai Kin (Victor) (2020).
745:
123:blockchains this task is carried out by the
1223:
2789:
1740:
1726:
146:approaches. Bashir identifies three more
1657:
1645:IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials
1616:
1478:
1145:
1135:
837:
809:
775:
765:
629:European Securities and Markets Authority
267:tick of the clock (|| is concatenation):
155:
741:
739:
737:
1523:
1264:
1189:
1076:
699:
697:
695:
693:
450:
2809:
2576:
1690:
1473:. Vol. 2021. pp. 1135–1144.
1026:
1002:
987:
972:
960:
872:
803:
2707:Decentralized autonomous organization
1721:
1553:
1091:from the original on January 28, 2022
817:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
734:
703:
606:
585:
523:
182:
2777:
1747:
1566:from the original on 7 December 2022
1505:from the original on 29 January 2024
1324:
690:
142:
27:
1354:
1232:
627:In January 2022, Vice-Chair of the
214:
13:
1265:Wickens, Katie (25 October 2021).
1077:Hissong, Samantha (July 9, 2021).
592:Securities and Exchange Commission
532:
261:
241:
207:The classic "Short-Range" attack (
136:
14:
2833:
2717:Distributed ledger technology law
1046:Lecture Notes in Computer Science
576:
247:
2788:
2776:
2765:
2764:
1554:Clark, Aaron (6 December 2022).
1277:from the original on 4 July 2022
470:
32:
1536:from the original on 2022-04-19
1517:
1458:
1434:
1418:"Cryptofinance: into the ether"
1410:
1378:
1367:from the original on 2022-01-26
1348:
1337:from the original on 2022-07-14
1318:
1307:from the original on 2022-01-29
1289:
1258:
1247:from the original on 2022-06-04
1212:from the original on 2022-07-14
1190:Sparkes, Matthew (2021-03-30).
1172:from the original on 2022-09-14
1154:
1103:
1070:
839:10.1088/1742-6596/1584/1/012023
792:from the original on 2022-04-22
707:The Review of Financial Studies
499:Delegated proof of stake (DPoS)
137:Byzantine Fault Tolerance-based
377:
346:
341:
289:
102:
1:
1489:10.1109/QRS-C55045.2021.00168
1206:10.1016/S0262-4079(21)00548-0
648:
147:
1695:. Apress. pp. 331–376.
1054:10.1007/978-3-319-67816-0_17
511:Liquid proof of stake (LPoS)
154:committee-based PoS (a.k.a.
7:
1778:Cryptographic hash function
1701:10.1007/978-1-4842-8179-6_8
1618:10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2901858
1524:Bateman, Tom (2022-01-19).
1137:10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2925010
619:of the proof-of-work based
568:
563:
256:
83:) protocols are a class of
10:
2838:
1668:10.1109/COMST.2020.2969706
1582:
1355:Lin, Connie (2022-01-21).
1233:Lau, Yvonne (2021-05-27).
615:found that in general the
474:
457:verifiable random function
174:
131:is more energy-efficient.
20:
2760:
2737:Initial exchange offering
2712:Decentralized application
2692:Cryptocurrency in Nigeria
2654:
2628:
2418:
2380:
2309:
2266:
2197:
2107:
2057:
2033:
2017:
1993:
1954:
1929:
1875:
1865:
1831:
1755:
666:. ACM. pp. 129–134.
477:Byzantine fault tolerance
238:Byzantine Fault Tolerance
47:toward certain viewpoints
2742:List of cryptocurrencies
2629:Crypto service companies
2420:Cryptocurrency exchanges
611:In 2021, a study by the
162:delegated proof of stake
21:Not to be confused with
777:10.5195/ledger.2019.140
672:10.1145/3460537.3460547
2677:Complementary currency
1783:Decentralized exchange
1768:Cryptocurrency tumbler
637:On 15 September 2022,
438:
2732:Initial coin offering
2687:Cryptocurrency bubble
2218:Basic Attention Token
1788:Decentralized finance
1773:Cryptocurrency wallet
600:Ethereum market funds
439:
168:liquid proof of stake
2727:Environmental impact
2697:Cryptocurrency scams
1693:Blockchain Consensus
1303:. 17 November 2021.
613:University of London
451:Nominated PoS (NPoS)
274:
85:consensus mechanisms
2382:Inactive currencies
1609:2019IEEEA...728712D
1390:Wall Street Journal
1128:2019IEEEA...785727N
975:, pp. 335–336.
