Printed circuit board

1721:. Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to splash boards with etchant; the process has become commercially obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is distributed over the boards by nozzles, and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of etching rates and high production rates. As more copper is consumed from the boards, the etchant becomes saturated and less effective; different etchants have different capacities for copper, with some as high as 150 grams of copper per liter of solution. In commercial use, etchants can be regenerated to restore their activity, and the dissolved copper recovered and sold. Small-scale etching requires attention to disposal of used etchant, which is corrosive and toxic due to its metal content. The etchant removes copper on all surfaces not protected by the resist. "Undercut" occurs when etchant attacks the thin edge of copper under the resist; this can reduce conductor widths and cause open-circuits. Careful control of etch time is required to prevent undercut. Where metallic plating is used as a resist, it can "overhang" which can cause short-circuits between adjacent traces when closely spaced. Overhang can be removed by wire-brushing the board after etching. 1802: 2430:, where short traces were important. In cordwood construction, axial-leaded components were mounted between two parallel planes. The name comes from the way axial-lead components (capacitors, resistors, coils, and diodes) are stacked in parallel rows and columns, like a stack of firewood. The components were either soldered together with jumper wire or they were connected to other components by thin nickel ribbon welded at right angles onto the component leads. To avoid shorting together different interconnection layers, thin insulating cards were placed between them. Perforations or holes in the cards allowed component leads to project through to the next interconnection layer. One disadvantage of this system was that special 609: 2434:-leaded components had to be used to allow reliable interconnecting welds to be made. Differential thermal expansion of the component could put pressure on the leads of the components and the PCB traces and cause mechanical damage (as was seen in several modules on the Apollo program). Additionally, components located in the interior are difficult to replace. Some versions of cordwood construction used soldered single-sided PCBs as the interconnection method (as pictured), allowing the use of normal-leaded components at the cost of being difficult to remove the boards or replace any component that is not at the edge. 1394: 2031:). A photo-sensitive coating is applied to the surface of the PWB, then exposed to light through the solder mask image film, and finally developed where the unexposed areas are washed away. Dry film solder mask is similar to the dry film used to image the PWB for plating or etching. After being laminated to the PWB surface it is imaged and developed as LPI. Once but no longer commonly used, because of its low accuracy and resolution, is to screen print epoxy ink. In addition to repelling solder, solder resist also provides protection from the environment to the copper that would otherwise be exposed. 2328:. Improper handling techniques might transmit an accumulated static charge through the board, damaging or destroying components. The damage might not immediately affect function but might lead to early failure later on, cause intermittent operating faults, or cause a narrowing of the range of environmental and electrical conditions under which the board functions properly. Even bare boards are sometimes static sensitive: traces have become so fine that it is possible to blow a trace (or change its characteristics) with a static discharge. This is especially true on non-traditional PCBs such as 672:

smaller and component placement on both sides of the board became more common than with through-hole mounting, allowing much smaller PCB assemblies with much higher circuit densities. Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation, reducing labor costs and greatly increasing production rates compared with through-hole circuit boards. Components can be supplied mounted on carrier tapes. Surface mount components can be about one-quarter to one-tenth of the size and weight of through-hole components, and passive components much cheaper. However, prices of semiconductor

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multi-layer HDI PCBs the interconnection of several vias stacked on top of each other (stacked vías, instead of one deep buried via) can be made stronger, thus enhancing reliability in all conditions. The most common applications for HDI technology are computer and mobile phone components as well as medical equipment and military communication equipment. A 4-layer HDI microvia PCB is equivalent in quality to an 8-layer through-hole PCB, so HDI technology can reduce costs. HDI PCBs are often made using build-up film such as ajinomoto build-up film, which is also used in the production of

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be desired to take advantage of the size, weight, and cost reductions obtainable by using some available surface-mount devices. Another reason to use both methods is that through-hole mounting can provide needed strength for components likely to endure physical stress (such as connectors that are frequently mated and demated or that connect to cables expected to impart substantial stress to the PCB-and-connector interface), while components that are expected to go untouched will take up less space using surface-mount techniques.

2016: 235: 597: 1773: 2473: 572: 6769: 584: 2399: 6779: 2615: 2346: 1343: 391: 6789: 2008: 1912:. The de-smear process ensures that a good connection is made to the copper layers when the hole is plated through. On high reliability boards a process called etch-back is performed chemically with a potassium permanganate based etchant or plasma etching. The etch-back removes resin and the glass fibers so that the copper layers extend into the hole and as the hole is plated become integral with the deposited copper. 4283: 1139: 2407: 69: 2121: 620:"Through hole" components are mounted by their wire leads passing through the board and soldered to traces on the other side. "Surface mount" components are attached by their leads to copper traces on the same side of the board. A board may use both methods for mounting components. PCBs with only through-hole mounted components are now uncommon. Surface mounting is used for 1027:(IMS), clad with thermally conductive thin dielectric - used for parts requiring significant cooling - power switches, LEDs. Consists of usually single, sometimes double layer thin circuit board based on e.g. FR-4, laminated on aluminum sheet metal, commonly 0.8, 1, 1.5, 2 or 3 mm thick. The thicker laminates sometimes also come with thicker copper metalization. 4003: 1733:

the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any desired weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief etching step removes the now-exposed bare original copper laminate from the board, isolating the individual traces. Some single-sided boards which have plated-through holes are made in this way.

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replaces it. This shift is economically efficient from a manufacturer's point of view but is also materially wasteful, as a circuit board with hundreds of functional components may be discarded and replaced due to the failure of one minor and inexpensive part, such as a resistor or capacitor. This practice is a significant contributor to the problem of

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which removes the unexposed film). The exposed areas are sensitized in a chemical bath, usually containing palladium and similar to that used for through hole plating which makes the exposed area capable of bonding metal ions. The laminate is then plated with copper in the sensitized areas. When the mask is stripped, the PCB is finished.

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leads (such as resistors, capacitors, and diodes) is done by bending the leads 90 degrees in the same direction, inserting the part in the board (often bending leads located on the back of the board in opposite directions to improve the part's mechanical strength), soldering the leads, and trimming off the ends. Leads may be

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Often, through-hole and surface-mount construction must be combined in a single assembly because some required components are available only in surface-mount packages, while others are available only in through-hole packages. Or, even if all components are available in through-hole packages, it might

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In multi-layer boards, the layers of material are laminated together in an alternating sandwich: copper, substrate, copper, substrate, copper, etc.; each plane of copper is etched, and any internal vias (that will not extend to both outer surfaces of the finished multilayer board) are plated-through,

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A printed circuit board can have multiple layers of copper which almost always are arranged in pairs. The number of layers and the interconnection designed between them (vias, PTHs) provide a general estimate of the board complexity. Using more layers allow for more routing options and better control

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In boundary scan testing, test circuits integrated into various ICs on the board form temporary connections between the PCB traces to test that the ICs are mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires that all the ICs to be tested use a standard test configuration procedure, the most common one

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on the surfaces of the PCB; solder paste, which was previously applied to the pads, holds the components in place temporarily; if surface-mount components are applied to both sides of the board, the bottom-side components are glued to the board. In both through hole and surface mount, the components

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Multi-layer printed circuit boards have trace layers inside the board. This is achieved by laminating a stack of materials in a press by applying pressure and heat for a period of time. This results in an inseparable one piece product. For example, a four-layer PCB can be fabricated by starting from

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uses a photomask and developer to selectively remove a UV-sensitive photoresist coating and thus create a photoresist mask that will protect the copper below it. Direct imaging techniques are sometimes used for high-resolution requirements. Experiments have been made with thermal resist. A laser may

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1/2 oz/ft foil is not widely used as a finished copper weight, but is used for outer layers when plating for through holes will increase the finished copper weight Some PCB manufacturers refer to 1 oz/ft copper foil as having a thickness of 35 μm (may also be referred to as 35 μ,

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Even as circuit boards became available, the point-to-point chassis construction method remained in common use in industry (such as TV and hi-fi sets) into at least the late 1960s. Printed circuit boards were introduced to reduce the size, weight, and cost of parts of the circuitry. In 1960, a small

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The first step is to replicate the pattern in the fabricator's CAM system on a protective mask on the copper foil PCB layers. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper unprotected by the mask. (Alternatively, a conductive ink can be ink-jetted on a blank (non-conductive) board. This technique

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The panel is eventually broken into individual PCBs along perforations or grooves in the panel through milling or cutting. For milled panels a common distance between the individual boards is 2–3 mm. Today depaneling is often done by lasers which cut the board with no contact. Laser depaneling

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Motorola was an early leader in bringing the process into consumer electronics, announcing in August 1952 the adoption of "plated circuits" in home radios after six years of research and a $ 1M investment. Motorola soon began using its trademarked term for the process, PLAcir, in its consumer radio

1994:

under the influence of an electric field. Silver also grows conducting surface paths in the presence of halide and other ions, making it a poor choice for electronics use. Tin will grow "whiskers" due to tension in the plated surface. Tin-lead or solder plating also grows whiskers, only reduced by

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Semi-additive is the most common process: The unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it. A reverse mask is then applied (Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask exposes those parts of the substrate that will eventually become the traces). Additional copper is then plated onto

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or similar patterns for even copper distribution over the whole panel in order to avoid bending. The assemblers often mount components on panels rather than single PCBs because this is efficient. Panelization may also be necessary for boards with components placed near an edge of the board because

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copper per ft (35 μm) is the most common thickness; 2 oz (70 μm) and 0.5 oz (17.5 μm) thickness is often an option. Less common are 12 and 105 μm, 9 μm is sometimes available on some substrates. Flexible substrates typically have thinner metalization. Metal-core boards for

941:, frequency dependence introduces phase distortion in wideband applications; as flat a dielectric constant vs frequency characteristics as is achievable is important here. The impedance of transmission lines decreases with frequency, therefore faster edges of signals reflect more than slower ones. 651:

inserted through holes on one side of the board and soldered onto copper traces on the other side. Boards may be single-sided, with an unplated component side, or more compact double-sided boards, with components soldered on both sides. Horizontal installation of through-hole parts with two axial

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PCBs can be single-sided (one copper layer), double-sided (two copper layers on both sides of one substrate layer), or multi-layer (outer and inner layers of copper, alternating with layers of substrate). Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density, because circuit traces on the inner

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Moisture absorption occurs when the material is exposed to high humidity or water. Both the resin and the reinforcement may absorb water; water also may be soaked by capillary forces through voids in the materials and along the reinforcement. Epoxies of the FR-4 materials are not too susceptible,

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emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum in the early 1980s, and became widely used by the mid-1990s. Components were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs or end caps that could be soldered directly onto the PCB surface, instead of wire leads to pass through holes. Components became much

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of signal integrity, but are also time-consuming and costly to manufacture. Likewise, selection of the vias for the board also allow fine tuning of the board size, escaping of signals off complex ICs, routing, and long term reliability, but are tightly coupled with production complexity and cost.

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software is available to do much of the work of layout. Mass-producing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods, as components are mounted and wired in one operation. Large numbers of PCBs can be fabricated at the same time, and the layout has to be done only once.

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onto a bare substrate using a complex process. The advantage of the additive method is that less material is needed and less waste is produced. In the full additive process the bare laminate is covered with a photosensitive film which is imaged (exposed to light through a mask and then developed

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and cyanate esters, on the other side, suffer from high water absorption. Absorbed water can lead to significant degradation of key parameters; it impairs tracking resistance, breakdown voltage, and dielectric parameters. Relative dielectric constant of water is about 73, compared to about 4 for

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HDI (High Density Interconnect) technology allows for a denser design on the PCB and thus potentially smaller PCBs with more traces and components in a given area. As a result, the paths between components can be shorter. HDIs use blind/buried vias, or a combination that includes microvias. With

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the thermal expansion of the resin roughly matches copper and glass, above it gets significantly higher. As the reinforcement and copper confine the board along the plane, virtually all volume expansion projects to the thickness and stresses the plated-through holes. Repeated soldering or other

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The reinforcement type defines two major classes of materials: woven and non-woven. Woven reinforcements are cheaper, but the high dielectric constant of glass may not be favorable for many higher-frequency applications. The spatially nonhomogeneous structure also introduces local variations in

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One of the simplest boards to produce is the two-layer board. It has copper on both sides that are referred to as external layers; multi layer boards sandwich additional internal layers of copper and insulation. After two-layer PCBs, the next step up is the four-layer. The four layer board adds

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connectors, wire connector lugs on screw terminals, or other methods. Circuits were large, bulky, heavy, and relatively fragile (even discounting the breakable glass envelopes of the vacuum tubes that were often included in the circuits), and production was labor-intensive, so the products were

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Manufacturers may not support component-level repair of printed circuit boards because of the relatively low cost to replace compared with the time and cost of troubleshooting to a component level. In board-level repair, the technician identifies the board (PCA) on which the fault resides and

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Since it was quite easy to stack interconnections (wires) inside the embedding matrix, the approach allowed designers to forget completely about the routing of wires (usually a time-consuming operation of PCB design): Anywhere the designer needs a connection, the machine will draw a wire in a

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The inner layers are given a complete machine inspection before lamination because mistakes cannot be corrected afterwards. Automatic optical inspection (AOI) machines compare an image of the board with the digital image generated from the original design data. Automated Optical Shaping (AOS)

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Loss tangent determines how much of the electromagnetic energy from the signals in the conductors is absorbed in the board material. This factor is important for high frequencies. Low-loss materials are more expensive. Choosing unnecessarily low-loss material is a common engineering error in

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With decreasing size of board features and increasing frequencies, small nonhomogeneities like uneven distribution of fiberglass or other filler, thickness variations, and bubbles in the resin matrix, and the associated local variations in the dielectric constant, are gaining importance.

