245:
and overcrowding (two or three decades after 1930) also put pressure on governments to establish a system of registration and requirements for those who wished to practice. This led to the
Medical Act of 1840. In fact, this council consisted mostly of doctors. Therefore, they were in control of regulating their own profession. The act required their members to oversee medical education, keep track of the numbers of qualified practitioners, and regulate it for the government. Pg 688. It gave the qualified more power and set limitations on the unqualified. The exclusion from government service of the unqualified practitioners was the most influential policy. Along with the act, the qualified practitioners came to be known as the âofficially recognizedâ healers, and as such had a competitive advantage in the job market.
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patientsâ symptoms. Physical diagnoses became part of the modern professional practice of medicine. It was one of the major accomplishments of
Parisian hospitals and with the rise of Parisian pathological-anatomy, it became a very important clinical practice. Disease was believed to be an anatomical lesion inside the body. Physical examination was necessary to properly qualify them. This new approach caused the problem of the growing diagnostic competence but smaller treatment capacities. As well, this caused a pressure on the physician to find and classify the illness but also to treat and cure the disease. Skepticism grew in the profession as fellow physicians watched each other for proper treatment of patients.
273:
the last quarter of the 19th century. Restriction on who could get in medical schools, and higher demands on their education were put in place. As well, greater attentions to their professional ethics were among the strategies employed to distinguish themselves as high status professionals. Physicians also pressured the government for better attention to the health of its citizens. For example, the recollection of data of the births and deaths which it had stopped doing in the
Maritimes in 1877. Provincial medical boards, allowance of registration for practice across all provinces, better schools, protection against the unlicensed physicians and unskilled persons, were some other actions taken.
253:
interests. Issues, around management of medical practitioners and their practice stemming from this change, had to be attended to. In the second half of the 19th century, ethics were more severely monitored and disciplinary action against violators was put in effect. This was allowed as by the act of 1858. Even the allowance to remove from practice any practitioner violating the code of ethics put in place. A more elaborated code of professional ethics emerged. A practitioner had no other choice but to adhere to minimum standards if he wanted to keep his job and keep practicing.
286:
an engineer. Engineers could be independent. It was a semi-autonomous profession because it could still require extended training and it formed body of specialized knowledge. The nature of their work meant that they were always influenced by business and industry. In many cases they did want to be independent. Oftentimes, they sought power through their connection with an organization. The engineer profession was much more collaborative.
265:
undergo physical diagnosis, especially with the rise of new medical instruments being used. In fact, manuals were written to help physicians gain knowledge on proper âpatient etiquetteâ and gain their consent to perform certain procedures. Society had a hard time accepting the procedures required for the routine physical examination and its necessity. It was more interested in the cure and treatment effectiveness of the diagnosis.
313:
practices during this time helped established their professional image as expertise. That being said, many factory and business and factory owners did not particularly like this standardization because they felt threaten that engineers would increase their authority and territory. This was also desired by engineers themselves to end labor troubles. It was believed that it would increase production and predictability.
293:
resistance and oppositions of the people in all provinces. For example, in
Ontario, the act on engineering did not pass until 1922, and it had to be altered to exempt all mining operations from the bill. This was because the mining industry was afraid the act would alert business and the ability to hire whoever they wanted During times of rapid growth, regulations were added or altered to starve off over crowding.
249:
ethical problems. Unlike today, it was more the concern of the behavior of doctors towards each other, than towards their patients. It is suggested to be due by the changes of the medical world in the first half of the nineteenth century. Unlike the pre-industrial age, distinctions between say surgeons and physicians were greatly reduced, to replace a division of mostly consultants and general practitioners.
257:
schools and universities gained popularity for teaching. Apprenticeships were reducing rapidly. Training became more standardized. It was standardized more all over the world too because medical students that attended these schools came from all over the world. With this came a sense of professional identity and community made possible this modern profession seen today.
204:
their work. Medicine was consistently regulated before the confederation. Medicine and engineering became self-regulated and had their regulatory legislation altered five decades after the confederation even though some other occupations were not able to. This meant these professions could oversee entry to practice, education, and the behavior of those practicing.