830:2020JPhCS1584a2023Z
720:10.1093/rfs/hhaa075
643:consensus mechanism
556:In September 2022,
529:validator's stake.
226:costless simulation
194:Alternative History
53:improve the article
1842:Proof of authority
1813:Non-fungible token
1793:Distributed ledger
1029:, p. 337-338.
617:energy consumption
607:Energy consumption
586:Legal status in US
524:'Stake' definition
434:
183:Long-range attacks
2804:
2803:
2624:
2623:
2103:
2102:
1803:Lightning Network
1710:978-1-4842-8178-9
1498:978-1-6654-7836-6
1325:Chandler, Simon.
1063:978-3-319-67816-0
641:transitioned its
234:economic finality
198:Alternate History
74:
73:
2829:
2822:Cryptocurrencies
2792:
2791:
2780:
2779:
2768:
2767:
2752:Virtual currency
2702:Digital currency
2682:Crypto-anarchism
2574:
2573:
2327:HBAR (Hashgraph)
2310:Other currencies
1946:Ethereum Classic
1873:
1872:
1749:Cryptocurrencies
1742:
1735:
1728:
1719:
1718:
1714:
1687:
1661:
1652:(2): 1432–1465.
1638:
1620:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1521:
1515:
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1404:
1382:
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1372:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1342:
1331:Business Insider
1322:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1312:
1293:
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1255:
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1158:
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1107:
1101:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1036:
1030:
1024:
1018:
1015:Xiao et al. 2020
1012:
1006:
1000:
991:
985:
976:
970:
964:
958:
949:
948:, p. 28717.
943:
937:
936:, p. 28723.
931:
925:
922:Xiao et al. 2020
919:
906:
905:, p. 28713.
900:
891:
890:, p. 28716.
885:
876:
870:
864:
863:, p. 28715.
858:
852:
851:
841:
807:
801:
800:
798:
797:
779:
769:
743:
732:
731:
714:(3): 1156–1190.
701:
688:
687:, p. 28714.
682:
676:
675:
659:
443:
441:
440:
435:
349:
344:
221:Nothing-at-Stake
215:Nothing at stake
202:History Revision
118:
117:
69:
66:
60:
36:
35:
28:
2837:
2836:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2756:
2722:Double-spending
2672:Blockchain game
2650:
2620:
2572:
2414:
2376:
2305:
2262:
2193:
2099:
2053:
2029:
2013:
1989:
1950:
1925:
1861:
1827:
1751:
1746:
1711:
1603:: 28712–28725.
1585:
1580:
1579:
1569:
1567:
1552:
1548:
1539:
1537:
1522:
1518:
1508:
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1231:
1224:
1215:
1213:
1188:
1184:
1175:
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1160:
1159:
1155:
1122:: 85727–85745.
1108:
1104:
1094:
1092:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1037:
1033:
1025:
1021:
1013:
1009:
1001:
994:
986:
979:
971:
967:
959:
952:
944:
940:
932:
928:
920:
909:
901:
894:
886:
879:
871:
867:
859:
855:
808:
804:
795:
793:
744:
735:
702:
691:
683:
679:
660:
656:
651:
609:
588:
579:
571:
566:
535:
533:Implementations
526:
513:
501:
479:
473:
461:Ouroboros Praos
453:
345:
340:
275:
272:
271:
264:
262:Chain-based PoS
259:
250:
230:double-spending
217:
185:
177:
113:
112:
105:
70:
64:
61:
50:
37:
33:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2835:
2825:
2824:
2819:
2802:
2801:
2799:
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2786:
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2757:
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2754:
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2724:
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2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2658:
2656:
2655:Related topics
2652:
2651:
2649:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2632:
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2622:
2621:
2619:
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2565:
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2255:
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2240:
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2204:
2202:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2114:
2112:
2109:Proof of stake
2105:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2080:Nervos Network
2077:
2072:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2000:
1998:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1961:
1959:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1948:
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1936:
1934:
1927:
1926:
1924:
1923:
1918:
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1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1882:
1880:
1870:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1852:Proof of stake
1849:
1847:Proof of space
1844:
1838:
1836:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1818:Smart contract
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1759:
1757:
1753:
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1737:
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1709:
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1639:
1584:
1581:
1578:
1577:
1546:
1516:
1497:
1457:
1433:
1409:
1377:
1347:
1317:
1288:
1257:
1222:
1182:
1153:
1102:
1069:
1062:
1031:
1019:
1007:
1005:, p. 337.