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on layers immediately below the top layer on multi-layer boards, since the holes must pass through all layers to the opposite side. Once surface-mounting came into use, small-sized SMD components were used where possible, with through-hole mounting only of components unsuitably large for

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which is coated onto the PCB, then exposed to light projected in the pattern of the artwork. The resist material protects the copper from dissolution into the etching solution. The etched board is then cleaned. A PCB design can be mass-reproduced in a way similar to the way

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thanks to the versatility of their layers, especially the copper layer. PCB layers have been used to fabricate sensors, such as capacitive pressure sensors and accelerometers, actuators such as microvalves and microheaters, as well as platforms of sensors and actuators for

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Subtractive methods remove copper from an entirely copper-coated board to leave only the desired copper pattern. The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as

4001:, Burr, Robert P.; Morino, Ronald & Keogh, Raymond J., "Multi-wire electrical interconnecting member having a multi-wire matrix of insulated wires mechanically terminated thereon", published 1979-11-27, assigned to Kollmorgen Technologies Corp. 185:

on a chassis. Typically, the chassis was a sheet metal frame or pan, sometimes with a wooden bottom. Components were attached to the chassis, usually by insulators when the connecting point on the chassis was metal, and then their leads were connected directly or with

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From the 1980s onward, small surface mount parts have been used increasingly instead of through-hole components; this has led to smaller boards for a given functionality and lower production costs, but with some additional difficulty in servicing faulty boards.

696:, determined by its width, thickness, and length, must be sufficiently low for the current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than signal traces. In a multi-layer board one entire layer may be mostly solid copper to act as a 2798: 2492:. The purpose of a breakout board is to "break out" the leads of a component on separate terminals so that manual connections to them can be made easily. Breakout boards are especially used for surface-mount components or any components with fine lead pitch. 257:

for use in World War II. Such fuzes required an electronic circuit that could withstand being fired from a gun, and could be produced in quantity. The Centralab Division of Globe Union submitted a proposal which met the requirements: a ceramic plate would be

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A PCB as a design on a computer (left) and realized as a board assembly populated with components (right). The board is double sided, with through-hole plating, green solder resist and a white legend. Both surface mount and through-hole components have been

840:(woven glass and epoxy), CEM-1 (cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-2 (cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-3 (non-woven glass and epoxy), CEM-4 (woven glass and epoxy), CEM-5 (woven glass and polyester). Thermal expansion is an important consideration especially with 2504:

Multiwire is a patented technique of interconnection which uses machine-routed insulated wires embedded in a non-conducting matrix (often plastic resin). It was used during the 1980s and 1990s. As of 2010, Multiwire was still available through Hitachi.

266:, with ceramic disc capacitors and subminiature vacuum tubes soldered in place. The technique proved viable, and the resulting patent on the process, which was classified by the U.S. Army, was assigned to Globe Union. It was not until 1984 that the 2027:). The solder mask is what gives PCBs their characteristic green color, although it is also available in several other colors, such as red, blue, purple, yellow, black and white. One of the most common solder resists used today is called "LPI" ( 1833:

Holes may be made conductive, by electroplating or inserting hollow metal eyelets, to connect board layers. Some conductive holes are intended for the insertion of through-hole-component leads. Others used to connect board layers, are called

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have meant that there are several new techniques in PCB creation. 3D printed electronics (PEs) can be utilized to print items layer by layer and subsequently the item can be printed with a liquid ink that contains electronic functionalities.

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electrical parameters, due to different resin/glass ratio at different areas of the weave pattern. Nonwoven reinforcements, or materials with low or no reinforcement, are more expensive but more suitable for some RF/analog applications.

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Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate, such as capacitors and integrated circuits, to reduce the amount of space taken up by components on the surface of the PCB while improving electrical characteristics.

863:) and a reinforcement (usually a woven, sometimes nonwoven, glass fibers, sometimes even paper), and in some cases a filler is added to the resin (e.g. ceramics; titanate ceramics can be used to increase the dielectric constant). 1870:

drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board. These holes are called

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Development of the methods used in modern printed circuit boards started early in the 20th century. In 1903, a German inventor, Albert Hanson, described flat foil conductors laminated to an insulating board, in multiple layers.

1817:. Coated tungsten carbide is used because board materials are abrasive. High-speed-steel bits would dull quickly, tearing the copper and ruining the board. Drilling is done by computer-controlled drilling machines, using a 761:

resin under pressure and heat to form an integral final piece of uniform thickness. They can be up to 4 by 8 feet (1.2 by 2.4 m) in width and length. Varying cloth weaves (threads per inch or cm), cloth thickness, and

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In the 1990s the use of multilayer surface boards became more frequent. As a result, size was further minimized and both flexible and rigid PCBs were incorporated in different devices. In 1995 PCB manufacturers began using

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are done after the holes are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched away.

2096:. A short is a connection between two points that should not be connected. An open is a missing connection between points that should be connected. For high-volume production, a fixture such as a "bed of nails" in a 2191:

packages. All through-hole components can be hand soldered, making them favored for prototyping where size, weight, and the use of the exact components that would be used in high volume production are not concerns.

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a two-sided copper-clad laminate, etch the circuitry on both sides, then laminate to the top and bottom pre-preg and copper foil. It is then drilled, plated, and etched again to get traces on top and bottom layers.

4190:

1. “You Are HereDEQ Pollutants and Toxicants Environmental Lead (Pb).” DEQ - How Does Lead Affect Our Environment?, Agency: Environmental Quality, www.michigan.gov/deq/0,4561,7-135-3307_29693_30031-90418--,00.html.

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layers would otherwise take up surface space between components. The rise in popularity of multilayer PCBs with more than two, and especially with more than four, copper planes was concurrent with the adoption of

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makes contact with copper lands on the board. The fixture or adapter is a significant fixed cost and this method is only economical for high-volume or high-value production. For small or medium volume production

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techniques, this concept evolved into the standard printed circuit board fabrication process in use today. Soldering could be done automatically by passing the board over a ripple, or wave, of molten solder in a

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test architecture provides a means to test interconnects between integrated circuits on a board without using physical test probes, by using circuitry in the ICs to employ the IC pins themselves as test probes.

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or other purposes. The tracks function as wires fixed in place, and are insulated from each other by air and the board substrate material. The surface of a PCB may have a coating that protects the copper from

2960:, Cole, Jr., Herbert S.; Sitnik-Nieters, Theresa A. & Wojnarowski, Robert J. et al., "Reworkable high density interconnect structure incorporating a release layer", issued 18 July 1995 2513:(which is worse when wires run parallel to each other—which almost never happens in Multiwire), though the cost is too high to compete with cheaper PCB technologies when large quantities are needed. 591:

used for making holes in printed circuit boards. While tungsten-carbide bits are very hard, they eventually wear out or break. Drilling is a considerable part of the cost of a through-hole printed circuit

1013:. Low water absorption (up to about 0.15%), good insulation properties, good arc resistance. Very common. Several grades with somewhat different properties are available. Typically rated to 130 °C. 2107:

testers are used where test probes are moved over the board by an XY drive to make contact with the copper lands. There is no need for a fixture and hence the fixed costs are much lower. The CAM system

1223:. Common thicknesses are 1/2 oz/ft (150 g/m), 1 oz/ft (300 g/m), 2 oz/ft (600 g/m), and 3 oz/ft (900 g/m). These work out to thicknesses of 17.05 μm (0.67 2305:, which is applied by dipping or spraying after the components have been soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and leakage currents or shorting due to condensation. The earliest conformal coats were 1442:

signal ground while providing DC power to the circuits mounted on the PCB. Signal interconnections are traced on signal planes. Signal planes can be on the outer as well as inner layers. For optimal

1204:

is a layer exceeding three ounces of copper per ft, or approximately 0.0042 inches (4.2 mils, 105 μm) thick. Heavy copper layers are used for high current or to help dissipate heat.

1106:, ("Teflon") - expensive, low dielectric loss, for high frequency applications, very low moisture absorption (0.01%), mechanically soft. Difficult to laminate, rarely used in multilayer applications. 4230: 2772: 2599:

Safety Standard UL 796 covers component safety requirements for printed wiring boards for use as components in devices or appliances. Testing analyzes characteristics such as flammability, maximum

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sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the schematic diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the mylar and then traces were routed to connect the pads. Rub-on

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uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away the copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a 'PCB Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a

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of common component footprints increased efficiency. Traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed non-reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in layout. The finished photomask was

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When vias with a diameter smaller than 76.2 micrometers are required, drilling with mechanical bits is impossible because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be

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high-frequency digital design; it increases the cost of the boards without a corresponding benefit. Signal degradation by loss tangent and dielectric constant can be easily assessed by an

2309:; modern conformal coats are usually dips of dilute solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy. Another technique for applying a conformal coating is for plastic to be 2255:

To facilitate these tests, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make temporary connections. Sometimes these pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-circuit test may also exercise

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Laser-printed resist: Laser-print onto toner transfer paper, heat-transfer with an iron or modified laminator onto bare laminate, soak in water bath, touch up with a marker, then etch.

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machines can then add missing copper or remove excess copper using a laser, reducing the number of PCBs that have to be discarded. PCB tracks can have a width of just 10 micrometers.

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laser plotter. The laser raster-scans the PCB and ablates (vaporizes) the paint where no resist is wanted. (Note: laser copper ablation is rarely used and is considered experimental.)

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in electrical equipment. PCBs sold in such countries must therefore use lead-free manufacturing processes and lead-free solder, and attached components must themselves be compliant.

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FR-1, like FR-2, typically specified to 105 °C, some grades rated to 130 °C. Room-temperature punchable. Similar to cardboard. Poor moisture resistance. Low arc resistance.

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tool vendors provide various types of stimuli and sophisticated algorithms, not only to detect the failing nets, but also to isolate the faults to specific nets, devices, and pins.

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surface-mounting due to power requirements or mechanical limitations, or subject to mechanical stress which might damage the PCB (e.g. by lifting the copper off the board surface).

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Dielectric breakdown voltage determines the maximum voltage gradient the material can be subjected to before suffering a breakdown (conduction, or arcing, through the dielectric).

824:

There are quite a few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on the requirements of the circuit. Some of these dielectrics are

4129: 1990:(ECM) is the growth of conductive metal filaments on or in a printed circuit board (PCB) under the influence of a DC voltage bias. Silver, zinc, and aluminum are known to grow 1109:

PTFE, ceramic filled - expensive, low dielectric loss, for high frequency applications. Varying ceramics/PTFE ratio allows adjusting dielectric constant and thermal expansion.

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of the printed circuit board conductors become significant circuit elements, usually undesired; conversely, they can be used as a deliberate part of the circuit design, as in

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for SMT components or through-hole parts, but skilled technicians are able to hand-solder very tiny parts (for instance 0201 packages which are 0.02 in. by 0.01 in.) under a

976:, the same effect responsible for "popcorning" damage on wet packaging of electronic parts. Careful baking of the substrates may be required to dry them prior to soldering. 2873: 274:

for early key contributions to the development of printed components and conductors on a common insulating substrate. Rubinstein was honored in 1984 by his alma mater, the

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of the high temperature decomposition products of bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the holes can be plated through, this smear must be removed by a chemical

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the electrical tester to apply a voltage to each contact point as required and to check that this voltage appears on the appropriate contact points and only on these.

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is determined using dielectric layer thickness, routing copper thickness and trace-width. Trace separation is also taken into account in case of differential signals.

744:, obviating the need for additional discrete components. High density interconnects (HDI) PCBs have tracks or vias with a width or diameter of under 152 micrometers. 278:, for his innovations in the technology of printed electronic circuits and the fabrication of capacitors. This invention also represents a step in the development of 1879:

when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer layers. Laser drilling machines can drill thousands of holes per second and can use either UV or CO

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straight line from one location/pin to another. This led to very short design times (no complex algorithms to use even for high density designs) as well as reduced

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machine. However, the wires and holes are inefficient since drilling holes is expensive and consumes drill bits and the protruding wires are cut off and discarded.

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between traces or undesired electrical contact with stray bare wires. For its function in helping to prevent solder shorts, the coating is called solder resist or

1957: 1949: 290:

In 1948, the USA released the invention for commercial use. Printed circuits did not become commonplace in consumer electronics until the mid-1950s, after the

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onto or between sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate. Electrical components may be fixed to conductive pads on the outer layers, generally by means of

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made consumer radio sets in the late 1960s using additive boards. The (semi-)additive process is commonly used for multi-layer boards as it facilitates the

3304: 676:(SMDs) are determined more by the chip itself than the package, with little price advantage over larger packages, and some wire-ended components, such as 534:

was used for this purpose, but today other, finer quality printing methods are usually used. Normally the legend does not affect the function of a PCBA.

215:

obtained a patent to flame-spray metal onto a board through a patterned mask. Charles Ducas in 1925 patented a method of electroplating circuit patterns.

2445:. The cordwood method of construction was used only rarely once PCBs became widespread, mainly in aerospace or other extremely high-density electronics. 926:

exposition to higher temperatures can cause failure of the plating, especially with thicker boards; thick boards therefore require a matrix with a high T

4261: 4177: 555:

before the layers are laminated together. Only the outer layers need be coated; the inner copper layers are protected by the adjacent substrate layers.

