1702:: the men had to look for a wife in another clan. Violators of this rule were buried alive. A matrilocal system of residence prevailed; in other words, a man had to go away to live in the house of his parents-in-law. As a fiancé or husband, he had to work to contribute to the communal sustenance of his new family; thus young women were considered "as advantageous property to their families." If the husband ever became ill, he would have to return to his parents' house; but if the sickness was caused by sores or lasted too long, or if the man were an idler, the woman would no longer readmit him. They did not recognize kinship through an agnatic line (i.e., via the father) and consequently sexual dealings were irrelevant between two people related by exclusively patrilineal bonds.
1301:, that may have also existed between the Chorotegans: A woman would engage in prostitution to obtain a dowry, congregate afterwards with her clients, ask that they build her a house within a certain time period and tell them that each one had to contribute. When the dwelling was finished, the woman would choose a husband from her among her clients, a party would take place and from then on she would be considered a good woman. It should be mentioned that prostitution, even without marriage as an end, was permitted; and Fernández de Oviedo states that the normal price for a woman's sexual services was ten cocoa beans. The chronicler López de Gómara says that the women "before getting married were generally bad, and once married, good."
559:
1728:
mother asks the suitor at an opportune moment what the important matter is, calling him aside. If it is convenient to the mother, she looks for a special large serving gourd that she has stored in her farmhouse, fills it with cacao and delivers it to her daughter so that she can offer it to her fiancé, which he must drink by itself. The following day the groom-to-be returns to his house and the mother of the bride barely talks to her husband about the matter, which very rarely changes their decision. The mother again advises the suitor to come to her house.... The marriage is no longer discussed, as it is considered done.
1488:
CabĂ©car, Catapa, Chome, CorobicĂ, Coto, GuaymĂ, Huetar, Pococi, Quepo, Suerre, Tariaca, TĂ©rraba, Tice, Turucaca, Urinama, Viceita, Voto. However, references in this regard are too brief and imprecise to clearly identify the various ethnic groups or their specific characteristics. The names of locations and of the chiefs are also problematic, since they sometimes use two or more names for the same place or person, or the same name for a place and a chieftain. It is even suggested that this may have been due to a custom of changing the name of a place whenever a chieftain died, conferring upon it the name of the deceased.
1240:. Some chieftains and high-ranking people had concubines, but they were never considered legitimate wives. Customarily, marriage required a series of ceremonies. It began with the asking for a woman's hand, that was executed by the father of the would-be groom during a formal visit with the woman's parents. If the request was accepted, a date was set for the wedding celebration. The marriage vow was celebrated with great fiestas, to which the families, friends and neighbors of the couple would come. Before the wedding, both bride and bridegroom would receive a
1745:
formula is required to enter into marriage and it lasts for however long it is convenient to the husband and wife. In the case of infidelity on the part of the wife, or of undue cruelty on the part of the husband, they can be separated. Sometimes, if the woman becomes unfaithful, the husband whips her severely and perhaps returns her to her family, or the resentful woman abandons him. This separation last for one or two years, or may be definitive; but during that time, either of the parties can enter into new bonds and then the separation is permanent."
1623:, he brought with him many elders and gentlemen along with their sons, "because the place he wanted was settled and nobody contradicted him." Garabito also appears to have enjoyed considerable authority. However, perhaps in other groups the power of the main chieftain over others was not absolute, but was rather exercised in concert with subordinate chieftains. In some communities, the effective authority of the chieftains must've been lesser still, as for example the writings of Gabb in the latter half of the 19th suggest regarding the natives of
1317:
a man with full knowledge of the relationship's bigamous nature lost all of her property in favor of the legitimate wife. Whoever raped a woman was bound to the house where the offense happened, and his own relatives would have to support him until he paid for the crime with a certain amount of property. If he did not meet this obligation, he would become a slave to her family. If a servant had sexual relations with his master's daughter, both would be buried alive. Sexual relations between males were also sentenced to death by stoning.
