216:
service contracts worth PS450 million from the regional probation trusts to the private probation industry (companies such as the large construction company
Carillion plc). More than 200,000 offenders each year would be supervised by private probation companies. Coventry MP Jim Cunningham argued that the public probation system is "a social service dealing with human needs and human problems, whereas a private company runs on profit and sometimes they tend to take shortcuts to make that profit." The National Association of Probation Officers calls the subcontracting "a disgrace." In May 2014 Bob Jones, police and crime commissioner for the West Midlands, called the controversial scheme to use the private probation industry as "reckless." Jones argued that "changes could lead to higher crime because they would mean the end of a successful scheme which was keeping crime down, called integrated offender management."
80:. The man would have been incarcerated, otherwise. The judge agreed, and instead, Augustus paid the man's fine and took him in. Augustus returned with the drunkard three weeks later for an evaluation. The judge perceived the man to be sober and respectable, and Augustus had found him a job. Impressed, the judge allowed Augustus to continue taking offenders into his custody for a probationary period as an alternative to imprisonment. Augustus took in over a thousand offenders, the majority of whom never returned to the criminal justice system. Augustus's method became popular, and was therefore implemented by
806:
104:. The United States currently incarcerates over two million people, more than any other country in the world, both in absolute numbers and in proportion to its population. Overcrowded prisons have turned to community corrections to relieve their institutions—over five million people are currently serving probation or parole in the United States. However, recidivism rates are high, and overworked probation officers have difficulty monitoring and managing so many probationers, many of whom were sentenced to community corrections simply due to overcrowding.
182:
Detention
Management Services, Inc. for influencing the passing of Senate Bill 474. This private probation legislation, would have "effectively transferred supervision of approximately 25,000 misdemeanants from the State Department of Corrections to the individual counties." Private probation firms like DMS would have benefited greatly from potential individual county contracts. When Sentinel acquired Detention Management Services, Inc., their books showed the $ 75,000 as a lobbyist payment for passage of the legislation. The bill was withdrawn.
238:, education, training, and employment recommendations than required of probation officers in the employ of the state. Moreover, while a heavy caseload is burdensome to the state, for a private agency, heavy caseloads can be profitable and are often planned for, even if services for individual clients deteriorate. States rarely employ minimum standards for private probation agencies. As such, agencies have less incentive to report violations, and there is usually less oversight requiring them to do so.
274:
exercise the kind of oversight needed to protect probationers from abusive and extortionate practices. All too often, offenders on private probation are threatened with jail for failing to pay probation fees they simply cannot afford, and some spend time behind bars." In their report Human Rights Watch argue that leading private probation firms like
Sentinel Offender Services and Judicial Correction Services, who face "serious allegations of abusive practices" have lacked government oversight.
178:
Office of the Courts in
Georgia in 2001, considered the "oversight mechanism and use of local judicial control in Georgia" as a potential "national model for misdemeanor probation privatization." However, as early as 2001 there were criticisms of private probation prompting a call for more "Advisory Council oversight and local accountability through careful contract crafting and performance supervision by the courts will be needed to insure the future success of private probation."
108:
Services Inc., Sentinel
Offender Services (founded in 1993), Judicial Correction Services (established in 2001), Southeast Corrections (founded in 2005), AD Probation, JAG Probation, Georgia Probation Services (founded in 1993 in Trenton, Georgia) and CSRA Probation with services offered in Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Colorado, Utah, Washington, Missouri, Michigan, Montana and Idaho.
97:
would post a bond as insurance for their good behavior. Meeting probation conditions, such as attending court on a certain date, means that the probationer regains the bond. Failure to meet probation conditions means the probationer loses the bond. Most private probation agencies tend to specialize in certain kinds of offenses in an attempt to reduce their overall caseload.
88:
misdemeanor offenders. In 1991 a new law in
Georgia with similar content became the catalyst for the founding of private probation firms based in that state, such as Professional Probation Services, Inc. (founded in 1992) a subsidiary of Universal Health Services Inc., Sentinel Offender Services (founded in 1993), and Judicial Correction Services (established in 2001).
252:
the 1980's the Texas
Legislature introduced additional measures such as automatic assessments, computerized tracking, and increased State contributions. These authors note several benefits of fee collection: saving time through automation, providing another avenue for casework, and expanding probation services into other areas.