152:, both once popular but now rarely used. PCBs require additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. 3287: 3047: 1354:, and component information. The fabrication data is read into the CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) software. CAM performs the following functions: 1124:, a high-temperature polymer. Expensive, high-performance. Higher water absorption (0.4%). Can be used from cryogenic temperatures to over 260 °C. 999:. Common in consumer electronics with single-sided boards. Electrical properties inferior to FR-4. Poor arc resistance. Generally rated to 105 °C. 547:

significantly more routing options in the internal layers as compared to the two layer board, and often some portion of the internal layers is used as

2765:"Global Single Sided Printed Circuit Board Market - Growth, Future Prospects and Competitive Analysis and Forecast 2018 - 2023 - The Industry Herald" 310:

consumer radio receiver might be built with all its circuitry on one circuit board, but a TV set would probably contain one or more circuit boards.

267: 2938:, Abramson, Moe & Danko, Stanislaus F., "Process of assembling electrical circuits", published 1956-07-31, assigned to 2714: 660:

machine. Through-hole manufacture adds to board cost by requiring many holes to be drilled accurately, and it limits the available routing area for

3862:"A Triple Objective Function with a Chebychev Dynamic Pick-and-place Point Specification Approach to Optimise the Surface Mount Placement Machine" 1192:

Copper thickness of PCBs can be specified directly or as the weight of copper per area (in ounce per square foot) which is easier to measure. One

246:

invented the printed circuit as part of a radio set while working in the UK around 1936. In 1941 a multi-layer printed circuit was used in German

4315: 1085:

G-11, woven glass and epoxy - high resistance to solvents, high flexural strength retention at high temperatures. Typically rated to 170 °C.

3580: 1995:

reducing the percentage of tin. Reflow to melt solder or tin plate to relieve surface stress lowers whisker incidence. Another coating issue is

3247: 2313:

onto the PCB in a vacuum chamber. The chief disadvantage of conformal coatings is that servicing of the board is rendered extremely difficult.

1506: 5365: 2559: 2441:, this method allowed the highest possible component packing density; because of this, it was used by a number of computer vendors including 6833: 3743: 3732:

Publication IPC-TR-476A, "Electrochemical Migration: Electrically Induced Failures in Printed Wiring Assemblies," Northbrook, IL, May 1997.

3644: 1522:

otherwise the board could not be mounted during assembly. Most assembly shops require a free area of at least 10 mm around the board.

212: 123:

layers: each of the conductive layers is designed with a pattern of traces, planes and other features (similar to wires on a flat surface)

1647:

Print onto transparent film and use as photo mask along with photo-sensitized boards, then etch. (Alternatively, use a film photoplotter.)

1112:

RF-35, fiberglass-reinforced ceramics-filled PTFE. Relatively less expensive, good mechanical properties, good high-frequency properties.

1920:

Proper plating or surface finish selection can be critical to process yield, the amount of rework, field failure rate, and reliability.

5812: 5597: 2051:, switch settings, test points and other indications helpful in assembling, testing, servicing, and sometimes using the circuit board. 1801: 1082:, woven glass and epoxy - high insulation resistance, low moisture absorption, very high bond strength. Typically rated to 130 °C. 5189: 4125: 3273: 1054: 785:, etc.) and therefore the characteristics of the laminate produced. Important characteristics are the level to which the laminate is 5635: 3945: 1972:

using ENIG. Another coating consideration is rapid diffusion of coating metal into tin solder. Tin forms intermetallics such as Cu

1493:

Several small printed circuit boards can be grouped together for processing as a panel. A panel consisting of a design duplicated

165:. However, multilayer PCBs make repair, analysis, and field modification of circuits much more difficult and usually impractical. 5537: 4830: 4287: 2884: 847:

FR-4 is by far the most common material used today. The board stock with unetched copper on it is called "copper-clad laminate".

551:

or power plane, to achieve better signal integrity, higher signaling frequencies, lower EMI, and better power supply decoupling.

2160:; once cooled and solidified, the solder holds the components in place permanently and electrically connects them to the board. 1584:, receiving commands from the host software that control the position of the milling head in the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis. 6522: 6494: 5640: 3716: 2363: 1474: 294:

process was developed by the United States Army. At around the same time in the UK work along similar lines was carried out by

3799: 3616: 1051:, in this form common in small form-factor consumer electronics or for flexible interconnects. Resistant to high temperatures. 6547: 4109: 3928: 3783: 3681: 3351: 3031: 3021: 2997: 499:). In informal usage, the term "printed circuit board" most commonly means "printed circuit assembly" (with components). The 207:

experimented with chemical methods of plating conductors onto linen paper in 1904. Arthur Berry in 1913 patented a print-and-

1937:(BGA) using tin-lead solder balls for connections losing their balls on bare copper traces or using lead-free solder paste. 947:

Tracking resistance determines how the material resists high voltage electrical discharges creeping over the board surface.

317:, and a PCB had holes drilled for each wire of each component. The component leads were then inserted through the holes and 135:, which both electrically connects and mechanically fastens the components to the board. Another manufacturing process adds 6398: 5472: 4747: 2666: 410:, pads for connections, vias to pass connections between layers of copper, and features such as solid conductive areas for 3060: 1600:, in which the copper may be removed directly by a CNC laser. Like PCB milling above, this is used mainly for prototyping. 479:. However, the term "printed wiring board" has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a 6552: 5831: 4528: 4308: 3823:

Ayob, M.; Kendall, G. (2008). "A Survey of Surface Mount Device Placement Machine Optimisation: Machine Classification".

2939: 2861: 1364:

Compensation for deviations in the manufacturing processes (e.g. scaling to compensate for distortions during lamination)

306:

advertisements. Hallicrafters released its first "foto-etch" printed circuit product, a clock-radio, on 1 November 1952.

275: 1477:. Electronic design automation tools usually create clearances and connections in power and ground planes automatically. 6823: 6064: 5585: 5484: 1941: 4223: 3630: 2796:, Schoop, Max Ulrich, "Process and mechanism for the production of electric heaters", published 1918-02-19 6704: 6532: 6069: 5519: 5358: 4511: 4407: 3717:"Solder Joint Reliability of Gold Surface Finishes (ENIG, ENEPIG and DIG) for PWB Assembled with Lead Free SAC Alloy" 3502: 3475: 3448: 3403: 3257: 3092: 2385: 2028: 1953: 1212:

high power devices commonly use thicker copper; 35 μm is usual but also 140 and 400 μm can be encountered.

1179: 430:

The pattern to be etched into each copper layer of a PCB is called the "artwork". The etching is usually done using

4152:"The Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment Regulations 2012" 3744:"Reliability Issues of No-Clean Flux Technology with Lead-free Solder Alloy for High Density Printed Circuit Boards" 3598: 1886:

The hole walls for boards with two or more layers can be made conductive and then electroplated with copper to form

859:

The circuitboard substrates are usually dielectric composite materials. The composites contain a matrix (usually an

6792: 5893: 4651: 4378: 2067:

Ink jet printing is increasingly used. Ink jet can print variable data, unique to each PWB unit, such as text or a

937:. This constant is also dependent on frequency, usually decreasing with frequency. As this constant determines the 1930:

is applied, and then any exposed copper is coated with solder, nickel/gold, or some other anti-corrosion coating.

6828: 6818: 6813: 6180: 5531: 5467: 4699: 4498: 3168: 2633: 17: 3308: 6471: 6433: 6097: 5805: 4301: 2824: 2367: 1984:

Cu that dissolve into the Tin liquidus or solidus (at 50 °C), stripping surface coating or leaving voids.

1610: 1604: 1346:

A board designed in 1967; the sweeping curves in the traces are evidence of freehand design using adhesive tape

168:

The world market for bare PCBs exceeded $ 60.2 billion in 2014 and is estimated to reach $ 79 billion by 2024.

2857: 2690: 2199: 1760: 6613: 6590: 6320: 6310: 5657: 5525: 4250: 4185: 6694: 6282: 6190: 6102: 5878: 5863: 5351: 4730: 4482: 3108: 2215: 1443: 1410: 1073:

FR-5, woven fiberglass and epoxy, high strength at higher temperatures, typically specified to 170 °C.

914: 871: 810: 153: 4018: 6782: 6517: 6022: 5774: 5669: 4534: 4471: 2976:

Ostmann, Andreas; Schein, Friedrich-Leonhard; Dietterle, Michael; Kunz, Marc; Lang, Klaus-Dieter (2018).

182: 149: 6754: 6403: 5689: 5647: 5194: 4741: 2131:

In assembly the bare board is populated (or "stuffed") with electronic components to form a functional

1854:. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called 1713:

after the subtractive method of the process, though there are also additive and semi-additive methods.

1709: 733: 3998: 3197: 2957: 2935: 2793: 1674:

and resist, non-washable marker, some other methods. Labor-intensive, only suitable for single boards.

6772: 6699: 6674: 6537: 6185: 5798: 5590: 5575: 5501: 5461: 4948: 4662: 4505: 4390: 3135:

Sood, B. and Pecht, M. 2011. Printed Circuit Board Laminates. Wiley Encyclopedia of Composites. 1–11.

2534: 2230: 1149: 1024: 996: 411: 328:. In 1949, Moe Abramson and Stanislaus F. Danko of the United States Army Signal Corps developed the 299: 282:

technology, as not only wiring but also passive components were fabricated on the ceramic substrate.

271: 3837: 1033:- can be a standalone copper-clad foil or can be laminated to a thin stiffener, e.g. 50-130 μm 6623: 6456: 6049: 5918: 5602: 5507: 5495: 4957: 4815: 4667: 4523: 2442: 2144: 1945: 818: 778: 721: 709: 668: 608: 453: 162: 3048:"Advances in Optical Communications: Making optical printed circuit boards on an industrial scale" 1393: 6684: 6618: 6509: 6325: 5992: 5652: 5430: 5425: 4968: 4688: 4487: 3147:"A SURVEY AND TUTORIAL OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS" 2419: 2356: 2317: 2136: 1784:, visible as a bright copper-colored band running between the top and bottom layers of the board. 828:(Teflon), FR-4, FR-1, CEM-1 or CEM-3. Well known pre-preg materials used in the PCB industry are 825: 644: 322: 120: 3753: 3747: 3661: 2524:

Printed circuit boards have been used as an alternative to their typical use for electronic and

2222:

guidelines for PCB component placement, soldering, and inspection are commonly used to maintain

1446:

performance high frequency signals are routed in internal layers between power or ground planes.

336:. The patent they obtained in 1956 was assigned to the U.S. Army. With the development of board 144:

Printed circuit boards are used in nearly all electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include

6749: 6580: 6461: 6228: 6218: 6213: 5746: 5543: 5137: 4704: 4569: 4545: 3861: 3832: 2569: 2525: 2168: 1505:

combines several different designs onto a single panel. The outer tooling strip often includes

1161: 921:

then exerts mechanical overload on the board components - e.g. the joints and the vias. Below T

637: 1621:

The method chosen depends on the number of boards to be produced and the required resolution.

1420:

Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and enclosure of the PCB.

332:

process in which component leads were inserted into a copper foil interconnection pattern and

6719: 6689: 6679: 6575: 6489: 6365: 6305: 6272: 6262: 6152: 6117: 6107: 6044: 5913: 5888: 5883: 5758: 5712: 5580: 5478: 5206: 5158: 4979: 4795: 4710: 4477: 3697: 2600: 2485: 2167:

techniques used to attach components to a PCB. High volume production is usually done with a

1933:

It is important to use solder compatible with both the PCB and the parts used. An example is

1351: 1118:, a ceramic. Hard, brittle, very expensive, very high performance, good thermal conductivity. 917:

the resin in the composite softens and significantly increases thermal expansion; exceeding T

693: 519:. "Card" is another widely used informal term for a "printed circuit assembly". For example, 116: 3895: 6479: 6451: 6423: 6418: 6247: 6223: 6175: 6160: 6142: 6132: 6127: 6089: 6039: 6034: 5951: 5897: 5684: 5679: 5662: 5382: 5280: 5024: 4919: 4693: 4586: 4440: 4401: 4332: 4324: 3333: 2325: 2289: 2097: 2048: 1991: 1569: 1402:

Modern PCBs are designed with dedicated layout software, generally in the following steps:

1048: 1030: 673: 444: 104: 60: 38: 1683: 968:

common circuit board materials. Absorbed moisture can also vaporize on heating, as during

181:

Before the development of printed circuit boards, electrical and electronic circuits were

8: 6744: 6669: 6585: 6570: 6335: 6122: 6079: 6074: 5971: 5961: 5933: 5731: 5674: 5513: 5435: 5410: 5374: 5000: 4908: 4800: 4636: 4613: 4151: 4037:"Printed Circuit Boards: The Layers' Functions for Electronic and Biomedical Engineering" 3702:

Printed Wiring Board Project Report – Table of Contents, Design for the Environment (DfE)

2184: 2058: 1752: 1691: 1518: 1439: 1057:, a polyimide-fluoropolymer composite foil. Copper layer can delaminate during soldering. 934: 887: 844:(BGA) and naked die technologies, and glass fiber offers the best dimensional stability. 836:(woven glass and epoxy), FR-5 (woven glass and epoxy), FR-6 (matte glass and polyester), 790: 677: 531: 382:

packages. Some PCBs have optical waveguides, similar to optical fibers built on the PCB.