45:
1684:, when he refers to the many indigenous groups in southwestern Costa Rica in 1610, states that they lived in constant war with each other, because they had to periodically sacrifice some people, "and when they have none, without sacrificing any from their nation, attack those of another and those that they capture are sacrificed; and if they have any left, they sell them to other neighbors for the same." The slaves would also be sacrificed for burial with chieftains or other members of the upper class.
587:
717:
warriors, specialized artisans and farmers. The ruling class could fill functions such as distributors for communally produced goods, military leaders, crisis counselors and so on. In any case, they usually had access to goods that were especially valuable because they were difficult to obtain or manufacture; and they were distinguished from other natives by their prominent living quarters within the villages, as well as the more elaborate funeral rites and offerings their status afforded.
638:
BC there began to appear large villages with intrastructural works of various importance (foundations, roads and burial mounds), that indicate a certain centralization of authority and managerial capacity to mobilize communities for construction tasks. There might emerge a primary chief in the dominant village and as well as secondary chiefs in subordinate villages. Among the principal archaeological testaments to this era, it is fitting to mention diverse housing sites in the
479:(cultivation of plants from seeds) had a greater effect on the environment, because it required more nutrients from the soil and caused greater erosion. In return, this system had a big advantage: it make food easier to store so that it could be made available all year, not just around harvest time. This led to larger societies where functions would be diversified. The primary semicultural activity was the production of corn, as well as associated plants such as beans and
151:
438:, as well as cultivate fruit trees and palm trees. Agriculture emerged slowly, stemming from knowledge of the annual cycles of nature and the progressive domestication of familiar plants. This development occurred over thousands of years and coexisted with traditional hunting and gathering, but it afforded a certain amount of stability. To ensure subsistence of these groups there had to exist forms of collective work and property, as well as
200:
1281:... that in of women, he did not want more than one, if it were possible; that he would be content with one rather than many; but that his fathers gave their daughters and begged him to take them; and he would take others who looked good to him, and he would be successful by having many sons; and that of the young virgins, he took them to honor them and their relatives, and then the other Indians would be willing to marry them ...
1641:
would carry special clothing and insignias, and would be surrounded by attendants and servants, as in an elaborate protocol. The principal achievements of his life and his funerals were usually characterized by complex, solemn public rites. The social hierarchy depended in many ways on the chieftain's family relations, since a person's rank was determined by how far or close in blood relationship he was to the chieftain.
541:
573:
446:
groups to establish permanent settlements around agricultural fields. This led to stable villages of huts that had to be erected in clear areas of the forest. The agricultural system most likely employed was slash-and-burn: The forest would be cut with stone axes and spades then burned to prepare it for planting crops. Agricultural practices included vegeculture, semiculture or a combination of both.
880:
Some peoples in the
Mesoamerican Area, for example, were organized into societies that appear more complex than those of their contemporaries in the Intermediate Area, having legal institutions which, from a Western point of view, may have been more developed. On the other hand, in both regions it appears the prevalent system of law was exclusively or almost exclusively
317:(chiefs), religious leaders or shamans, artisan specialists and so on. This social organization arose from the need to organize manufacture and trade, manage relations with other communities and plan offensive and defensive activities. These groups established broader territorial divisions to produce more food and control wider sources of raw materials.