282:
so that people are "off of probation, out of the criminal justice system." Others argue that the financial interests of for-profit probation companies may lead to a deterioration of services or to corruption, both of which would disrupt the needs of offenders and communities. In one example, a member of the
281:
journalist listed some of the perils of private probation which included conflicting goals. Private enterprise must make profits and the more paying clients private probation companies have in the form of probationers, the more they earn for their equity firms. Probation programs seek rehabilitation
251:
Probation administrators in Texas have implemented a number of innovations to increase revenue: linking fee collections to staff performance, giving judicial priority to fee collections, instituting a strong no-waiver policy, and strictly enforcing payment. To collect a higher proportion of fees, in
181:
In their 2012 report to the
Georgia Criminal Justice Reform Council, the Southern Center for Human Rights (SCHR) noted the conviction of former Chairman of the Georgia Board of Pardons and Paroles Bobby Whitworth, who during the 2000 General Assembly session in Georgia accepted a $ 75,000 bribe from
168:
On
November 24, 2014, the Georgia Supreme Court ruled that Sentinel had violated Georgians' rights by charging them "tolls," a term for service fees charged by the probation company on top of government fines, which can extend beyond the duration of the actual probation. Georgians may now be able to
153:(founded in 1993), and Judicial Correction Services (established in 2001). Since 1996 the number of private probation contracts in Georgia had dramatically increased. By 2012 Georgia, with many rural areas, was one of only approximately 10-12 states that had private probation policies and services.
42:
programs. The
Salvation Army's misdemeanor probation services initiated in 1975, condoned by the state of Florida, is considered to be among the first private probation services. The private probation industry grew in 1992, when "local and county courts began outsourcing misdemeanor probation cases
144:
In 1991 a new law in Georgia authorized formal contracts under the Probation Services Agreement between local governing authorities and private organizations to supervise misdemeanor offenders. Georgia Legislature county-run probation services for misdemeanor cases were suspended and replaced with
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A distinction is made between the "offender-funded" private probation model or "probation for profit" and private probation which is not in itself problematic. Problems arise when "public officials allow probation companies to profit by extracting fees directly from probationers, and then fail to
215:
In 2006 the UK Home Secretary John Reid announced that UK Probation Service would be opened to the private probation industry. Union representative Harry Fletcher argued that the data proves that the Probation Service was working well. In 2013 the United Kingdom announced plans to shift probation
96:
About ten states now contract probation to private companies. Private probation can take the form of a for-profit private probation agency, or a non-profit community-based private treatment provider. Private probation agencies usually model their practices after the bail bond system. Probationers
265:
Sentinel Offender Services claims to have pioneered the offender-funded model of private probation services in 1992 and to have saved the tax payer "hundreds upon hundreds of millions of dollars." In an environment where municipal courts across the United States are under considerable financial
229:
The American Probation and Parole Association (APPA) began endorsing private sector services "to enhance or supplement supervision and casework services" in 1987. Although states are increasingly privatizing community corrections, some critics argue that private probation is less subject to the
177:
According to the Human Rights Watch 2014 report, Georgia 's courts "put more people on probation with private companies than any other state" but Georgia also has a "more advanced regulatory and oversight model than any other state that permits privatized probation services." The Administrative
107:
As a result, since 1992 probation has also implemented privatization in order to relieve its caseload. In the United States private probation firms that provide offender-funded misdemeanor probation include Professional Probation Services, Inc. (founded in 1992) a subsidiary of Universal Health
206:
Sentinel Offender Services is active in several Michigan counties. In September 2014, the ACLU brought suit against Michigan for imprisoning a woman who had fled to an emergency room after her boyfriend threatened her with a gun. Because she had been cited for driving without a license and had
164:
Sentinel Offender Services provides probation service to over ninety courts in Georgia. The private probation firm Sentinel Offender Services and the Richmond County State Court were accused of abuse and civil rights violations. "In Augusta, Georgia numerous former probationers accuse Sentinel
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was convicted on public corruption charges for accepting a bribe from a private probation agency. States generally forbid governmental officials from maintaining interests in private probation agencies, and some require that agencies post a surety bond to be allowed to supervise probationers.