31: 3960: 777:

material, and the cloth to resin ratio determine the laminate's type designation (FR-4,

80:

to the other surface, and some electronic components mounted using through-hole mounting

6709: 6608: 6484: 6441: 6350: 6292: 6277: 6267: 6059: 5858: 5751: 5736: 5617: 5455: 5420: 5305: 5165: 4873: 4840: 4656: 4540: 4518: 4101: 4069: 4036: 3357: 3003: 2620: 2438: 2310: 2260: 2147:(SMT), the component is placed on the PCB so that the pins line up with the conductive 1898:

For multi-layer boards, those with three layers or more, drilling typically produces a

1748: 1703:

The two processing methods used to produce a double-sided PWB with plated-through holes

1671: 1430:

Layer stack of the PCB is decided, with one to tens of layers depending on complexity.

648: 629: 314: 279: 247: 195: 108: 3332:

Lienig, J.; Scheible, J. (2020). "§1.3.3: Physical Design of Printed Circuit Boards".

3123:

IPC-D-275: Design Standard for Rigid Printed Boards and Rigid Printed Board Assemblies

2841: 2741:"Global Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Market to Witness a CAGR of 3.1% during 2018-2024" 2516:

Corrections can be made to a Multiwire board layout more easily than to a PCB layout.

2259:

test features of some components. In-circuit test systems may also be used to program

870:

The substrates are characterized by several key parameters, chiefly thermomechanical (

636:, and capacitors. Through-hole mounting may be used for some large components such as 6729: 6659: 6638: 6600: 6408: 6375: 6355: 6054: 5966: 5840: 5707: 5300: 5221: 5112: 5064: 4893: 4820: 4782: 4105: 4092:

Brown, Mark; Rawtani, Jawahar; Patil, Dinesh (2004). "Appendix B - Troubleshooting".

4074: 3924: 3779: 3729: 3677: 3498: 3471: 3444: 3399: 3361: 3347: 3253: 3198:"Using Metal Core Printed Circuit Board (MCPCB) as a Solution for Thermal Management" 3088: 3027: 2993: 2820: 2603:, electrical tracking, heat deflection, and direct support of live electrical parts. 2593: 2329: 2302: 2234: 2211: 1835: 1781: 1742: 1699: 1614: 1590:

involves spraying black paint onto copper clad laminate, then placing the board into

1514: 1464: 1406: 895: 883: 770:

characteristics. Available standard laminate thickness are listed in ANSI/IPC-D-275.

741: 705: 680:

small-signal switch diodes, are actually significantly cheaper than SMD equivalents.

500: 136: 77: 3552: 3007: 6562: 6446: 6413: 6208: 6137: 6026: 6012: 6007: 5956: 5943: 5868: 5821: 5440: 5016: 4963: 4790: 4429: 4097: 4064: 4054: 3876: 3842: 3669: 3375: 3339: 2985: 2187:

may be used for delicate parts. Some SMT parts cannot be soldered by hand, such as

1814: 1734: 1463:

Components are placed. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into account.

1387: 875: 802: 124: 4825: 3806: 3566: 1537:

reduces stress on the fragile circuits, improving the yield of defect-free units.

1438:

are decided. A power plane is the counterpart to a ground plane and behaves as an

1370:

Output of the digital tools (copper patterns, drill files, inspection, and others)

398:

A basic PCB consists of a flat sheet of insulating material and a layer of copper

222:'s 1936–1947 Electronic Circuit Making Equipment (ECME) that sprayed metal onto a 141:, drilled holes that allow electrical interconnections between conductive layers. 6633: 6527: 6499: 6393: 6345: 6330: 6315: 6170: 6165: 6112: 6002: 5976: 5928: 5873: 5630: 5625: 5607: 5570: 5565: 5490: 5450: 5293: 5226: 5079: 4810: 4720: 4564: 3946:"History of Electronic Packaging at APL: From the VT Fuze to the NEAR Spacecraft" 3538: 3492: 3465: 3438: 3393: 3146: 3082: 2248: 2241: 2223: 2188: 2015: 1934: 1777: 1756: 1718: 1155: 899: 841: 798: 737: 295: 4451: 3081:

Buschow, K.H., ed. (2001). "Electronic Packaging:Solder Mounting Technologies".

2925:"Topics & Trends of TV Trade." Television Digest 8:44 (1 November 1952), 10. 6739: 6643: 6542: 6388: 6360: 5560: 5268: 5049: 5039: 4805: 4608: 3880: 3846: 2977: 2573: 2468:

A breakout board can allow interconnection between two incompatible connectors.

2411: 2321: 2180: 1965: 1908: 1847: 1725: 1695:

PCBs in process of having copper pattern plated (note the blue dry film resist)

1563: 1547: 1510: 1449: 1079: 992: 938: 879: 837: 806: 786: 782: 657: 613: 520: 461: 346: 259: 254: 4184:. Department of Environmental Quality, State of Michigan. 2019. Archived from 3343: 2989: 2480:'s pins to be accessed easily while still allowing the card to be hot-swapped. 1325:

H/0 or H/H – denotes 0.5 oz/ft copper on one or both sides, respectively.

234: 6807: 6628: 5923: 5741: 5724: 5719: 5330: 5153: 5069: 4888: 4715: 4683: 4041: 3662:"Appendix F Sample Fabrication Sequence for a Standard Printed Circuit Board" 3631:"GTW5-UVF20 series Laser drilling machine Laser processing machines MELLASER" 2916:"Travel and Play with Motorola" LIFE magazine advertisement, 24 May 1954, 14. 2639: 2530: 2256: 2072: 1822: 1319:

1/0 – denotes 1 oz/ft copper one side, with no copper on the other side.

1246: 1228: 1224: 440: 420: 333: 219: 204: 3169:"Method for the Manufacture of an Aluminum Substrate PCB and its Advantages" 1328:

2/0 or 2/2 – denotes 2 oz/ft copper on one or both sides, respectively.

76:

computer board, a printed circuit board, showing the conductive traces, the

6724: 6383: 5211: 5199: 5087: 5054: 4883: 4868: 4435: 4078: 3218: 2103: 1961: 1470: 1431: 1383: 973: 891: 697: 661: 596: 576: 548: 457: 399: 157:

PCBs can also be made manually in small quantities, with reduced benefits.

2206:

After the board has been populated it may be tested in a variety of ways:

1772: 1707:

The process by which copper traces are applied to the surface is known as

1231:), 68.2 μm (2.68 thou), and 102.3 μm (4.02 thou), respectively. 1070:

FR-3, cotton paper impregnated with epoxy. Typically rated to 105 °C.

6714: 6340: 6252: 5253: 4995: 4944: 4850: 4835: 4618: 4580: 4200: 2907:"New Process Perfected for Radio Wiring." Chicago Tribune, 1 August 1952. 2472: 2418:

Cordwood construction can save significant space and was often used with

2284: 2172: 2024: 1969: 1927: 1576: 1555: 1481: 1435: 1197: 1010: 952: 860: 729: 431: 424: 370: 253:

Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology on a large scale to make

243: 73: 45: 4293: 4251:"Analog, RF and EMC Considerations in Printed Wiring Board (PWB) Design" 3666:

Linkages: Manufacturing Trends in Electronics Interconnection Technology

3490: 2061:

epoxy ink was the established method, resulting in the alternative name.

1999:, the transformation of tin to a powdery allotrope at low temperature. 571: 467:

When a PCB has no components installed, it is less ambiguously called a

44:"PC board" redirects here. For the mainboard of personal computers, see 6734: 6664: 6257: 5997: 5853: 5779: 5445: 5390: 5325: 5315: 5248: 5122: 5092: 5059: 5034: 5029: 5006: 4878: 4858: 4736: 4598: 4575: 4461: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4059: 2628: 2563: 2370: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2176: 2125: 1687:

PCB copper electroplating line in the process of pattern plating copper

1531: 1453: 1390:

reproduced onto a photoresist coating on the blank copper-clad boards.

1006: 964: 767: 725: 717: 621: 601: 583: 527: 456:

is the most common insulating substrate. Another substrate material is

436: 337: 128: 112: 5343: 4094:

Practical Troubleshooting of Electrical Equipment and Control Circuits

2398: 2135:(PCA), sometimes called a "printed circuit board assembly" (PCBA). In 6239: 6200: 5405: 5288: 5132: 5127: 5117: 5044: 4924: 4758: 4753: 4678: 4603: 2510: 2454: 2164: 2157: 2139:, the component leads are inserted in holes surrounded by conductive 2023:

Areas that should not be soldered may be covered with solder resist (

1968:, placed along one edge of some boards, are often nickel-plated then 1890:. These holes electrically connect the conducting layers of the PCB. 1810: 1457: 1424: 1375: 1121: 1044: 969: 758: 713: 701: 653: 588: 512: 416: 379: 226:

plastic board. The ECME could produce three radio boards per minute.

191: 187: 145: 132: 2345: 2064:

Liquid photo imaging is a more accurate method than screen printing.

2047:) is often printed on one or both sides of the PCB. It contains the 218:

Predating the printed circuit invention, and similar in spirit, was

6300: 5790: 5400: 5395: 5310: 5258: 5238: 5216: 5102: 5097: 4985: 4974: 4903: 4673: 3673: 2982:

2018 7th Electronic System-Integration Technology Conference (ESTC)

2645: 2614: 2427: 2068: 1996: 1342: 1016: 757:

Laminates are manufactured by curing layers of cloth or paper with

633: 358: 263: 223: 3518: 390: 5170: 5107: 4929: 4914: 4768: 4725: 4373: 3440:

Printed circuit boards: design, fabrication, assembly and testing

2589: 2547: 2477: 2464: 2244:, where physical measurements (for example, voltage) can be done. 2007: 1875:

when they connect an internal copper layer to an outer layer, or

1738: 1581: 1115: 575:

Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s

341: 208: 51:"Panelization" redirects here. For the page layout strategy, see 3144: 2251:, just checking if the PCB does what it had been designed to do. 563: 5243: 4934: 4898: 4863: 4423: 4395: 4368: 4343: 4282: 2978:"High Density Interconnect Processes for Panel Level Packaging" 2577: 2431: 2324:

during transport. When handling these boards, the user must be

1312: 1040: 1036: 960: 766:

percentage are used to achieve the desired final thickness and

689: 526:

A PCB may be printed with a legend identifying the components,

403: 318: 101: 68: 5320: 5231: 4990: 4763: 4556: 4418: 4413: 3896:"SMTA TechScan Compendium: 0201 Design, Assembly and Process" 3553:"Printing of 3d structures by laser-induced forward transfer" 2667:"What Is a Printed Circuit Board (PCB)? - Technical Articles" 2581: 2426:, missile guidance, and telemetry systems) and in high-speed 2219: 1851: 1379: 1216: 1208: 1193: 774: 763: 625: 4224:"PCB Fabrication Data - Design to Fabrication Data Transfer" 2406: 1350:

Manufacturing starts from the fabrication data generated by

720:

with carefully controlled dimensions to assure a consistent

361:

technology to produce High-Density Interconnect (HDI) PCBs.

321:

to the copper PCB traces. This method of assembly is called

5263: 4646: 4592: 4493: 4446: 4384: 4257: 4050: 3233:"Pyralux® Flexible Circuit Materials - DuPont - DuPont USA" 2880: 2585: 2423: 2277: 2272: 2268: 1825:

that describes the location and size of each drilled hole.

1103: 1002: 988: 833: 829: 450: 402:, laminated to the substrate. Chemical etching divides the 262:

with metallic paint for conductors and carbon material for

52: 3491:

Riley, Frank; Electronic Packaging and Production (2013).

2975: 2120: 1923:

PCBs may be plated with solder, tin, or gold over nickel.

1215:

In the US, copper foil thickness is specified in units of

2306: 1632:

Silk screen printing – Used for PCBs with bigger features

1591: 1219:

per square foot (oz/ft), commonly referred to simply as

832:(phenolic cotton paper), FR-3 (cotton paper and epoxy), 616:: the component side (left) and the printed side (right) 268:

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

3274:"A High Performance, Economical RF/Microwave Substrate" 3219:"Applications | UBE Heat Resistant Polyimide Materials" 1958:

electroless nickel electroless palladium immersion gold

1559:

uses etch-resistant inks to create the protective mask.