297:
certain math skills must be met first. To practice as a Water Supply
Engineer in England, a person had to obtain a certificate. This certificate was only granted if the provisions under the Water act of 1890 are met. There was little opening for employment as a civil engineer in England, although those who were good eventually found work.
166:, for "accreditation assures conformity to general expectations of the profession." Different professions are organized differently. For example, doctors desire autonomy over entrepreneurship. Professions want authority because of their expertise. Professionals are encouraged to have a lifetime commitment to their field of work.
285:
Engineering, as it became a profession, had fewer restrictions in the 19th century. As it did not have mandatory licensing for entrants, competition was bigger. Unlike physicians, engineers could not enjoy protection from competition. For instance, a person without a college degree could still become
272:
Medical failures often hampered the reputation of these physicians which made their status as professionals harder to implement and make the general population accept them as this. Not to mention over-crowding eventually became a problem. the profession called on the government for help especially in
229:
had commented that the profession had "the authority to direct and evaluate the work of others without in turn being subject to formal direction and evaluation by themâ. Doctors retained their dominance because hospitals were administered rather than managed. The medical field enjoyed more power than
100:
and the unqualified: a stratified occupation "defined by professional demarcation and grade." The origin of this process is said to have been with guilds during the Middle Ages, when they fought for exclusive rights to practice their trades as journeymen, and to engage unpaid apprentices. It has also
316:
Civil engineers were overtaken by mechanical engineers. In fact, the numbers of professional mechanical engineers increased by 600 percent and college enrollment in this specialization outnumbered civil engineering. Now, they were more needed. Engineers were okay being classified "professionals of a
256:
The 19th-century education to become a physician encountered some changes from the 18th century. The 18th century was an apprenticeship program. The apprentice and master worked together and so the level of training received varied from person to person varied. In the 19th century, hospital medical
244:
revealed an increase in professional consciousness from medical practitioners in
England. Physicians in the 19th century came to have the features of modern professions. A major one was autonomy. This was further emphasized with the establishment of a controlling body of the profession. Competition
320:
Shortly before, and during the
Progressive Era, better organization of various fields of work including engineering took place because it encouraged professionalism, equality, and progress. Systematization was a big part of it. For example, The American Society of Mechanical Engineer was founded in
308:
In the United States, engineering was more focused on experience and achieving material and commercial success. Manual labor was seen as something positive. It was influenced by France to build schools for engineering training rather than on the site training, in the late 19th century. Professional
180:
Very few professions existed before the 19th century, although most of the societies always valued someone who was competent and skilled in a particular discipline. The government was especially in need of skilled people to complete various duties. Professionalism as an ideology only started in the
296:
In the 19th century, an engineer qualified to practice in
England would not have trouble practicing in Canada. To obtain an engineerâs certificate from them these countries, many demands which had to be met. For example, in Ontario Canada, for each different class of engineer certificate obtained,
195:
State licensure insured that experience could not be substituted for certification, and decreased outside competition. A code of ethics for professionals ensured that the public receiving the service was well served and set guidelines for their behavior in their professions. This code also ensured
184:
Professions began to emerge rapidly. However, a person who wanted to become a professional had to gain the approval of members of the existing profession beforehand and only they could judge whether he or she had reached the level of expertise needed to be a professional. Official associations and
268:
The industrialization in the late nineteenth century resulted in a demand for physicians. In Canada, the industrializing towns and cities of the
Maritimes gave plenty of opportunities for their physicians to show their skills as emerging professionals. For example, medical doctors were needed to
304:
In France, they were more concern with the theoretical aspect of engineering, specifically understanding the mathematical aspect of it. They built âgrandes Ă©coles" of engineering and state employment was the most predominant work for engineering. Engineering practices and education depended upon
300:
In
England, because production was controlled by craftsmen, creativity and quality of the product was seen as dominant factors in the emerging engineering profession. During the Industrial revolution, whereas the United States focused its attention to standardization for mass production, England