992:
990:, p. 336.
977:
965:
963:, p. 335.
950:
938:
926:
907:
892:
877:
875:, p. 334.
865:
853:
802:
733:
689:
677:
653:
652:
650:
647:
608:
605:
587:
584:
578:
577:Centralization
575:
570:
567:
565:
562:
534:
531:
525:
522:
512:
509:
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492:
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475:Main article:
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303:
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297:
294:
291:
288:
285:
282:
279:
263:
260:
258:
255:
249:
248:Bribery attack
246:
216:
213:
209:bribery attack
184:
181:
176:
173:
172:
171:
165:
159:
104:
101:
77:Proof-of-stake
72:
71:
40:
38:
31:
23:Proof of space
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2834:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2797:
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2762:
2759:
2753:
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2647:
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2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2601:LocalBitcoins
2599:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2566:
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2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2533:ItBit (Paxos)
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
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2279:
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2274:
2273:
2271:
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2265:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2106:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2032:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2018:RandomX-based
2016:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1992:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1867:Proof of work
1864:
1858:
1857:Proof of work
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1824:
1821:
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1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1586:
1565:
1561:
1560:Bloomberg.com
1557:
1550:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1520:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1476:
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1468:
1461:
1447:
1443:
1437:
1423:
1419:
1413:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1388:
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1366:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1246:
1242:
1241:
1236:
1229:
1227:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1198:
1197:New Scientist
1193:
1186:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1157:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1106:
1090:
1086:
1085:
1084:Rolling Stone
1080:
1073:
1065:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1028:
1023:
1017:, p. 21.
1016:
1011:
1004:
999:
997:
989:
984:
982:
974:
969:
962:
957:
955:
947:
942:
935:
930:
924:, p. 22.
923:
918:
916:
914:
912:
904:
899:
897:
889:
884:
882:
874:
869:
862:
857:
849:
845:
840:
835:
831:
827:
824:(1): 012023.
823:
819:
818:
813:
806:
791:
787:
783:
778:
773:
768:
763:
759:
755:
754:
749:
742:
740:
738:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
708:
700:
698:
696:
694:
686:
681:
673:
669:
665:
658:
654:
646:
644:
640:
635:
633:
630:
625:
622:
618:
614:
604:
601:
597:
593:
583:
574:
561:
559:
554:
552:
548:
544:
540:
530:
521:
519:
508:
506:
496:
490:
487:
484:
483:
482:
478:
471:BFT-based PoS
468:
466:
462:
458:
448:
431:
428:
425:
422:
419:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
398:
395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
380:
374:
371:
368:
365:
362:
359:
356:
353:
350:
337:
334:
331:
328:
325:
322:
319:
316:
313:
310:
307:
304:
301:
298:
295:
292:
286:
283:
280:
277:
270:
269:
268:
254:
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
222:
212:
210:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
180:
169:
166:
163:
160:
157:
156:nominated PoS