3617:"Laser drilling machines GTW5 series (English) Videos" 2422:

in applications where space was at a premium (such as

1926:

After PCBs are etched and then rinsed with water, the

1759:. For PTH (plated-through holes), additional steps of 1635:

Photoengraving – Used when finer features are required

3335:

Fundamentals of Layout Design for Electronic Circuits

724:. In radio-frequency and fast switching circuits the 3581:"Laser drilling high-density printed circuit boards" 2610: 2301:

PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a

1613:

to remove a metal from a substrate submerged into a

1374:

Initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a

3645:"Considerations for Selecting a PCB Surface Finish" 3567:"System producing a conductive path on a substrate" 2866: 2715:"World PCB Production in 2014 Estimated at $ 60.2B" 1858:and can have diameters as small as 10 micrometers. 995:or phenolic cotton paper, paper impregnated with a 821:(how much the thickness changes with temperature). 4035:Perdigones, Francisco; Quero, José Manuel (2022). 3395:Complete PCB Design Using OrCad Capture and Layout 3145:By Lee W. Ritchey, Speeding Edge (November 1999). 2171:and bulk wave soldering for through-hole parts or 2019:A PCB with green solder mask and yellow silkscreen 688:Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the 27:Board to support and connect electronic components 4182:Pollutants and Toxicants: Environmental Lead (Pb) 4091: 3084:Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology 1568:be used instead of a photomask. This is known as 6805: 3749:38th International Symposium on Microelectronics 3741: 3599:"Non-Traditional Methods For Making Small Holes" 2320:sensitive, and therefore they must be placed in 2084:Boards with no components installed are usually 1322:1/1 – denotes 1 oz/ft copper on both sides. 406:into separate conducting lines called tracks or 313:Originally, every electronic component had wire 4034: 3997: 3305:"Printed Circuit Board Design Flow Methodology" 2484:A minimal PCB for a single component, used for 2287:and replace failed components, a task known as 2011:A PCB with red solder mask and white silkscreen 1809:Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with 1776:Cut through a SDRAM-module, a multi-layer PCB ( 1460:or dual stripline can be used to route signals. 600:Surface mount components, including resistors, 394:An example of hand-drawn etched traces on a PCB 3698:"Production Methods and Materials 3.1 General" 3421:Liquid Photoresists for Thermal Direct Imaging 3331: 3327: 3325: 2846:. Washington DC: National Bureau of Standards. 2642:- solder-free circuit board manufacture method 5830:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 5806: 5359: 4309: 4126:"EURLex – 02011L0065-20140129 – EN – EUR-Lex" 3714: 3467:Printed Circuit Boards: Design and Technology 3432: 3430: 2934: 2560:Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive 2143:; the holes keep the components in place. In 2054:There are three methods to print the legend: 933:The materials used determine the substrate's 3778:. McGraw–Hill Professional. pp. 45–19. 3742:Zhan, S.; Azarian, M. H.; Pecht, M. (2005). 2002: 1741:-through of the holes to produce conductive 3859: 3822: 3470:. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 298. 3322: 3061:6 Reasons Why Choose Printed Circuit Boards 2817:Electronic materials and processes handbook 2296: 2283:When boards fail the test, technicians may 1200:is 1.344 mils or 34 micrometers thickness. 854: 238:Proximity fuze Mark 53 production line 1944 211:method in the UK, and in the United States 5813: 5799: 5366: 5352: 4316: 4302: 3427: 3419:Taff, Itshak; Benron, Hai (October 1999). 3418: 3412: 2810: 2808: 1484:, a drill file, and a pick-and-place file. 4323: 4221: 4068: 4058: 3836: 3805:. Coates Circuit Products. Archived from 2386:Learn how and when to remove this message 2088:for "shorts" and "opens". This is called 1180:Learn how and when to remove this message 503:preferred term for an assembled board is 4016: 3869:European Journal of Operational Research 3825:European Journal of Operational Research 3463: 3436: 2839: 2471: 2463: 2405: 2397: 2335: 2119: 2014: 2006: 1861: 1800: 1771: 1698: 1690: 1682: 1392: 1341: 683: 607: 595: 582: 570: 562: 389: 285: 233: 127:from one or more sheet layers of copper 67: 59: 5538:Application-specific integrated circuit 5373: 4248: 4178:"How Does Lead Affect Our Environment?" 3391: 3080: 3074: 2805: 14: 6806: 6523:Knowledge representation and reasoning 3943: 3901:. Surface Mount Technology Association 3773: 3668:. National Academy of Sciences. 2005. 3245: 2874:"IEEE CLEDO BRUNETTI AWARD RECIPIENTS" 2814: 2792: 2537:(PCR), and fuel cells, to name a few. 2034: 1915: 1480:Fabrication data consists of a set of 6548:Philosophy of artificial intelligence 5794: 5347: 4297: 2691:"Printed Circuit Board – An Overview" 692:foil that remains after etching. Its 558: 64:Printed circuit board of a DVD player 5874:Energy consumption (Green computing) 5820: 5473:Three-dimensional integrated circuit 4748:Three-dimensional integrated circuit 3800:"liquid photoimageable solder masks" 3443:. Tata-McGraw Hill. pp. 373–8. 3195: 3166: 3109:"Why Use High Density Interconnect?" 2840:Brunetti, Cledo (22 November 1948). 2738: 2584:), legislation restricts the use of 2368:adding citations to reliable sources 2339: 1540: 1423:The positions of the components and 1154:In particular, it has problems with 1132: 979: 700:for shielding and power return. For 647:, mounting electronic components by 6834:Printed circuit board manufacturing 6553:Distributed artificial intelligence 5832:ACM Computing Classification System 4529:Programmable unijunction transistor 4222:Tavernier, Karel (September 2015). 2940:Secretary of the United States Army 2499: 2267:being the Joint Test Action Group ( 2226:in this stage of PCB manufacturing. 1724:In additive methods the pattern is 1546:is also used in the manufacture of 1128: 530:, or identifying text. Originally, 24: 6065:Integrated development environment 5485:Erasable programmable logic device 4430:Multi-gate field-effect transistor 4215: 3953:Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest 3893: 3752:. pp. 367–375. Archived from 3715:Milad, George; Gudeczauskas, Don. 3704:. Environmental Protection Agency. 2819:. McGraw-Hill. pp. 7.3, 7.4. 2459: 2410:Cordwood construction was used in 2079: 1942:organic solderability preservative 1063:Less-often encountered materials: 963:has very low absorption of 0.01%. 773:The cloth or fiber material used, 419:and reduces the chances of solder 364: 100:), is a medium used to connect or 25: 6845: 6533:Automated planning and scheduling 6070:Software configuration management 5520:Complex programmable logic device 4408:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor 3923:. Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 293. 3918: 3494:The Electronics Assembly Handbook 2636:- qualification for PCB designers 2568:In many countries (including all 2029:liquid photoimageable solder mask 1954:electroless nickel immersion gold 1207:On the common FR-4 substrates, 1 6787: 6777: 6768: 6767: 4652:Heterostructure barrier varactor 4379:Chemical field-effect transistor 4281: 4102:10.1016/b978-075066278-9/50009-3 3023:Materials for Advanced Packaging 2843:New Advances in Printed Circuits 2613: 2344: 2198:For further comparison, see the 2179:, using tweezers and a fine-tip 1137: 1100:CEM-5, woven glass and polyester 1094:CEM-3, non-woven glass and epoxy 270:awarded Harry W. Rubinstein the 6778: 6181:Computational complexity theory 5532:Field-programmable object array 5468:Mixed-signal integrated circuit 4700:Mixed-signal integrated circuit 4267:from the original on 2022-05-08 4236:from the original on 2022-03-08 4193: 4170: 4144: 4132:from the original on 2016-01-07 4118: 4085: 4028: 4010: 3991: 3977: 3937: 3912: 3887: 3853: 3816: 3792: 3767: 3735: 3723: 3708: 3690: 3654: 3637: 3623: 3609: 3591: 3573: 3559: 3545: 3531: 3511: 3484: 3457: 3385: 3368: 3297: 3293:. Taconic – via Multi-CB. 3280: 3266: 3246:Carter, Bruce (19 March 2009). 3239: 3225: 3211: 3189: 3160: 3138: 3129: 3115: 3101: 3065: 3054: 3040: 3014: 2969: 2950: 2928: 2919: 2910: 2901: 2862:University of Wisconsin-Madison 2634:Certified interconnect designer 2355:needs additional citations for 2183:, for small volume prototypes. 1488: 1332: 1076:FR-6, matte glass and polyester 959:with absorption of only 0.15%. 567:Through-hole (leaded) resistors 276:University of Wisconsin-Madison 176: 5972:Network performance evaluation 4096:. Elsevier. pp. 196–212. 3860:Ayob, M.; Kendall, G. (2005). 3026:. Springer. 18 November 2016. 2850: 2833: 2786: 2757: 2732: 2707: 2683: 2659: 2553: 2533:(LoC), for example to perform 2476:This breakout board allows an 1358:Input of the fabrication data. 1146:This section needs editing to 489:printed circuit board assembly 385: 248:magnetic influence naval mines 13: 1: 6336:Multimedia information system 6321:Geographic information system 6311:Enterprise information system 5907:Computer systems organization 5658:Hardware description language 5526:Field-programmable gate array 3087:. Elsevier. pp. 2708–9. 2652: 1841: 1767: 1525: 1091:CEM-2, cotton paper and epoxy 1088:CEM-1, cotton paper and epoxy 984:Often encountered materials: 229: 6695:Computational social science 6283:Theoretical computer science 6103:Software development process 5879:Electronic design automation 5864:Very Large Scale Integration 4731:Silicon controlled rectifier 4593:Organic light-emitting diode 4483:Diffused junction transistor 3921:Intro To Embedded Systems 1E 3376:"See appendix D of IPC-2251" 3338:. Springer. pp. 26–27. 2771:. 2018-08-21. Archived from 2216:automated optical inspection 1411:electronic design automation 1097:CEM-4, woven glass and epoxy 915:glass transition temperature 896:dielectric breakdown voltage 872:glass transition temperature 811:glass transition temperature 752: 747: 439:can be mass-duplicated from 154:Electronic design automation 7: 6518:Natural language processing 6306:Information storage systems 5670:Formal equivalence checking 4535:Static induction transistor 4472:Bipolar junction transistor 4424:MOS field-effect transistor 4396:Fin field-effect transistor 4017:Weisberg, David E. (2008). 2815:Harper, Charles A. (2003). 2739:Research, Energias Market. 2606: 2115: 1796: 734:distributed-element filters 150:point-to-point construction 10: 6850: 6434:Human–computer interaction 6404:Intrusion detection system 6316:Social information systems 6301:Database management system 5690:Hierarchical state machine 5648:Transaction-level modeling 4742:Static induction thyristor 3944:Wagner, G. Donald (1999). 3881:10.1016/j.ejor.2003.09.034 3847:10.1016/j.ejor.2007.03.042 3585:Industrial Laser Solutions 3398:. Newnes. pp. 443–6. 3196:Yung, Winco K. C. (2007). 2860:, College of Engineering, 2557: 2452: 1678: 1529: 1009:cloth impregnated with an 171: 50: 43: 36: 29: 6824:Electronics manufacturing 6763: 6700:Computational engineering 6675:Computational mathematics 6652: 6599: 6561: 6508: 6470: 6432: 6374: 6291: 6237: 6199: 6151: 6088: 6021: 5985: 5942: 5906: 5839: 5828: 5767: 5700: 5616: 5591:Digital signal processing 5576:Logic in computer science 5553: 5502:Programmable logic device 5462:Hybrid integrated circuit 5381: 5279: 5179: 5146: 5078: 5015: 4943: 4911:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode) 4849: 4781: 4663:Hybrid integrated circuit 4627: 4555: 4506:Light-emitting transistor 4460: 4342: 4331: 3776:Printed Circuits Handbook 3774:Coombs, Clyde F. (2007). 3497:. Springer. p. 285. 3344:10.1007/978-3-030-39284-0 3262:– via Google Books. 2990:10.1109/ESTC.2018.8546431 2956: 2540: 2535:polymerase chain reaction 2263:components on the board. 2231:analog signature analysis 2003:Solder resist application 1988:Electrochemical migration 1866:It is also possible with 1497:-times is also called an 1337: 1049:flexible printed circuits 1025:insulated metal substrate 997:phenol formaldehyde resin 972:, and cause cracking and 604:and an integrated circuit 537: 412:electromagnetic shielding 111:. It takes the form of a 6710:Computational healthcare 6705:Differentiable computing 6624:Graphics processing unit 6050:Domain-specific language 5919:Computational complexity 5603:Switching circuit theory 5508:Programmable Array Logic 5496:Programmable logic array 4958:Backward-wave oscillator 4668:Light emitting capacitor 4524:Point-contact transistor 4494:Junction Gate FET (JFET) 4201:"FAQ on RoHS Compliance" 2448: 2443:Control Data Corporation 2316:Many assembled PCBs are 2297:Protection and packaging 2229:While the power is off, 2210:While the power is off, 2145:surface-mount technology 2133:printed circuit assembly 2039:A legend (also known as 1940:Other platings used are 1893: 1361:Verification of the data 1148:comply with Knowledge's 939:signal propagation speed 855:Key substrate parameters 669:Surface-mount technology 656:either manually or by a 511:), and for an assembled 481:printed circuit assembly 163:surface mount technology 72:Part of a 1984 Sinclair 30:Not to be confused with 6685:Computational chemistry 6619:Photograph manipulation 6510:Artificial intelligence 6326:Decision support system 5653:Register-transfer level 4969:Crossed-field amplifier 4488:Field-effect transistor 4260:, Long Island Section. 