87:
Faced with an increase in the number of offenders in the 1970s, the state of Florida became the first to begin private probation. In 1975 Florida authorized the Salvation Army Misdemeanor Probation program. In 1989 both Missouri and Tennessee passed laws allowing private entities to supervise
165:
Offender Services of ignoring their inability to pay hundreds and even thousands of dollars in company fees." Sentinel Offender Services no longer operates in the state of Georgia; however, the company, contracts and employees were bought by CSRA, who is also headquartered in Augusta.
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estimated that private probation firms in Georgia collect approximately $ 40 million a year from the people they supervise, mostly those who cannot afford to pay fines associated with low-level misdemeanors such as stop sign violations, illegal lane change, or trespassing.
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Since the 1970s in Texas there have been a number of offender-funded initiatives designed to increase county probation services by making probationers pay for a large part of their own supervision. According to a National Institute of Justice 1992 paper,
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Since the 1970s, the Texas State Legislature has enacted a number of initiatives designed to help county probation departments increase their total revenues by requiring probationers to pay for a substantial proportion of their own supervision costs.
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The Georgia bill, called House Bill (HB) 837 would have extended more probation services to private companies to manage the probation periods of minor offenders while exempting the companies from Georgia's open-records laws. Georgia Governor
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Judicial Correction Services provides probation services to court systems in Alabama. In 2012 Circuit Court Judge Hub Harrington in a well-documented case regarding private probation characterized the contract between
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out-sourced private firms since c.1992. This was the catalyst for the founding of Georgia-based private probation firms such as Professional Probation Services, Inc. (founded in 1992) a subsidiary of
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Georgia bill would protect controversial for-profit probation industry: State lawmakers support private law enforcement contractors that critics say are unconstitutional and too powerful
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as a public alternative to incarceration, and later by the other states in the United States. This slowly replaced private, voluntary probation such as that practiced by Augustus.
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Georgia uses private probation more than any other state, with approximately 500,000 citizens on probation last year. The situation there has been likened to "debtor's prison".
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argue that private probation companies are profiting from poverty and devastating communities to a much greater extent than publicly run probation. In
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In 2013 a bill in Alabama to extend private probation from local municipal courts to state courts was supported by the private probation industry.
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notes that "The more commercialized fee collection and probation services get, the more the costs of these services are inflicted on the poor."
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978:
933:
1431:
Curran, D. J. "Destructuring, Privatization, and the Promise of Juvenile Diversion: Compromising Community-Based Corrections."
995:
270:, who are "offender-funded" are able to provide the service for free to local authorities while turning a substantial profit.
896:
1528:
1445:
Larivee, J. J. "Community Programs, A Risky Business: Community-Based Alternatives for Inmates in Need of Rehabilitation."
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standards of oversight and regulation that public probation is held to. Private probation agencies generally require less
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McWhirter, Cameron; Rankin, Bill (March 11, 2009), "Lawmaker Writes Bill That Affects Own Private Probation Industry",
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1257:
849:
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17:
820:
1452:
Lindquist, C. A. "The Private Sector in Corrections: Contracting Probation Services from Community Organizations."
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Judicial Correction Services provides probation services to court systems in Florida. Salvation Army does as well.
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get money they paid in "tolls" back from Sentinel and other probation companies in the state.
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122:
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as an extortion racket which created a debtors' prison condoned by local elected officials.
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Judicial Correction Services provides probation services to court systems in Mississippi.
8:
1480:
Oldfield, M. "Talking Quality, Meaning McDonalds, the Market and the Probation Service."
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77:
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Private probation dates to 1992 in the United States when there was a rapid increase in
34:, including rehabilitative services and supervision, to private agencies. These include
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to private companies to alleviate pressure on overburdened state probation officers."
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1461:
Privatization and the Provision of Correctional Services: Context and Consequences
948:
Barton-Bellessa, Shannon M. (2012), "SAGE Encyclopedia of Community Corrections",
906:
278:
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962:
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1522:
1326:
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101:
81:
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1312:"Standards in the Privatization of Probation Services: A Statutory Analysis"
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outstanding fines, she was arrested and sentenced to six months in prison.