248:
To reduce competition, the Medical Act also raised the standards for qualifications in 1858. A modern codes of medical ethics were also implemented in the 19th century. Again, this proves the high degree of power that the profession had. As a result, many medical practitioners came to experience
203:
The degree of legislation and autonomy of self-regulated and regular professions varied across Canada. Possible causes include societal infrastructure, population density, social ideologies, and political mandates. Physicians and engineers were among the most successful at professionalization of
264:
The invention of the stethoscope in 1816 made auscultation and percussion regularly employed to help in the physical diagnosis process. Diagnose and treatment now had to be based on science. The rise of hospitals facilitated physical diagnoses. That being said, patients were often reluctant to
312:
The number of engineers increased by 2000 percent in the period between 1880 and 1920 in the United States. The Industrial revolution created a demand for them. Their main competition was Germany. Industries encouraged engineering to change from a craft to a profession. The standardization of
292:
In engineering, the profession was initially just organized on a national or cross-provincial basis. For example, the Canadian Society of Civil Engineers was formed in 1887 before it was regulated in each province. Even then, legislation from province to province varied. This was due to the
260:
With the professionalization of medicine came the emergence of the movement of physical diagnoses of physicians' patients in the 19th century. It was believed to help treat patients better. Before the emergence of this movement, physicians based their diagnoses on the interpretation of their
252:
This new division caused disorder in establishing the roles of different types of practitioners and their status. It led to more competition as their various field of expertise was not made clear and thus resulted in accusations of unprofessional conduct among each other to protect their own
191:
expressed support for professionalization, as he believed that professionals made a worthwhile contribution to society. They deserved power and high salaries due to the difficulties inherent in gaining entry to professional fields and living up to the rigorous demands of professionalism.
276:
Although medical techniques did approve in the nineteenth century, attempts to deny rights for the other competing professions in the health field made it seem like medical doctors wanted to monopolize medical care and seek their own interests rather the public welfare.
224:
of physicians made them feel like they merit deference. Physicians' authority was based on persuasion. Autonomy and independence of the organization of physicians caused a division of labor that is professionally dominated. Licensing caused monopolies on rights.
309:
status was gained through corporate training. Unlike the other emerging professions mentioned earlier, engineering as a profession did not reply on the approval of their peers but rather of corporate and government hierarchies (private industry).
324:
Making a professional image of engineers was difficult because of its prominent association with manual labor. It struggles to this day to gain similar status as members of autonomous, self-regulating professions such as lawyers and physicians.
301:
focused on methods of small-scale manufacturing. English engineers still emphasized quality in their work. Learning by practical experience was also strongly encouraged and training new engineers became like an apprenticeship.
236:
To ensure social order and establish British institutions, Ontario established medicine as a self-regulating profession in the late 1860s. In many US states however, medicine remained unregulated until several decades later.
105:, a reliance on formal qualifications or certifications to determine whether someone is permitted to undertake a task or to speak as an expert. It has also been defined as "excessive reliance on credentials, especially
109:, in determining hiring or promotion policies.". It has been further defined as where the credentials for a job or a position are upgraded, even though, there is no skill change that makes this increase necessary.
633:
497:
Cavanagh, Sheila. L. (March 2003). "The Gender of Professionalism and Occupational Closure: The management of tenure-related disputes by the 'Federation of Women Teachers' Associations of Ontario' 1918-1949".
41:
of the highest integrity and competence." The definition of what constitutes a profession is often contested. Professionalization tends to result in establishing acceptable qualifications, one or more
135:
of people, cut off to some extent from the common people, and occupying an elevated station in society: "a narrow elite ... a hierarchical social system: a system of ranked orders and classes."
321:
1880, and met twice a year. Professional codes of ethics were also established for this profession. However, the growing profession of engineering had still difficulty in organizing itself.
88:
The process of professionalization creates "a hierarchical divide between the knowledge-authorities in the professions and a deferential citizenry." This demarcation is often termed "
185:
credentialing boards were created by the end of the 19th century, but initially membership was informal. A person was a professional if enough people said they were a professional.