4249:Colotti, James (2022). 3464:Bosshart (1983-01-01). 3437:Khandpur, R.S. (2005). 3392:Mitzner, Kraig (2011). 2745:GlobeNewswire News Room 2519: 2247:While the power is on, 2240:While the power is on, 2163:There are a variety of 2137:through-hole technology 1828: 906:...), and others (e.g. 826:polytetrafluoroethylene 645:through-hole technology 638:electrolytic capacitors 6829:Electronic engineering 6819:Electronics substrates 6814:Electrical engineering 6750:Educational technology 6581:Reinforcement learning 6331:Process control system 6229:Computational geometry 6219:Algorithmic efficiency 6214:Analysis of algorithms 5869:Systems on Chip (SoCs) 5544:Tensor Processing Unit 5138:Voltage-regulator tube 4705:MOS integrated circuit 4570:Constant-current diode 4546:Unijunction transistor 4288:Printed circuit boards 3633:. Mitsubishi Electric. 3619:. Mitsubishi Electric. 3423:. The Board Authority. 3125:. IPC. September 1991. 2570:European Single Market 2526:biomedical engineering 2481: 2469: 2415: 2403: 2169:pick-and-place machine 2128: 2020: 2012: 1806: 1785: 1761:electroless deposition 1745:in the circuit board. 1704: 1696: 1688: 1399: 1347: 1227:), 34.1 μm (1.34 617: 605: 593: 580: 568: 464:, often tan or brown. 395: 242:The Austrian engineer 239: 115:sandwich structure of 81: 65: 6720:Electronic publishing 6690:Computational biology 6680:Computational physics 6576:Unsupervised learning 6490:Distributed computing 6366:Information retrieval 6273:Mathematical analysis 6263:Mathematical software 6153:Theory of computation 6118:Software construction 6108:Requirements analysis 5986:Software organization 5914:Computer architecture 5884:Hardware acceleration 5849:Printed circuit board 5759:Electronic literature 5713:Hardware acceleration 5581:Computer architecture 5479:Emitter-coupled logic 5416:Printed circuit board 5207:Electrolytic detector 4980:Inductive output tube 4796:Low-dropout regulator 4711:Organic semiconductor 4642:Printed circuit board 4478:Darlington transistor 4325:Electronic components 4205:RoHS Compliance Guide 4128:. Eur-lex.europa.eu. 2958:US patent 5434751 2858:1984 Award Recipients 2601:operating temperature 2475: 2467: 2453:Further information: 2437:Before the advent of 2420:wire-ended components 2409: 2401: 2336:Cordwood construction 2123: 2049:component designators 2018: 2010: 1960:(ENEPIG), and direct 1862:Blind and buried vias 1804: 1775: 1751:is usually done with 1702: 1694: 1686: 1650:Laser resist ablation 1588:Laser resist ablation 1467:and lands are marked. 1396: 1388:photolithographically 1352:computer aided design 1345: 819:expansion coefficient 684:Electrical properties 674:surface mount devices 611: 599: 586: 574: 566: 505:circuit card assembly 393: 286:Post-war developments 237: 194:, or sometimes using 86:printed circuit board 71: 63: 6480:Concurrent computing 6452:Ubiquitous computing 6424:Application security 6419:Information security 6248:Discrete mathematics 6224:Randomized algorithm 6176:Computability theory 6161:Model of computation 6133:Software maintenance 6128:Software engineering 6090:Software development 6040:Programming language 6035:Programming paradigm 5952:Network architecture 5685:Finite-state machine 5663:High-level synthesis 5598:Circuit minimization 5025:Beam deflection tube 4694:Metal oxide varistor 4587:Light-emitting diode 4441:Thin-film transistor 4402:Floating-gate MOSFET 4290:at Wikimedia Commons 3587:. September 1, 2012. 3249:Op Amps for Everyone 3205:Journal of the HKPCA 2671:AllAboutCircuits.com 2648:- resin used in PCBs 2364:improve this article 2332:and microwave PCBs. 2098:rigid needle adapter 1888:plated-through holes 1611:electrical discharge 1570:maskless lithography 1556:Silk screen printing 643:The first PCBs used 469:printed wiring board 445:photographic printer 272:Cledo Brunetti Award 183:wired point-to-point 107:to one another in a 94:printed wiring board 39:PCB (disambiguation) 37:For other uses, see 6755:Document management 6745:Operations research 6670:Enterprise software 6586:Multi-task learning 6571:Supervised learning 6293:Information systems 6123:Software deployment 6080:Software repository 5934:Real-time computing 5732:Digital photography 5514:Generic Array Logic 5436:Combinational logic 5411:Printed electronics 5375:Digital electronics 5001:Traveling-wave tube 4801:Switching regulator 4637:Printed electronics 4614:Step recovery diode 4391:Depletion-load NMOS 3987:. 11 February 2014. 3959:(1). Archived from 3276:. Microwavejournal. 3154:Circuitree Magazine 2769:The Industry Herald 2721:. 28 September 2015 2439:integrated circuits 2185:Selective soldering 2059:Silkscreen printing 2035:Legend / silkscreen 1916:Plating and coating 1780:mounted). Note the 1753:ammonium persulfate 1519:hatched copper pour 1162:improve the content 1031:Flexible substrates 935:dielectric constant 908:moisture absorption 904:tracking resistance 888:dielectric constant 791:dielectric constant 708:can be laid out in 532:silkscreen printing 477:etched wiring board 369:Recent advances in 32:Printed electronics 6538:Search methodology 6485:Parallel computing 6442:Interaction design 6351:Computing platform 6278:Numerical analysis 6268:Information theory 6060:Software framework 6023:Software notations 5962:Network components 5859:Integrated circuit 5680:Asynchronous logic 5456:Integrated circuit 5421:Electronic circuit 5306:Crystal oscillator 5166:Variable capacitor 4841:Switched capacitor 4783:Voltage regulators 4657:Integrated circuit 4541:Tetrode transistor 4519:Pentode transistor 4512:Organic LET (OLET) 4499:Organic FET (OFET) 4156:legislation.gov.uk 4060:10.3390/mi13030460 3176:circuitinsight.com 3167:Fjelstad, Joseph. 2621:Electronics portal 2572:participants, the 2482: 2470: 2416: 2404: 2326:grounded (earthed) 2261:nonvolatile memory 2129: 2021: 2013: 1807: 1786: 1749:Industrial etching 1705: 1697: 1689: 1572:or direct imaging. 1517:, and may include 1501:-panel, whereas a 1400: 1348: 817:), and the Z-axis 706:transmission lines 618: 606: 594: 581: 569: 559:Component mounting 517:backplane assembly 396: 280:integrated circuit 240: 82: 78:through-hole paths 66: 6801: 6800: 6730:Electronic voting 6660:Quantum Computing 6653:Applied computing 6639:Image compression 6409:Hardware security 6399:Security services 6356:Digital marketing 6143:Open-source model 6055:Modeling language 5967:Network scheduler 5788: 5787: 5737:Digital telephone 5708:Computer hardware 5675:Synchronous logic 5341: 5340: 5301:Ceramic resonator 5113:Mercury-arc valve 5065:Video camera tube 5017:Cathode-ray tubes 4777: 4776: 4385:Complementary MOS 4286:Media related to 4158:. 4 December 2012 4111:978-0-7506-6278-9 3930:978-0-07-014589-4 3785:978-0-07-146734-6 3683:978-0-309-10034-2 3650:. 8 October 2013. 3353:978-3-030-39284-0 3288:"RF-35 datasheet" 3221:. UBE, upilex.jp. 3111:. 21 August 2018. 3033:978-3-319-45098-8 2999:978-1-5386-6814-6 2890:on August 4, 2018 2402:A cordwood module 2396: 2395: 2388: 2303:conformal coating 2235:power-off testing 2212:visual inspection 2086:bare-board tested 1541:Copper patterning 1407:Schematic capture 1308: 1307: 1190: 1189: 1182: 980:Common substrates 884:thermal expansion 460:impregnated with 16:(Redirected from 6841: 6791: 6790: 6781: 6780: 6771: 6770: 6591:Cross-validation 6563:Machine learning 6447:Social computing 6414:Network security 6209:Algorithm design 6138:Programming team 6098:Control variable 6075:Software library 6013:Software quality 6008:Operating system 5957:Network protocol 5822:Computer science 5815: 5808: 5801: 5792: 5791: 5441:Sequential logic 5368: 5361: 5354: 5345: 5344: 5195:electrical power 5080:Gas-filled tubes 4964:Cavity magnetron 4791:Linear regulator 4340: 4339: 4318: 4311: 4304: 4295: 4294: 4285: 4275: 4273: 4272: 4266: 4255: 4244: 4242: 4241: 4235: 4228: 4209: 4208: 4197: 4191: 4189: 4174: 4168: 4167: 4165: 4163: 4148: 4142: 4141: 4139: 4137: 4122: 4116: 4115: 4089: 4083: 4082: 4072: 4062: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4024:. pp. 14–8. 4023: 4019:"14: Intergraph" 4014: 4008: 4007: 4006: 4002: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3981: 3975: 3974: 3972: 3971: 3965: 3950: 3941: 3935: 3934: 3916: 3910: 3909: 3907: 3906: 3900: 3891: 3885: 3884: 3866: 3857: 3851: 3850: 3840: 3820: 3814: 3813: 3812:on 11 July 2017. 3811: 3804: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3762: 3761: 3739: 3733: 3727: 3721: 3720: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3694: 3688: 3687: 3658: 3652: 3651: 3649: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3563: 3557: 3556: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3526: 3525: 3515: 3509: 3508: 3488: 3482: 3481: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3434: 3425: 3424: 3416: 3410: 3409: 3389: 3383: 3382: 3380: 3372: 3366: 3365: 3329: 3320: 3319: 3317: 3316: 3307:. Archived from 3301: 3295: 3294: 3292: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3243: 3237: 3236: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3215: 3209: 3208: 3202: 3193: 3187: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3173: 3164: 3158: 3157: 3151: 3142: 3136: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3119: 3113: 3112: 3105: 3099: 3098: 3078: 3072: 3069: 3063: 3058: 3052: 3051: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3018: 3012: 3011: 2984:. pp. 1–5. 2973: 2967: 2966: 2965: 2961: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2946: 2942: 2932: 2926: 2923: 2917: 2914: 2908: 2905: 2899: 2898: 2896: 2895: 2889: 2883:. Archived from 2878: 2870: 2864: 2856:Engineers' Day, 2854: 2848: 2847: 2837: 2831: 2830: 2812: 2803: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2781: 2780: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2752: 2751: 2736: 2730: 2729: 2727: 2726: 2711: 2705: 2704: 2702: 2701: 2687: 2681: 2680: 2678: 2677: 2663: 2623: 2618: 2617: 2500:Multiwire boards 2391: 2384: 2380: 2377: 2371: 2348: 2340: 2271:) standard. The 1956:(ENIG) coating, 1946:immersion silver 1868:controlled-depth 1815:tungsten carbide 1805:Eyelets (hollow) 1735:General Electric 1615:dielectric fluid 1234: 1233: 1185: 1178: 1174: 1171: 1165: 1141: 1140: 1133: 1129:Copper thickness 1021:metal core board 876:tensile strength 803:tensile strength 640:and connectors. 21: 6849: 6848: 6844: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6839: 6838: 6804: 6803: 6802: 6797: 6788: 6759: 6740:Word processing 6648: 6634:Virtual reality 6595: 6557: 6528:Computer vision 6504: 6500:Multiprocessing 6466: 6428: 6394:Security hacker 6370: 6346:Digital library 6287: 6238:Mathematics of 6233: 6195: 6171:Automata theory 6166:Formal language 6147: 6113:Software design 6084: 6017: 6003:Virtual machine 5981: 5977:Network service 5938: 5929:Embedded system 5902: 5835: 5824: 5819: 5789: 5784: 5763: 5696: 5631:Place and route 5626:Logic synthesis 5612: 5608:Gate equivalent 5571:Logic synthesis 5566:Boolean algebra 5549: 5491:Macrocell array 5451:Boolean circuit 5377: 5372: 5342: 5337: 5275: 5190:audio and video 5175: 5142: 5074: 5011: 4939: 4920:Photomultiplier 4845: 4773: 4721:Quantum circuit 4629: 4623: 4565:Avalanche diode 4551: 4463: 4456: 4345: 4334: 4327: 4322: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4253: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4226: 4218: 4216:Further reading 4213: 4212: 4199: 4198: 4194: 4176: 4175: 4171: 4161: 4159: 4150: 4149: 4145: 4135: 4133: 4124: 4123: 4119: 4112: 4090: 4086: 4033: 4029: 4021: 4015: 4011: 4004: 3996: 3992: 3983: 3982: 3978: 3969: 3967: 3963: 3948: 3942: 3938: 3931: 3917: 3913: 3904: 3902: 3898: 3892: 3888: 3864: 3858: 3854: 3838:10.1.1.486.8305 3821: 3817: 3809: 3802: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3786: 3772: 3768: 3759: 3757: 3740: 3736: 3728: 3724: 3713: 3709: 3696: 3695: 3691: 3684: 3660: 3659: 3655: 3647: 3643: 3642: 3638: 3629: 3628: 3624: 3615: 3614: 3610: 3605:. 15 June 2002. 3597: 3596: 3592: 3579: 3578: 3574: 3565: 3564: 3560: 3551: 3550: 3546: 3537: 3536: 3532: 3523: 3521: 3517: 3516: 3512: 3505: 3489: 3485: 3478: 3462: 3458: 3451: 3435: 3428: 3417: 3413: 3406: 3390: 3386: 3378: 3374: 3373: 3369: 3354: 3330: 3323: 3314: 3312: 3303: 3302: 3298: 3290: 3286: 3285: 3281: 3272: 3271: 3267: 3260: 3244: 3240: 3231: 3230: 3226: 3217: 3216: 3212: 3200: 3194: 3190: 3180: 3178: 3171: 3165: 3161: 3149: 3143: 3139: 3134: 3130: 3121: 3120: 3116: 3107: 3106: 3102: 3095: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3059: 3055: 3050:. October 2019. 3046: 3045: 3041: 3034: 3020: 3019: 3015: 3000: 2974: 2970: 2963: 2955: 2951: 2944: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2920: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2902: 2893: 2891: 2887: 2876: 2872: 2871: 2867: 2855: 2851: 2838: 2834: 2827: 2813: 2806: 2799: 2791: 2787: 2778: 2776: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2749: 2747: 2737: 2733: 2724: 2722: 2713: 2712: 2708: 2699: 2697: 2689: 2688: 2684: 2675: 2673: 2665: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2619: 2612: 2609: 2566: 2558:Main articles: 2556: 2543: 2522: 2502: 2462: 2460:Breakout boards 2457: 2451: 2412:proximity fuzes 2392: 2381: 2375: 2372: 2361: 2349: 2338: 2322:antistatic bags 2299: 2249:functional test 2242:in-circuit test 2224:quality control 2118: 2090:electrical test 2082: 2080:Bare-board test 2037: 2005: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1966:Edge connectors 1964:(over nickel). 