1347:
1252:, NCPA Policy Report, Dallas, Texas: National Center for Policy Analysis,
866:"Profiting from Probation: America's "Offender-Funded" Probation Industry"
578:
576:
451:
449:
158:
1005:, Civil Action No. CV 2010-900183, Shelby County, Alabama, July 11, 2012
1470:(pp. 25–28). Longmont, CO: National Institute of Corrections, 1998
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994:
737:
573:
567:
446:
73:
39:
35:
1234:"Roadblocks to Reform: Perils for Georgia's Criminal Justice System",
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359:
357:
355:
1282:"Supreme Court: Private probation legal, but not drawn-out sentences"
1263:
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31:
1193:
352:
1385:, Atlanta, GA: Administrative Office of the Courts, archived from
1299:"ACLU says "pay or stay" is modern-day version of debtors prisons"
1028:
606:
235:
1440:
Contracting for Correctional Services in the Community, Volume I
1475:
Privatizing Juvenile Probation Services: Five Local Experiences
1155:"Debtors Prison' Run by Harpersville Municipal Court Shut Down"
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76:, convinced a judge to grant him custody of a man convicted of
1426:
The Politics of Privatization: Contracting-Out Public Services
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1018:"The Private Probation Problem Is Worse Than Anyone Thought"
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410:
47:
1216:
Rappleye, Hannah; Seville, Lisa Riordan (April 14, 2014),
488:
329:
256:
1473:
Office of Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Prevention.
1442:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978
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National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice
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755:
529:
431:
1338:
365:
1045:, no. A05A1340, pp. 23–24, September 29, 2005
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719:
1218:"The Town That Turned Poverty Into a Prison Sentence"
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376:
374:
1477:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1989
1161:, Columbiana, Alabama, July 15, 2012, archived from
1087:"Making the Offender Foot the Bill: A Texas Program"
743:
707:
671:"Private Probation Service Could Mean Rise in Crime"
636:
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517:
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1363:"Preying on the Poor: For-Profit Probation Edition"
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1310:Schloss, Christine S.; Alarid, Leanne F. (2007),
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1382:Private Probation in Georgia: A New Direction
1309:
1055:
958:"Probation Fees Multiply as Companies Profit"
693:"Private Probation Service Plan Is Condemned"
425:
1463:. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing, 1996.
863:
785:
773:
761:
738:Circuit Court of Shelby County, Alabama 2012
568:Southern Center for Human Rights (SCHR) 2010
535:
494:
440:
266:strain, private probation companies such as
1067:"The Expanding World of Poverty Capitalism"
1084:
979:"Judge in Alabama Halts Private Probation"
898:Private sector could run Probation Service
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284:Georgia State Board of Pardons and Paroles
1495:The Expanding World of Poverty Capitalism
894:
850:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1399:
1296:
1242:
1132:""Profiting from Probation" in Michigan"
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813:This article includes a list of general
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1236:Southern Center for Human Rights (SCHR)
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1003:Circuit Court of Shelby County, Alabama
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607:Corrections Corporation of America 2010
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550:
523:
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257:Offender-funded private probation model
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14:
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1297:Samilton, Tracy (September 29, 2014).
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1060:, Democracy in America, April 22, 2014
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121:, a private probation company and the
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1056:"Private probation: A juicy secret",
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895:Alexander, Anne (September 7, 2006),
864:Albin-Lackey, Chris (February 2014),
630:
511:
482:
392:
1093:, no. NCJ-136839, Rockville, MD
1029:"2010 Annual Report on Form: 10-K",
923:"The Perils of Privatized Probation"
799:
224:
1466:National Institute of Corrections.
1280:Salzer, James (November 24, 2014).
1085:Finn, P; Parent, D (October 1992),
660:
24:
1418:
1113:Gambino, Lauren (April 16, 2014),
1065:Edsall, Thomas (August 26, 2014),
1031:Corrections Corporation of America
1016:Cohen, Andrew (February 5, 2014).
819:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
1545:
1488:
1468:Privatizing Community Supervision
1400:Stillman, Sarah (June 23, 2014),
1243:Reynolds, Morgan O. (June 2000),
1130:Honig, Abram (October 24, 2014).
977:Bronner, Ethan (July 13, 2012a),
456:Judicial Correction Services 2011
210:
1340:"Probation & Court Services"
1246:Privatizing Probation and Parole
1209:The Atlanta Journal-Constitution
804:
583:Court of Appeals of Georgia 2005
91:
956:Bronner, Ethan (July 2, 2012),
685:
1367:American Civil Liberties Union
1361:Solon, Sarah (June 18, 2014),
1186:"Judicial Correction Services"
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13:
1:
1428:. New York: St. Martins, 1987
1379:Sparrow, Holly K. O. (2001),
921:Balko, Radley (May 6, 2014),
795:
675:The Birmingham Post (England)
366:Sentinel Offender Services nd
161:vetoed Bill 837 in May 2014.