289:
In Canada, Interprofessional conflict, differences in organization, and state lobby caused the differences in timing and legislature of occupations such as engineering.
533:
Mahony, Karen; Toen, Brett Van (January 1990). "Mathematical Formalism as a Means of Occupational Closure in Computing â why 'hard' computing tends to exclude women".
269:
inspect tenement housing, and sanitary conditions of factories and schools. Doctors were needed to promote public and personal hygiene to reduce disease transmission.
196:
that penalties were put in place for those who failed to meet up to the standards stated. This could include termination of their license to practice. After the
1555:
Downey, Gary Lee; Lucena, Juan C. (December 2004). "Knowledge and professional identity in engineering: codeâswitching and the metrics of progress".
1207:
Downey, Gary Lee; Lucena, Juan C. (December 2004). "Knowledge and professional identity in engineering: codeâswitching and the metrics of progress".
226:
359:
1520:
Lachmund, Jens (November 1998). "Between Scrutiny and Treatment: Physical Diagnosis and the Restructuring of 19th Century Medical Practice".
1112:
Lachmund, Jens (November 1998). "Between Scrutiny and Treatment: Physical Diagnosis and the Restructuring of 19th Century Medical Practice".
317:
corporation", because they were still mostly industry workers anyway and valued the ideology of no government intervention in the economy.
1188:
Eyre and Spottiswoode, , âProfessional handbook, dealing with professions in the colonies / issued by the Emigrants' Information Officeâ.
1181:
419:
Weeden, Kim A. (2002). "Why Do Some Occupations Pay More than Others? Social Closure and Earnings Inequality in the United States".
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1451:
975:
941:
803:
708:
683:
747:
1549:
The Professionalization of Poverty: Social Work and the Poor in the Twentieth Century (Modern Applications of Social Work)
233:
In the United States physicians from other countries could not practice unless they satisfied US regulation requirements.
49:
and to oversee the conduct of members of the profession, and some degree of demarcation of the qualified from unqualified
1746:
1309:
Adams, Tracey L. (August 2009). "Regulating Professions in Canada: Interprovincial Differences across Five Provinces".
998:
Adams, Tracey L. (August 2009). "Regulating Professions in Canada: Interprovincial Differences across Five Provinces".
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1406:
Howell, Colin D. (1981). "Reform and the Monopolistic Impulse: The Professionalization of Medicine in the Maritimes".
1144:
Howell, Colin D. (1981). "Reform and the Monopolistic Impulse: The Professionalization of Medicine in the Maritimes".
1775:
1613:
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Shenhav, Yehouda (1995). "From Chaos to Systems: The Engineering Foundations of Organization Theory, 1879-1932".
1461:
Benton, John F. (1985). "Trotula, Women's Problems, and the Professionalization of Medicine in the Middle Ages".
1249:
Shenhav, Yehouda (1995). "From Chaos to Systems: The Engineering Foundations of Organization Theory, 1879-1932".
587:
Benton, John F. (1985). "Trotula, Women's Problems, and the Professionalization of Medicine in the Middle Ages".
305:
cultural values and preferences. Oftentimes in the US, business and engineer managers influenced engineer work.
125:
462:
Witz, Anne (November 1990). "Patriarchy and Professions: The Gendered Politics of Occupational Closure".
143:
54:
370:
742:
366:
42:
737:
339:
212:
Physicians are a profession that became autonomous or self-regulating. Physicians started as a
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1486:
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to the norm." and abide more or less strictly with the established procedures and any agreed
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Profession and Monopoly: A Study of Medicine in the United States and Great Britain
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1216:
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1063:
1007:
929:
887:
569:
542:
507:
471:
428:
197:
139:
1490:
1185:
876:"Eliot Freidson: progression and constraints in the biography of an intellectual"
726:"Faculty Pressures and Professional Self-Esteem: Life in Texas Teacher Education"
637:
616:
403:
334:
159:
106:
61:", closing the profession to entry from outsiders, amateurs and the unqualified.