1935:ball grid array 1918: 1906:process, or by 1896: 1882: 1864: 1850:—evaporated by 1844: 1831: 1799: 1770: 1757:ferric chloride 1719:ferric chloride 1681: 1548:hybrid circuits 1543: 1534: 1528: 1511:panel fiducials 1491: 1427:are determined. 1340: 1335: 1253:1/2 oz/ft 1186: 1175: 1169: 1166: 1159: 1156:MOS:CONVERSIONS 1150:Manual of Style 1142: 1138: 1131: 1047:foil. Used for 982: 929: 924: 920: 900:leakage current 886:), electrical ( 857: 842:ball grid array 816: 796: 755: 750: 686: 561: 540: 388: 367: 365:Recent advances 296:Geoffrey Dummer 288: 255:proximity fuzes 232: 179: 174: 92:), also called 56: 49: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Printed circuit 15: 12: 11: 5: 6847: 6837: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6799: 6798: 6796: 6795: 6785: 6775: 6764: 6761: 6760: 6758: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6656: 6654: 6650: 6649: 6647: 6646: 6644:Solid modeling 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6605: 6603: 6597: 6596: 6594: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6567: 6565: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6543:Control method 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6514: 6512: 6506: 6505: 6503: 6502: 6497: 6495:Multithreading 6492: 6487: 6482: 6476: 6474: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6438: 6436: 6430: 6429: 6427: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6389:Formal methods 6386: 6380: 6378: 6372: 6371: 6369: 6368: 6363: 6361:World Wide Web 6358: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6297: 6295: 6289: 6288: 6286: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6244: 6242: 6235: 6234: 6232: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6205: 6203: 6197: 6196: 6194: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6157: 6155: 6149: 6148: 6146: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6094: 6092: 6086: 6085: 6083: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6031: 6029: 6019: 6018: 6016: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5989: 5987: 5983: 5982: 5980: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5948: 5946: 5940: 5939: 5937: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5910: 5908: 5904: 5903: 5901: 5900: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5845: 5843: 5837: 5836: 5829: 5826: 5825: 5818: 5817: 5810: 5803: 5795: 5786: 5785: 5783: 5782: 5777: 5771: 5769: 5765: 5764: 5762: 5761: 5756: 5755: 5754: 5749: 5747:cinematography 5739: 5734: 5729: 5728: 5727: 5717: 5716: 5715: 5704: 5702: 5698: 5697: 5695: 5694: 5693: 5692: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5666: 5665: 5660: 5650: 5645: 5644: 5643: 5638: 5628: 5622: 5620: 5614: 5613: 5611: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5594: 5593: 5586:Digital signal 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5561:Digital signal 5557: 5555: 5551: 5550: 5548: 5547: 5541: 5535: 5529: 5523: 5517: 5511: 5505: 5499: 5493: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5470: 5465: 5459: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5387: 5385: 5379: 5378: 5371: 5370: 5363: 5356: 5348: 5339: 5338: 5336: 5335: 5334: 5333: 5328: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5297: 5296: 5285: 5283: 5277: 5276: 5274: 5273: 5272: 5271: 5269:Wollaston wire 5261: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5235: 5234: 5229: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5183: 5181: 5177: 5176: 5174: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5162: 5161: 5150: 5148: 5144: 5143: 5141: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5095: 5090: 5084: 5082: 5076: 5075: 5073: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5050:Selectron tube 5047: 5042: 5040:Magic eye tube 5037: 5032: 5027: 5021: 5019: 5013: 5012: 5010: 5009: 5004: 4998: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4977: 4972: 4966: 4961: 4954: 4952: 4941: 4940: 4938: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4855: 4853: 4847: 4846: 4844: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4787: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4772: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4745: 4739: 4734: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4702: 4697: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4665: 4660: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4633: 4631: 4625: 4624: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4609:Schottky diode 4606: 4601: 4596: 4590: 4584: 4578: 4573: 4567: 4561: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4550: 4549: 4543: 4538: 4532: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4515: 4514: 4503: 4502: 4501: 4496: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4468: 4466: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4438: 4433: 4427: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4405: 4399: 4393: 4388: 4382: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4350: 4348: 4337: 4329: 4328: 4321: 4320: 4313: 4306: 4298: 4292: 4291: 4278: 4277: 4256:. Revision 5. 4246: 4217: 4214: 4211: 4210: 4192: 4188:on 2019-04-19. 4169: 4143: 4117: 4110: 4084: 4027: 4009: 3990: 3976: 3936: 3929: 3911: 3886: 3875:(3): 609–626. 3852: 3831:(3): 893–914. 3815: 3791: 3784: 3766: 3734: 3722: 3707: 3689: 3682: 3674:10.17226/11515 3653: 3636: 3622: 3608: 3590: 3572: 3558: 3544: 3530: 3510: 3503: 3483: 3476: 3456: 3449: 3426: 3411: 3404: 3384: 3367: 3352: 3321: 3296: 3279: 3265: 3258: 3238: 3224: 3210: 3188: 3159: 3137: 3128: 3114: 3100: 3093: 3073: 3064: 3053: 3039: 3032: 3013: 2998: 2968: 2949: 2927: 2918: 2909: 2900: 2865: 2849: 2832: 2825: 2804: 2785: 2756: 2731: 2706: 2682: 2657: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2650: 2649: 2643: 2637: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2608: 2605: 2574:United Kingdom 2555: 2552: 2542: 2539: 2521: 2518: 2501: 2498: 2490:breakout board 2488:, is called a 2461: 2458: 2450: 2447: 2394: 2393: 2352: 2350: 2343: 2337: 2334: 2298: 2295: 2253: 2252: 2245: 2238: 2227: 2181:soldering iron 2117: 2114: 2081: 2078: 2077: 2076: 2065: 2062: 2036: 2033: 2004: 2001: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1917: 1914: 1909:Plasma etching 1895: 1892: 1880: 1863: 1860: 1843: 1840: 1830: 1827: 1798: 1795: 1769: 1766: 1680: 1677: 1676: 1675: 1669: 1665: 1664: 1662: 1658: 1657: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1644: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1636: 1633: 1629: 1628: 1626: 1619: 1618: 1601: 1595: 1585: 1573: 1564:Photoengraving 1560: 1542: 1539: 1530:Main article: 1527: 1524: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1485: 1478: 1468: 1461: 1450:Line impedance 1447: 1428: 1421: 1418: 1372: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1359: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1329: 1326: 1323: 1320: 1315:, or 35 mic). 1306: 1305: 1302: 1301:102.3 μm 1299: 1296: 1292: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1278: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1264: 1263: 1260: 1259:17.05 μm 1257: 1254: 1250: 1249: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1188: 1187: 1145: 1143: 1136: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1119: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1061: 1060: 1059: 1058: 1052: 1028: 1014: 1000: 993:phenolic paper 981: 978: 927: 922: 918: 880:shear strength 856: 853: 814: 807:shear strength 794: 787:fire retardant 754: 751: 749: 746: 685: 682: 658:wave soldering 614:computer mouse 560: 557: 539: 536: 521:expansion card 462:phenolic resin 441:film negatives 408:circuit traces 387: 384: 366: 363: 347:wave-soldering 298:, then at the 287: 284: 231: 228: 178: 175: 173: 170: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6846: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6811: 6809: 6794: 6786: 6784: 6776: 6774: 6766: 6765: 6762: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6657: 6655: 6651: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6629:Mixed reality 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6606: 6604: 6602: 6598: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6564: 6560: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6515: 6513: 6511: 6507: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6477: 6475: 6473: 6469: 6463: 6462:Accessibility 6460: 6458: 6457:Visualization 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6439: 6437: 6435: 6431: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6381: 6379: 6377: 6373: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6294: 6290: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6245: 6243: 6241: 6236: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6204: 6202: 6198: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6158: 6156: 6154: 6150: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6095: 6093: 6091: 6087: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5990: 5988: 5984: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5945: 5941: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5924:Dependability 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5905: 5899: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5846: 5844: 5842: 5838: 5833: 5827: 5823: 5816: 5811: 5809: 5804: 5802: 5797: 5796: 5793: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5775:Metastability 5773: 5772: 5770: 5768:Design issues 5766: 5760: 5757: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5744: 5743: 5742:Digital video 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5726: 5723: 5722: 5721: 5720:Digital audio 5718: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5709: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5699: 5691: 5688: 5687: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5655: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5633: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5623: 5621: 5619: 5615: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5592: 5589: 5588: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5552: 5545: 5542: 5539: 5536: 5533: 5530: 5527: 5524: 5521: 5518: 5515: 5512: 5509: 5506: 5503: 5500: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5486: 5483: 5480: 5477: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5463: 5460: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5386: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5369: 5364: 5362: 5357: 5355: 5350: 5349: 5346: 5332: 5331:mercury relay 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5295: 5292: 5291: 5290: 5287: 5286: 5284: 5282: 5278: 5270: 5267: 5266: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5224: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5184: 5182: 5178: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5160: 5157: 5156: 5155: 5154:Potentiometer 5152: 5151: 5149: 5145: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5085: 5083: 5081: 5077: 5071: 5070:Williams tube 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5022: 5020: 5018: 5014: 5008: 5005: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4959: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4889:Fleming valve 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4854: 4852: 4848: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4749: 4746: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4716:Photodetector 4714: 4712: 4709: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4684:Memtransistor 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4626: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4594: 4591: 4588: 4585: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4562: 4560: 4558: 4554: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4536: 4533: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4473: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4465: 4459: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4431: 4428: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4409: 4406: 4403: 4400: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4386: 4383: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4347: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333:Semiconductor 4330: 4326: 4319: 4314: 4312: 4307: 4305: 4300: 4299: 4296: 4289: 4284: 4280: 4279: 4263: 4259: 4252: 4247: 4232: 4225: 4220: 4219: 4206: 4202: 4196: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4157: 4153: 4147: 4131: 4127: 4121: 4113: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4088: 4080: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4043: 4042:Micromachines 4038: 4031: 4020: 4013: 4000: 3994: 3986: 3980: 3966:on 2017-05-10 3962: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3940: 3932: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3897: 3894:Borkes, Tom. 3890: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3863: 3856: 3848: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3808: 3801: 3795: 3787: 3781: 3777: 3770: 3756:on 2017-10-14 3755: 3751: 3750: 3745: 3738: 3731: 3726: 3718: 3711: 3703: 3699: 3693: 3685: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3657: 3646: 3640: 3632: 3626: 3618: 3612: 3604: 3603:MMSOnline.com 3600: 3594: 3586: 3582: 3576: 3568: 3562: 3554: 3548: 3540: 3539:"プリント回路配線の修復" 3534: 3520: 3514: 3506: 3504:9783662131619 3500: 3496: 3495: 3487: 3479: 