1238:, Atlanta, GA, November 2012
1178:Judicial Correction Services
322:
268:Judicial Correction Services
219:
123:Harpersville Municipal Court
119:Judicial Correction Services
7:
1529:Parole in the United States
1043:Court of Appeals of Georgia
966:, Childhildersburg, Alabama
619:McWhirter & Rankin 2005
347:Rappleye & Seville 2014
290:
201:
173:Georgia's regulatory system
10:
1550:
1344:Sentinel Offender Services
996:"Burdette vs Harpersville"
185:
151:Sentinel Offender Services
131:
111:
63:
1190:Company website retrieved
426:Schloss & Alarid 2007
302:Prison–industrial complex
147:Universal Health Services
1459:Mays, G. & T. Gray.
1327:10.1177/0734016807304949
1433:Crime & Delinquency
1319:Criminal Justice Review
1176:"INC Company Profile",
1136:Michigan Policy Network
834:more precise citations.
699:, England, May 22, 2014
1402:"Get out of Jail, INC"
1192:, 2011, archived from
1108:, pp. 23–24, 2005
1104:"Whitworth v. State",
903:Yorkshire Evening Post
726:Finn & Parent 1992
254:
46:Opponents such as the
30:is the contracting of
1507:Get Out of Jail, Inc.
1438:Kassebaum, G. et al.
312:Rehabilitation Policy
249:
1346:, nd, archived from
1039:"Whitworth v. State"
242:Probation for profit
928:The Washington Post
697:The Birmingham Post
78:public intoxication
1503:, August 26, 2014.
1500:The New York Times
1211:, Atlanta, Georgia
1119:, UK: The Guardian
1072:The New York Times
901:, Leeds, England:
873:Human Rights Watch
317:Suspended sentence
138:Human Rights Watch
53:The New York Times
38:organizations and
1482:Probation Journal
1454:Federal Probation
1447:Corrections Today
860:
859:
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786:Albin-Lackey 2014
774:Albin-Lackey 2014
762:Albin-Lackey 2014
703:HighBeam Research
681:HighBeam Research
536:Albin-Lackey 2014
495:Albin-Lackey 2014
441:Albin-Lackey 2014
225:Lack of oversight
28:Private probation
18:Private Probation
16:(Redirected from
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794:
791:
790:
778:
776:, p. 1-2.
766:
754:
742:
730:
718:
706:
684:
659:
655:Alexander 2006
647:
635:
623:
611:
599:
587:
572:
555:
540:
528:
516:
499:
487:
475:
460:
445:
430:
428:, p. 235.
409:
397:
385:
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351:
327:
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321:
320:
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314:
309:
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292:
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258:
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211:United Kingdom
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174:
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133:
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113:
110:
93:
90:
65:
62:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1546:
1535:
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1527:
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1508:
1505:
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1501:
1496:
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1492:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1469:
1465:
1462:
1458:
1456:(v. 44, 1980)
1455:
1451:
1449:(v. 55, 1993)
1448:
1444:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1427:
1423:
1422:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1389:on 2011-11-06
1388:
1384:
1383:
1377:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1350:on 2007-06-26
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1269:on 2011-05-26
1265:
1261:
1259:1-56808-089-1
1255:
1248:
1247:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1196:on 2012-07-06
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1165:on 2012-07-16
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1142:on 2014-12-05
1141:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1118:
1117:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1074:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1058:The Economist
1054:
1044:
1040:
1036:
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1027:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1004:
997:
993:
984:
980:
975:
965:
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959:
954:
951:
946:
937:on 2014-05-07
935:
930:
929:
924:
919:
909:on 2014-08-08
908:
904:
900:
899:
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884:
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867:
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861:
854:
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833:
829:
823:
822:
816:
811:
802:
801:
787:
782:
775:
770:
763:
758:
751:
750:Stillman 2014
746:
739:
734:
727:
722:
715:
714:Reynolds 2000
710:
704:
698:
694:
688:
682:
676:
672:
666:
664:
656:
651:
644:
643:Samilton 2014
639:
632:
627:
620:
615:
608:
603:
596:
591:
584:
579:
577:
569:
564:
562:
560:
552:
547:
545:
537:
532:
525:
520:
513:
508:
506:
504:
497:, p. 19.