20:
1655:
1568:
1285:
1220:
913:
911:
725:
511:
475:
1741:
169:
65:
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172:(1923â2005) is considered one of the founders of the sociology of professions
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121:
102:
77:
46:
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1395:/ issued by the Emigrants Information Office Early Canadiana Online., 1892.
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68:. Critique of professionalization views overzealous versions driven by
38:
1499:
Assembling the Past: Studies in the Professionalization of Archaeology
1338:
1027:
1400:
Profession of Medicine: A Study of the Sociology of Applied Knowledge
34:
1632:
1262:
961:
959:
432:
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1303:
The System of Professions: Essay on the Division of Expert Labour
956:
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50:
1393:
Professional handbook, dealing with professions in the colonies
1752:
University of Aberdeen reading list: Sociology of Professions
1362:
Catching Babies: Professionalization of Childbirth, 1870â1920
650:"Credentialism | Define Credentialism at Dictionary.com"
138:
The professionalization process tends to establish the group
129:
73:
1544:, Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1978
1497:
Alice Beck Kehoe, Mary Beth Emmerichs, and Alfred Bendiner,
64:
Occupations not fully professionalized are sometimes called
846:
844:
842:
840:
72:(essentially, a modern analogue of the negative aspects of
1672:"The movement towards the professionalization of medicine"
1052:"The movement towards the professionalization of medicine"
560:
MacDonald, R. (10 January 2004). "The Hospital at Night".
1606:
Professionalization of Nursing: Current Issues and Trends
1179:
http://eco.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.91236/20?r=0&s=1
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early 19th century in North America and Western Europe.
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Darity, William A., ed. (2008). "Professionalization".
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Darity, William A., ed. (2008). "Professionalization".
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http://polaris.gseis.ucla.edu/pagre/conservatism.html
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1542:
The Rise of Professionalism: a Sociological Analysis
770:"The role of the College and benefits of membership"
631:
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045300482.html
360:"Professionalism, Lecture 5, What is a Profession?"
1195:
919:
1370:International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
926:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History
853:International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
16:Social process of a profession's perceptual shift
1767:
1747:ESA research network on sociology of professions
1590:Linda Reeser, Linda Cherrey, and Irwin Epstein,
768:The Royal College of Pathologists (2005-12-16).
230:some other profession, for example engineering.
1592:Professionalization and Activism in Social Work
1364:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995
1107:
1105:
1103:
407:What Is Conservatism and What Is Wrong with It?
1244:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1034:
1729:The Professionalization of History in English
1139:
1137:
1135:
150:and tends also to insist that members of the
96:then becomes closed to entry from outsiders,
37:or occupation transforms itself into a true "
1731:, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005
1554:
1402:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970
1305:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988
1206:
1100:
993:
991:
989:
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873:
723:
1235:
1669:
1438:, Whitby, ON: de Sitter Publications, 2006
1132:
1049:
724:Tinsley, Ron; Hardy, James (Summer 2003).
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1703:
1083:
984:
917:
891:
741:
559:
128:; their members soon come to comprise an
1519:
1501:, University of New Mexico Press, 2000,
1111:
965:
496:
1618:
1441:
1248:
793:
698:
357:
1768:
1460:
1405:
1367:
1143:
850:
586:
418:
1587:, London: Sage Publications Ltd, 1995
1434:Merle Jacobs and Stephen, E Bosanac,
1308:
997:
921:"Professions and Professionalization"
874:Pereira Neto, André (December 2009).
200:, professions were state controlled.
1514:Professions and Professionalization.
934:10.1093/acref/9780195148909.001.0001
880:HistĂłria, CiĂȘncias, SaĂșde-Manguinhos
673:
461:
1594:, Columbia University Press, 1990,
1463:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
822:. Acpe-accredit.org. Archived from
589:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
13:
1608:, Philadelphia: Lippencott, 1998,
1388:Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2008.
14:
1787:
1735:
1666:, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1966
1662:Howard M Vollmer, and D L Mills,
1547:Gary R. Lowe and P. Nelson Reid,
1522:Sociology of Health & Illness
1372:. Vol. 6. pp. 515â517.