3477:9780074515495 3473: 3469: 3468: 3460: 3452: 3450:0-07-058814-7 3446: 3442: 3441: 3433: 3431: 3422: 3415: 3407: 3405:9780080943541 3401: 3397: 3396: 3388: 3377: 3371: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3336: 3328: 3326: 3311:on 2015-09-23 3310: 3306: 3300: 3289: 3283: 3275: 3269: 3261: 3259:9780080949482 3255: 3251: 3250: 3242: 3234: 3228: 3220: 3214: 3206: 3199: 3192: 3177: 3170: 3163: 3155: 3148: 3141: 3132: 3124: 3118: 3110: 3104: 3096: 3094:0-08-043152-6 3090: 3086: 3085: 3077: 3068: 3062: 3057: 3049: 3043: 3035: 3029: 3025: 3024: 3017: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2972: 2959: 2953: 2941: 2937: 2931: 2922: 2913: 2904: 2886: 2882: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2859: 2853: 2845: 2844: 2836: 2828: 2822: 2818: 2811: 2809: 2795: 2789: 2775:on 2022-03-02 2774: 2770: 2766: 2760: 2746: 2742: 2735: 2720: 2716: 2710: 2696: 2695:ScienceDirect 2692: 2686: 2672: 2668: 2662: 2658: 2647: 2644: 2641: 2640:Occam process 2638: 2635: 2632: 2630: 2627: 2626: 2622: 2616: 2611: 2604: 2602: 2597: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2565: 2561: 2551: 2549: 2538: 2536: 2532: 2531:Lab-on-a-chip 2527: 2517: 2514: 2512: 2506: 2497: 2493: 2491: 2487: 2479: 2474: 2466: 2456: 2446: 2444: 2440: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2413: 2408: 2400: 2390: 2387: 2379: 2376:December 2016 2369: 2365: 2359: 2358: 2353:This section 2351: 2347: 2342: 2341: 2333: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2314: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2294: 2292: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2279: 2274: 2270: 2264: 2262: 2258: 2257:boundary scan 2250: 2246: 2243: 2239: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2208: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2201: 2193: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2161: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2127: 2122: 2113: 2111: 2106: 2105: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2074: 2073:serial number 2070: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2057: 2056: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2032: 2030: 2026: 2017: 2009: 2000: 1998: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1950:immersion tin 1947: 1943: 1938: 1936: 1931: 1929: 1924: 1921: 1913: 1911: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1891: 1889: 1884: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1859: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1848:laser drilled 1839: 1837: 1826: 1824: 1823:Excellon file 1820: 1816: 1812: 1803: 1794: 1790: 1783: 1779: 1774: 1765: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1730: 1727: 1726:electroplated 1722: 1720: 1714: 1712: 1711: 1701: 1693: 1685: 1673: 1670: 1667: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1659: 1656:Laser etching 1655: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1638: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1623: 1622: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1599: 1598:Laser etching 1596: 1593: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1579: 1578: 1574: 1571: 1566: 1565: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1553: 1552: 1551: 1549: 1538: 1533: 1523: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1507:tooling holes 1504: 1500: 1496: 1483: 1479: 1476: 1472: 1471:Signal traces 1469: 1466: 1462: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1448: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1426: 1422: 1419: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1403: 1395: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1384:dry transfers 1381: 1377: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1356: 1355: 1353: 1344: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1314: 1303: 1300: 1298:900 g/m 1297: 1295:3 oz/ft 1294: 1293: 1289: 1287:68.2 μm 1286: 1284:600 g/m 1283: 1281:2 oz/ft 1280: 1279: 1275: 1273:34.1 μm 1272: 1270:300 g/m 1269: 1267:1 oz/ft 1266: 1265: 1261: 1258: 1256:150 g/m 1255: 1252: 1251: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1213: 1210: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1184: 1181: 1173: 1163: 1157: 1153: 1151: 1144: 1135: 1134: 1123: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1096: 1093: 1090: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1078: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1056: 1053: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1035: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1015: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1001: 998: 994: 990: 987: 986: 985: 977: 975: 971: 966: 962: 956: 954: 948: 945: 942: 940: 936: 931: 916: 911: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 868: 864: 862: 852: 848: 845: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 822: 820: 812: 808: 804: 801:(tan δ), the 800: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 771: 769: 765: 760: 745: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 710:a planar form 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 681: 679: 675: 670: 666: 663: 662:signal traces 659: 655: 650: 646: 641: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 615: 610: 603: 598: 590: 585: 579:home computer 578: 573: 565: 556: 552: 550: 544: 535: 533: 529: 524: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 465: 463: 459: 455: 452: 448: 446: 442: 438: 433: 428: 426: 422: 418: 413: 409: 405: 401: 392: 383: 381: 375: 372: 362: 360: 354: 350: 348: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 325: 320: 316: 311: 307: 303: 301: 297: 293: 283: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 260:screenprinted 256: 251: 249: 245: 236: 227: 225: 221: 220:John Sargrove 216: 214: 210: 206: 205:Thomas Edison 200: 197: 193: 189: 184: 169: 166: 164: 158: 155: 151: 147: 142: 140: 139: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 79: 75: 70: 62: 58: 54: 47: 40: 33: 19: 6725:Cyberwarfare 6384:Cryptography 5848: 5701:Applications 5415: 5088:Cold cathode 5055:Storage tube 4945:Vacuum tubes 4894:Neutron tube 4869:Beam tetrode 4851:Vacuum tubes 4641: 4436:Power MOSFET 4269:. Retrieved 4238:. Retrieved 4204: 4195: 4186:the original 4181: 4172: 4160:. Retrieved 4155: 4146: 4134:. Retrieved 4120: 4093: 4087: 4046: 4040: 4030: 4012: 3993: 3979: 3968:. Retrieved 3961:the original 3956: 3952: 3939: 3920: 3914: 3903:. Retrieved 3889: 3872: 3868: 3855: 3828: 3824: 3818: 3807:the original 3794: 3775: 3769: 3758:. Retrieved 3754:the original 3748: 3737: 3725: 3710: 3701: 3692: 3665: 3656: 3639: 3625: 3611: 3602: 3593: 3584: 3575: 3561: 3547: 3533: 3522:. Retrieved 3519:"PCB Layout" 3513: 3493: 3486: 3466: 3459: 3439: 3420: 3414: 3394: 3387: 3370: 3334: 3313:. Retrieved 3309:the original 3299: 3282: 3268: 3248: 3241: 3227: 3213: 3207:(24): 12–16. 3204: 3191: 3179:. Retrieved 3175: 3162: 3153: 3140: 3131: 3122: 3117: 3103: 3083: 3076: 3067: 3056: 3042: 3022: 3016: 2981: 2971: 2952: 2930: 2921: 2912: 2903: 2892:. Retrieved 2885:the original 2868: 2852: 2842: 2835: 2816: 2788: 2777:. Retrieved 2773:the original 2768: 2759: 2748:. Retrieved 2744: 2734: 2723:. Retrieved 2718: 2709: 2698:. Retrieved 2694: 2685: 2674:. Retrieved 2670: 2661: 2598: 2567: 2544: 2523: 2515: 2507: 2503: 2494: 2489: 2483: 2436: 2417: 2382: 2373: 2362:Please help 2357:verification 2354: 2315: 2300: 2288: 2282: 2265: 2254: 2205: 2197: 2194: 2173:reflow ovens 2162: 2152: 2148: 2140: 2132: 2130: 2109: 2104:flying probe 2102: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2083: 2053: 2044: 2040: 2038: 2022: 1987: 1986: 1962:gold plating 1939: 1932: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1897: 1887: 1885: 1876: 1872: 1867: 1865: 1855: 1845: 1832: 1818: 1813:coated with 1808: 1791: 1787: 1747: 1731: 1723: 1715: 1708: 1706: 1640:Small volume 1625:Large volume 1620: 1603: 1597: 1587: 1575: 1562: 1554: 1544: 1535: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1492: 1489:Panelization 1482:Gerber files 1436:power planes 1414: 1401: 1373: 1367:Panelization 1349: 1333:Construction 1309: 1220: 1214: 1206: 1202:Heavy copper 1201: 1191: 1176: 1167: 1160:Please help 1147: 1062: 1020: 983: 974:delamination 957: 949: 946: 943: 932: 912: 892:loss tangent 869: 865: 858: 849: 846: 823: 799:loss tangent 772: 756: 698:ground plane 687: 667: 642: 619: 577:Commodore 64 553: 549:ground plane 545: 541: 525: 516: 508: 504: 496: 493:PCB assembly 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 466: 458:cotton paper 449: 429: 407: 397: 376: 368: 355: 351: 334:dip soldered 329: 326:construction 324:through-hole 323: 312: 308: 304: 291: 289: 252: 241: 217: 201: 188:jumper wires 180: 177:Predecessors 167: 159: 143: 137: 97: 93: 89: 85: 83: 57: 6735:Video games 6715:Digital art 6472:Concurrency 6341:Data mining 6253:Probability 5993:Interpreter 5431:Memory cell 5254:Transformer 4996:Sutton tube 4836:Charge pump 4689:Memory cell 4619:Zener diode 4581:Laser diode 4464:transistors 4346:transistors 3985:"StackPath" 2719:iconnect007 2554:Legislation 2486:prototyping 2126:test points 2025:solder mask 1970:gold-plated 1928:solder mask 1877:buried vias 1653:PCB milling 1577:PCB milling 1515:test coupon 1509:, a set of 1503:multi-panel 1409:through an 1378:on a clear 1198:square foot 1011:epoxy resin 953:eye pattern 861:epoxy resin 730:capacitance 622:transistors 612:A PCB in a 602:transistors 528:test points 454:glass epoxy 437:photographs 432:photoresist 425:solder mask 386:Composition 371:3D printing 330:Auto-Sembly 292:Auto-Sembly 244:Paul Eisler 199:expensive. 74:ZX Spectrum 46:Motherboard 6808:Categories 6793:Glossaries 6665:E-commerce 6258:Statistics 6201:Algorithms 5998:Middleware 5854:Peripheral 5780:Runt pulse 5752:television 5446:Logic gate 5391:Transistor 5383:Components 5326:reed relay 5316:Parametron 5249:Thermistor 5227:resettable 5186:Connector 5147:Adjustable 5123:Nixie tube 5093:Crossatron 5060:Trochotron 5035:Iconoscope 5030:Charactron 5007:X-ray tube 4879:Compactron 4859:Acorn tube 4816:Buck–boost 4737:Solaristor 4599:Photodiode 4576:Gunn diode 4572:(CLD, CRD) 4354:Transistor 4276:(81 pages) 4271:2022-05-09 4245:(45 pages) 4240:2022-05-09 3999:US 4175816 3970:2016-12-19 3905:2010-01-11 3760:2017-04-14 3524:2018-05-17 3315:2013-03-30 3252:. Newnes. 3181:17 January 2936:US 2756485 2894:2018-08-04 2826:0071402144 2794:US 1256599 2779:2018-08-26 2750:2018-08-26 2725:2016-04-12 2700:2021-06-24 2676:2021-06-24 2653:References 2629:Breadboard 2564:China RoHS 2177:microscope 2094:PCB e-test 2045:silkscreen 1873:blind vias 1856:micro vias 1842:Micro vias 1819:drill file 1811:drill bits 1768:Lamination 1672:Vinyl film 1532:depaneling 1526:Depaneling 1454:Microstrip 1425:heat sinks 1304:4.02 thou 1290:2.68 thou 1276:1.34 thou 1262:0.67 thou 1007:fiberglass 1005:, a woven 965:Polyimides 768:dielectric 726:inductance 718:microstrip 704:circuits, 694:resistance 589:drill bits 338:lamination 230:Early PCBs 213:Max Schoop 121:insulating 117:conductive 105:components 6614:Rendering 6609:Animation 6240:computing 6191:Semantics 5889:Processor 5636:Placement 5426:Flip-flop 5406:Capacitor 5289:Capacitor 5133:Trigatron 5128:Thyratron 5118:Neon lamp 5045:Monoscope 4925:Phototube 4909:Pentagrid 4874:Barretter 4759:Trancitor 4754:Thyristor 4679:Memristor 4604:PIN diode 4381:(ChemFET) 3833:CiteSeerX 3362:215840278 3235:. DuPont. 3071:IPC-14.38 2511:crosstalk 2455:Monoboard 2428:computers 2311:sputtered 2165:soldering 2156:are then 2124:PCB with 2110:instructs 1458:stripline 1376:photomask 1122:Polyimide 1045:polyimide 970:soldering 759:thermoset 753:Laminates 748:Materials 722:impedance 714:stripline 702:microwave 634:resistors 587:A box of 513:backplane 417:corrosion 380:flip chip 264:resistors 192:soldering 146:wire wrap 133:soldering 129:laminated 113:laminated 6773:Category 6601:Graphics 6376:Security 6045:Compiler 5944:Networks 5841:Hardware 5401:Inductor 5396:Resistor 5311:Inductor 5281:Reactive 5259:Varistor 5239:Resistor 5217:Antifuse 5103:Ignitron 5098:Dekatron 4986:Klystron 4975:Gyrotron 4904:Nuvistor 4821:Split-pi 4707:(MOS IC) 4674:Memistor 4432:(MuGFET) 4426:(MOSFET) 4398:(FinFET) 4262:Archived 4231:Archived 4162:31 March 4130:Archived 4079:35334752 3008:54214952 2646:BT-Epoxy 2607:See also 2285:desolder 2200:SMT page 2158:soldered 2116:Assembly 2069:bar code 1997:tin pest 1992:whiskers 1904:de-smear 1883:lasers. 1797:Drilling 1661:Hobbyist 1609:uses an 1170:May 2024 1017:Aluminum 738:antennae 712:such as 654:soldered 630:IC chips 443:using a 359:microvia 319:soldered 224:Bakelite 6783:Outline 5641:Routing 5475:(3D IC) 5212:Ferrite 5180:Passive 5171:Varicap 5159:digital 5108:Krytron 4930:Tetrode 4915:Pentode 4769:Varicap 4750:(3D IC) 4726:RF CMOS 4630:devices 4404:(FGMOS) 4335:devices 4070:8952574 4053:: 460. 3919:Shibu. 2594:mercury 2590:cadmium 2548:e-waste 2478:SD card 2071:with a 1952:(ISn), 1948:(IAg), 1944:(OSP), 1739:plating 1710:etching 1679:Etching 1607:etching 1582:plotter 1417:) tool. 1116:Alumina 1055:Pyralux 913:At the 797:), the 342:etching 172:History 109:circuit 5618:Design 5554:Theory 5540:(ASIC) 5534:(FPOA) 5528:(FPGA) 5522:(CPLD) 5487:(EPLD) 5244:Switch 4935:Triode 4899:Nonode 4864:Audion 4744:(SITh) 4628:Other 4595:(OLED) 4557:Diodes 4508:(LET) 4490:(FET) 4462:Other 4410:(IGBT) 4387:(CMOS) 4374:BioFET 4369:BiCMOS 4229:. 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