609:
goods would've been collective. However, agriculture, sendentarism and a broadening demographic would've prompted the formation of higher classes of society, and the advent of leaders who built organizations well-suited to manage food production and distribution, calm disputes and so on. Important figures such as the
1727:
The suitor is presented at his fiancée's home.... "I have come to spend the night," he says. "I come for a very important matter." In this way the groom begins. Then the cacao is prepared, shared and drunk plentily. If some neighbor visits, the mother of the bride invites him to stay.... Finally, the
1722:
language of
Talamanca to define marriage, which literally means "united hands," symbolizes how simple the ceremony could be, if there was any. A German missionary stated at even at the start of the 20th century, there remained between these same Bribris a type of marriage with barely any formalities,
1491:
The
Europeans took special note of the great linguistic diversity; even today, the indigenous languages that survive in Costa Rica have very different characteristics. There possibly also existed a great multiplicity of codes of conduct. However, the territory of the Intermediate Area was not visited
1487:
and alliances between many of the communities in the
Intermediate Area of Costa Rica, but there was no sole authority in the entire territory; rather, a multitude of societies with different levels of complexity. In Spanish documents appear mention of a great number of native groups: Aoyaque, Burica,
1454:
of Costa Rica, upon the arrival of the
Spaniards, featured much less cultural unity than the Mesoamerican Area. Numerous communities with different languages and customs lived there, though most languages spoken there belonged to the Macro-Chibcha language family. The culture of some of these groups,
1316:
was punished by loss of property and exile. His legitimate wife could remarry, if she had no children through bigamy. If there were any, she could not marry again, but if she assumed the care of the children, she would have a right to the property from the bigamous relationship. The woman who married
1285:
The wedding ceremony was carried out in the presence of the chieftain and the families of the engaged. The chieftain, with his right hand, would take the bride and groom by the middle and little fingers of their left hands, conducted them to a small house designated for carrying out wedding rites and
1162:
also had the right to elect certain elders of prestige as counselors to the community. These elders, whose activities the
Spaniards compared to the Christian confessional, had private consultations, made recommendations to someone who sought his help, and allotted such penances as sweeping the plazas
712:
artisanship. Their motifs apparently had religious meaning. Burials from this period demonstrate the existence of rank and class, since burial offerings include artifacts made of jade and other green gemstones, ceremonial grinding stones, sceptre stones and elaborate ceramics. The number, quality and
445:
Between 2000 BC and 300 BC, some communities of early farmers became egalitarian societies. The development of agriculture prompted changes in the relationship between humans and nature, and allowed them to feed many more people. Furthermore, the ever-growing dependence on agriculture compelled human
1748:
There are also indications that sexual relationships and living arrangements between men were permitted. With respect to a group from the
Intermediate Area in Panama (which was strongly linked to the Costa Rican portion) Fernández de Oviedo write that homosexuals "are not rejected nor mistreated for
1744:
As is customary in sindiasmic families, there does not seem to have been a substantial difference between the positions of the male and female in regards to the dissolution of the marriage, as suggested by the customs that the native groups of
Talamanca maintained at the end of the 19th century: "No
1705:
In the
Intermediate Area the prevalent system of marriage seems to have been syndiasmic, although it is not impossible that in some communities there had been monogamous forms of marriage. Polygamy, as among the Nicoyans, was reserved for chiefs and others in the upper social strata. A document from
1085:
Among the other customary things of these people, one appears just and honest to us, such as when the chieftains are to provide for their armies and warfare, or when they are to present themselves to the
Christians or agree to an extraordinary expense. And it is when the chieftain and his principals
773:
in Turrialba, which contains raised mounds with walls of stone, access ramps and pedestals, as well as aqueducts, elevated platforms, circular and rectangular foundations, paved walkways and other structures. But others have been found in widespread places in the Central Valley, the Caribbean region
637:
Other villages grew and became centers of economic, political and religious power. Some studies refer to these new forms of organization as complex chiefdoms. The appearance of these types of chiefdoms also led to higher-level hierarchies, with principal villages and secondary towns. From around 300
358:
were manufactured. It is thought that these first settlers of Costa Rica belonged to small nomadic groups of around 20 to 30 members bound by kinship, which moved continually to hunt animals and gather roots and wild plants. In addition to the species that still exist today, their usual prey animals
310:
Archaeological evidence allows us to date the arrival of the first humans to Costa Rica to between 7000 and 10,000 BC. By the second millennium BC sedentary farming communities already existed. Between 300 BC and AD 300 many communities moved from a tribal, clan-centric organization – kinship-based,
1757:
In the Costa Rican Intermediate Area there must have prevailed collective systems of work and ownership of arable land, though there were positions of privilege for people belong to the upper social strata. No documentational reference has been found regarding the existence of markets, although the
1710:
the men did not get married unless they were at least twenty years of age, but the women, if they were good-looking, were usually married at six or seven years of age; so the women would raise them and care for them as daughters in their company until such time as they became useful. The Indians of
1697:
The norms on family and kinship were based on a cognatic system, for which the relationship between a nephew and his maternal uncle was important. The family organization was based on matrilineal clans that were supposed descendants of a common ancestor and that sometimes identified themselves as a
1223:
Family ties were very important. The organization of the Chorotegan family was fundamentally cognate or matrilineal. furthermore, according to Fernández de Oviedo, the Chorotega men were "very much commanded by and subject to the will of their women." López de Gómara says they were "valiant, though
1123:
It was not governed by a chieftain or sole elder, but rather in a communal manner by a certain number of elders elected by vote; and those same would affect a captain general for affairs of war, and after he with the others ruled their state when one died or was killed in a battle or confrontation,
879:
There is no strict boundary, either cultural or political, between the Intermediate and Mesoamerican Areas, because there would've been frequent contact and transcultural exchange between both groups of people, over all the confluent areas. Even so, notable culture differences existed between them.