496:
491:
484:
479:
472:
467:
465:
457:
452:
450:
443:, p. 10.
442:
437:
435:
427:
422:
420:
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416:
414:
406:
401:
394:
389:
382:
377:
375:
367:
362:
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348:
343:
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333:
328:
318:
315:
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298:
295:
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288:
285:
280:
275:
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263:
253:
248:
239:
237:
233:
232:certification
217:
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199:
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183:
179:
170:
166:
162:
160:
154:
152:
148:
142:
139:
129:
126:
124:
120:
109:
105:
103:
102:incarceration
98:
92:United States
89:
85:
83:
82:Massachusetts
79:
75:
71:
70:John Augustus
61:
59:
55:
54:
49:
44:
41:
37:
33:
29:
19:
1509:
1498:
1481:
1474:
1467:
1460:
1453:
1446:
1439:
1432:
1425:
1409:, retrieved
1405:
1391:, retrieved
1387:the original
1381:
1370:, retrieved
1366:
1352:, retrieved
1348:the original
1343:
1330:, retrieved
1318:
1302:
1290:the original
1285:
1271:, retrieved
1264:the original
1245:
1235:
1225:, retrieved
1221:
1208:
1198:, retrieved
1194:the original
1189:
1177:
1167:, retrieved
1163:the original
1158:
1144:. Retrieved
1140:the original
1135:
1121:, retrieved
1115:
1105:
1095:, retrieved
1090:
1076:, retrieved
1070:
1057:
1047:, retrieved
1042:
1030:
1022:The Atlantic
1021:
1007:, retrieved
1002:
986:, retrieved
982:
968:, retrieved
961:
949:
939:, retrieved
934:the original
926:
911:, retrieved
907:the original
897:
886:, retrieved
872:
846:
837:
818:
788:, p. 4.
781:
769:
764:, p. 1.
757:
745:
733:
721:
709:
701:MGN Ltd via
696:
687:
679:MGN Ltd via
674:
650:
638:
626:
614:
602:
595:Georgia 2005
590:
553:, p. 2.
551:Sparrow 2001
538:, p. 5.
531:
526:, p. 1.
524:Sparrow 2001
519:
490:
478:
400:
388:
381:Gambino 2014
276:
272:
264:
260:
250:
245:
228:
214:
205:
197:
189:
180:
176:
167:
163:
155:
143:
135:
127:
115:
106:
99:
95:
86:
67:
51:
45:
27:
26:
1424:Ascher, K.
917:MGN Ltd via
832:introducing
471:Salzer 2014
405:Edsall 2014
194:Mississippi
159:Nathan Deal
72:, a Boston
1523:Categories
1411:2014-08-03
1393:2014-08-04
1372:2014-08-31
1354:2014-08-03
1332:2014-08-03
1273:2014-08-03
1227:2014-08-03
1222:The Nation
1200:2012-07-03
1169:2014-08-03
1146:2014-12-01
1123:2014-08-03
1097:2014-08-04
1078:2014-08-29
1049:2014-08-04
1009:2014-08-04
988:2014-08-03
970:2014-08-03
941:2021-11-20
913:2014-08-03
888:2014-08-03
840:April 2014
815:references
796:References
631:Honig 2014
512:Balko 2014
483:Cohen 2014
393:Solon 2014
277:In 2014 a
40:for-profit
36:non-profit
1534:Probation
323:Citations
307:Probation
220:Criticism
68:In 1841,
32:probation
291:See also
202:Michigan
1286:ajc.com
1106:Georgia
828:improve
236:license
186:Florida
132:Georgia
112:Alabama
74:cobbler
64:History
1256:
1180:, 2010
1033:, 2010
879:
817:, but
297:Parole
149:Inc.,
1315:(PDF)
1267:(PDF)
1250:(PDF)
999:(PDF)
869:(PDF)
1254:ISBN
950:SAGE
877:ISBN
48:ACLU
1323:doi
1525::
1497:.
1404:,
1365:,
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1301:.
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662:^
575:^
558:^
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234:,
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1325::
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20:)
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