1114:Sociology of Health & Illness
855:. Vol. 6. pp. 515â517.
33:is a social process by which any
1670:Waddington, I (3 October 1990).
1621:Administrative Science Quarterly
1585:The Sociology of the Professions
1516:, Oxford University Press, 2008
1251:Administrative Science Quarterly
1050:Waddington, I (3 October 1990).
57:). It is also likely to create "
1742:Article abstracts on this theme
1442:Johnson, Terence James (1972).
1436:The Professionalization of Work
1295:
1172:
970:. Routledge. pp. 100â102.
893:10.1590/s0104-59702009000400006
867:
812:
787:
761:
750:from the original on 2023-10-27
717:
699:Johnson, Terence James (1972).
692:
667:
656:from the original on 2015-05-07
642:
918:Kenschaft, Lori (2012-02-17).
798:. Cambridge University Press.
623:
580:
553:
526:
490:
455:
412:
351:
1:
421:American Journal of Sociology
345:
207:
924:. In Bonnie G. Smith (ed.).
772:. Rcpath.org. Archived from
280:
7:
1569:10.1080/0734151042000304358
1311:Journal of Canadian Studies
1221:10.1080/0734151042000304358
1000:Journal of Canadian Studies
928:. Oxford University Press.
794:Hetcher, Steven A. (2004).
512:10.1080/0954025032000042130
476:10.1177/0038038590024004007
409:Philip E. Agre, August 2004
328:
10:
1792:
1722:Professions and Patriarchy
240:A publication in the 1840
175:
83:
55:professional certification
18:
1724:, London: Routledge, 1992
1551:, Aldine de Gruyter, 1999
966:Dingwall, Robert (2016).
112:Professions also possess
43:professional associations
1776:Sociological terminology
1688:10.1136/bmj.301.6754.688
1540:Magali Sarfatti Larson,
1068:10.1136/bmj.301.6754.688
574:10.1136/bmj.328.7431.s19
547:10.1080/0954025900020306
367:University of Nottingham
358:Nilsson, Henrik (n.d.).
92:", as it means that the
19:Not to be confused with
1604:Patricia M. Schwirian,
1534:10.1111/1467-9566.00129
1391:Eyre and Spottiswoode,
1190:Early Canadiana Online.
1126:10.1111/1467-9566.00129
242:British Medical Journal
1557:History and Technology
1386:Essays on Professions.
1301:Andrew Delano Abbott,
1209:History and Technology
796:Norms in a Wired World
340:Occupational licensing
162:, which is policed by
1761:devoted to this topic
1444:Professions and Power
968:Essays on Professions
701:Professions and Power
1583:Keith M. Macdonald,
1360:Charlotte G. Borst,
1345:Jeffrey L. Berlant,
1323:10.3138/jcs.43.3.194
1012:10.3138/jcs.43.3.194
676:The Leadership Coach
535:Gender and Education
500:Gender and Education
90:occupational closure
59:occupational closure
1664:Professionalization
730:Essays in Education
674:Buon, Tony (2014).
164:professional bodies
70:perverse incentives
31:professionalisation
27:Professionalization
1184:2015-12-08 at the
636:2021-07-13 at the
402:2015-05-15 at the
1759:Current Sociology
1682:(6754): 688â690.
1507:978-0-8263-1939-5
1453:978-0-333-13430-6
1384:Robert Dingwall,
1335:Project MUSE
1062:(6754): 688â690.
1024:Project MUSE
977:978-1-317-14161-7
943:978-0-19-514890-9
805:978-1-139-45114-7
710:978-0-333-13430-6
685:978-1-4736-0114-7
214:division of labor
1783:
1717:
1707:
1659:
1580:
1537:
1512:Lori Kenschaft,
1494:
1457:
1431:
1398:Eliot Freidson,
1381:
1342:
1290:
1289:
1246:
1233:
1232:
1204:
1193:
1176:
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660:2015-05-20
617:1296295309
380:2007-08-05
346:References
208:Physicians
189:Adam Smith
156:conformity
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613:ProQuest
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400:Archived
329:See also
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