153:
152:
151:
149:
145:
144:
139:
138:
132:
128:
126:
122:
121:proof of work
116:
110:
100:
98:
94:
93:proof-of-work
90:
86:
82:
78:
68:
65:December 2021
58:
54:
48:
46:
41:This article
39:
30:
29:
24:
19:
2817:Cryptography
2793:
2781:
2769:
2646:Initiative Q
2108:
2004:Bitcoin Gold
1896:Counterparty
1891:Bitcoin Cash
1851:
1692:
1649:
1643:
1600:
1594:
1568:. Retrieved
1559:
1549:
1538:. Retrieved
1529:
1519:
1507:. Retrieved
1470:
1460:
1449:. Retrieved
1445:
1436:
1425:. Retrieved
1421:
1412:
1401:. Retrieved
1389:
1380:
1369:. Retrieved
1361:Fast Company
1360:
1350:
1339:. Retrieved
1330:
1320:
1309:. Retrieved
1300:
1291:
1279:. Retrieved
1270:
1260:
1249:. Retrieved
1238:
1214:. Retrieved
1195:
1185:
1174:. Retrieved
1165:
1156:
1119:
1115:
1105:
1093:. Retrieved
1082:
1072:
1041:
1034:
1022:
1010:
968:
941:
929:
868:
856:
821:
815:
805:
794:. Retrieved
757:
751:
711:
705:
680:
663:
657:
636:
632:Erik Thedéen
626:
610:
589:
580:
572:
555:
536:
527:
514:
504:
502:
494:
480:
454:
446:
265:
251:
225:
220:
218:
206:
201:
197:
193:
189:
186:
178:
148:types of PoS
141:
135:
133:
129:
114:
108:
106:
80:
76:
75:
62:
42:
18:
2747:Token money
2636:Hyperledger
2508:EDX Markets
2372:WhopperCoin
2268:Stablecoins
1596:IEEE Access
1509:24 December
1281:13 December
1162:"The Merge"
1147:10220/49702
1116:IEEE Access
1027:Bashir 2022
1003:Bashir 2022
988:Bashir 2022
973:Bashir 2022
961:Bashir 2022
873:Bashir 2022
143:chain-based
103:Description
89:blockchains
2811:Categories
2667:BitLicense
2611:QuadrigaCX
2594:bankruptcy
2558:ShapeShift
2503:Crypto.com
2390:BitConnect
2342:MobileCoin
2111:currencies
1970:Bitconnect
1965:Auroracoin
1869:currencies
1835:mechanisms
1763:Blockchain
1756:Technology
1659:1904.04098
1540:2022-01-23
1480:2109.03667
1451:2024-07-09
1427:2024-07-09
1422:www.ft.com
1403:2024-07-09
1371:2022-01-22
1341:2022-01-22
1311:2022-01-22
1251:2021-05-29
1216:2021-04-07
1176:2022-09-15
796:2021-04-26
767:1708.04872
649:References
596:securities
190:Long-Range
115:validators
45:unbalanced
2498:Coincheck
2400:KodakCoin
2248:Shiba Inu
2233:KodakCoin
2223:Chainlink
2149:Injective
2123:Avalanche
2085:Primecoin
1833:Consensus
1684:102352657
1676:1553-877X
1627:2169-3536
1570:1 January
1446:ccdata.io
1398:0099-9660
1301:Bloomberg
848:1742-6596
786:2379-5980
728:0893-9454
505:witnesses
402:∗
242:see below
57:talk page
2771:Category
2493:Coinbase
2473:Bitstamp
2453:Bitpanda
2443:bitFlyer
2438:Bitfinex
2362:SafeMoon
2322:Filecoin
2301:USD Coin
2169:Polkadot
2164:Peercoin
2144:Gridcoin
2138:Ethereum
2118:Algorand
2095:Vertcoin
2065:AmbaCoin
1995:Equihash
1985:Litecoin
1980:Dogecoin
1940:Ethereum
1916:Peercoin
1911:Namecoin
1906:MazaCoin
1808:MetaMask
1635:84185792
1564:Archived
1534:Archived
1530:Euronews
1503:Archived
1365:Archived
1335:Archived
1305:Archived
1275:Archived
1271:PC Gamer
1245:Archived
1210:Archived
1170:Archived
1166:Ethereum
1095:July 22,
1089:Archived
790:Archived
639:Ethereum
569:Security
564:Concerns
558:Ethereum
551:Algorand
539:Peercoin
257:Variants
158:, NPoS);
119:(in the
97:Peercoin
2783:Commons
2662:Airdrop
2641:IQ.Wiki
2606:Mt. Gox
2577:Defunct
2563:Uniswap
2523:Genesis
2458:Bithumb
2433:Binance
2405:OneCoin
2367:Stellar
2253:The DAO
2243:Polygon
2213:Aventus
2128:Cardano
1921:Titcoin
1886:Bitcoin
1877:SHA-256
1605:Bibcode
1583:Sources
1240:Fortune
1124:Bibcode
826:Bibcode
621:Bitcoin
547:Cardano
175:Attacks
170:(LPoS).
164:(DPoS);
109:minters
51:Please
43:may be
2616:Thodex
2543:Kucoin
2538:Kraken
2518:Gemini
2488:Circle
2463:BitMEX
2448:Bitkub
2395:Coinye
2357:Ripple
2332:Helium
2296:Tether
2201:tokens
2199:ERC-20
2174:Solana
2133:EOS.IO
2037:-based
2025:Monero
1997:-based
1975:Coinye
1958:-based
1956:Scrypt
1933:-based
1931:Ethash
1879:-based
1707:
1682:
1674:
1633:
1625:
1495:
1396:
1060:
846:
784:
753:Ledger
726:
549:, and
125:miners
2584:BTC-e
2568:Upbit
2528:Huobi
2513:eToro
2468:Bitso
2410:Petro
2291:Terra
2238:Minds
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