490:
there existed in Costa Rica small, disperse villages, non-nomadic agricultural communities that used ceramic bowls and utensils, and tools made from wood, bone and stone for agricultural tasks and food preparation. The oldest of these agricultural village communities (2000–500 BC) has been found in
1732:
As with other matrimonial systems, in the Intermediate Area of Costa Rica the wife may have had a position in the family equal or even superior to that of the husband, as demonstrated in the case of the chieftainess of the Votos. She possibly also enjoyed greater sexual freedom than the Chorotegan
1631:
In ancient times the chiefs exercised no more than a nominal power over the town. The principal advantages they derive from their position were more of a social than political character. The chief would be brought to the best seat in the house upon entering any home. He would be treated with great
1495:
In the 16th century, it appears in the Intermediate Area that a scattered type of settlement prevailed, defined by the existence of hamlets composed of two or three very large, communal ranches, whose inhabitants cultivated the enclosed fields. Some sources indicate that in each dwelling lived "an
1304:
The Chorotegans also celebrated rites of collective catharsis, sometimes accompanied by human sacrifice and ritual cannibalism. During these rites, married women, as the principals they were, could have sexual relations with whom they wanted or those who paid them, without later being subjected to
402:
It is thought that human groups remained small, about 30 to 100 members, organized in nomadic or semi-nomadic bands devoted to hunting and gathering. However, the knowledge of the local environment allowed them to plan their travels through different areas based on the periodic ripening of certain
1500:
there remain archaeological testaments to the existence of larger settlements, there appears to have been a lesser tendency for communities to urbanize than in the Nicoyan region, perhaps because nomadic and seminomadic cultivation compelled these groups to slowly move around. In contrast to what
1392:
recounts that among the natives of Nicaragua, which included the Chorotega, "there is no punishment for killing a chieftain, saying that this cannot occur. For his part, Friar Bobadilla reported that when he asked a native of Nicaragua what they did when somebody killed a chieftain, the informant
1354:
or market: and those faithful leaders are mayors and absolute governors within those places, to allow sellers neither force nor improper measure, nor giving of less than what was to be given or exchanged in their sales, nor fraud: and they punish without remission some of the transgressors by his
1341:
or market played a central role in the economic life of the Chorotega towns, for which commerce and labor practices of certain complexity had to exist. These markets were tended by women, men were not permitted to enter, except for young people who had never had sexual relations. Men who violated
1325:
As in other indigenous communities of Mesoamerica, ownership of arable land and agricultural work between Chorotegans had to be essentially of a collective nature. Quesada LĂłpez-Calleja indicates that land could not be sold and that parents conferred it to their children or to their relatives, if
1187:
The available data regarding the normative organization of the Chorotegan people indicate that from the point of view of Western jurisprudence, it was a system of minimal complexity based on precedence, with minor infractions and few sanctions. On the other hand, it is very possible that they had
982:
The population of Nicoya was a political, religious and economic center, located a short distance from the modern-day city of this name. (In the middle of the 16th century, there were two other dependencies also known as Nicoya, one larger than the other.) In Nicoya would reside a high chief, who
895:
and missionaries, people whose training and mentality were borne of cultural norms very different from those of the indigenous societies, and whose view of them at times was distorted through prejudice, personal interest or mere ignorance. Such documents are not very numerous, and on occasion are
725:
From the 9th century certain villages grew in size and their internal design became more complex, giving rise to the era of late pre-Columbian chiefdoms which lasted until the 16th century. It is possible that more fruitful varieties of corn and other crops, as well as more perfected agricultural
338:
caused the oceans to recede by about 120 meters (400 feet), allowing groups of hunters from northeast Asia to move eastward in pursuit of great herds of animals. They traveled to North America and settled there in several waves, and over the course of several millennia and through successive
1640:
In most communities, the chieftain played roles of vital importance. He would channel productive activities, redistribute surpluses, solve internal conflicts and impart justice, manage relationships with other groups and perform functions akin to a priest. His person was almost always sacred; he
1367:
The religion, language, customs and laws of the Chorotega gradually disappeared as a consequence of the Spanish conquest. Diverse sources from the time of the Spanish domination praise the laws of the Nicoyans and their attitude with regard to the law. For example, in the second half of the 16th
716:
With the advances in agriculture and corresponding social changes, the most successful communities established social hierarchies based on economic and political criteria. Between AD 300 and 800, these chiefdom societies developmented internal social strata, with political and religious leaders,
625:
Between 300 BC and 300 AD, many villager-egalitarian communities in Costa Rica moved from a tribal, clan-centric organization – kinship-based, rarely hierarchical and dependent on self-sustenance – to a villager-chief organization, with chiefs and elders, religious leaders or shamans, specialist
608:
relationships between individuals and organizations, in clans or groups whose members were or would consider themselves to be descended from a common ancestry. Such ties would have served as a foundation for economic and political relations; the leadership would've been informal and ownership of
1293:
Wedding celebrations would start the following day, when the couple came out of the house and the husband announced before his friends and relatives that he had found the woman a virgin. This declaration would give rise to general rejoicing. In the event that the woman had been delivered to the
983:
held that post for life and exercised political authority, and would carry out religious and ceremonial functions. It appears that there was prevalently a dynasty-elective system for chief succession. Fernández de Oviedo indicated that this priest had other principal vassals and horseman called
1602:
The form of government is extremely simple. A family has hererditary right to the chieftainship.... The succession is not practiced in a direct line; rather, upon the death of the chief, the most eligible member of the royal family is elected to fill the vacancy. Often, instead of the son, the
1509:
The towns in the Intermediate Area were found to be organized in chiefdoms both large and small, and in clans of common heritage. It is known of several groups that they were subordinate to others and paid tribute to their chieftain; on the other hand, it is very problematic to clearly fix the
1136:
there could not be a committee or council, especially in warfare, without the chieftain or captain of the republic and assumptive village. They declare war over borders or boundary markers, over hunting and who is better and more powerful. It is like this everywhere until they capture men for
732:
or shamans promoted the infrastructure improvements that required the mobilization of immense work forces. There was a notable peak in the art of goldsmithing throughout the country. In addition there was an increase in the variety of domestic and personal goods, regional trade, alliances and
1333:
Individual private property existed mainly with respect to personal property. Thieves were condemned to return stolen items to their rightful owner and to serve their victims to repay the damage, and remained bound to the victim's house until the debt was satisfied. If the victim received no
633:
groups in general established territorial divisions that were more strongly demarcated than those in tribal times, and were able to expand their geographical spheres of domination to produce more food and control expanding sources of raw materials (forests, quarries, etc.). These groups also
621:
With dependency on agriculture came the need for efficient territorial control, to ensure the availability of suitable farmlands and improvement of productive techniques. Soil depletion and the consequent necessity to rotate crops, as well as a steady increase in the population, also made it
1200:
indicated that they possessed books of deerskin, where in red and black ink they recorded their deaths and inheritances. So, when there were conflicts or disputes, they could be settled with the opinion of the elders. At the beginning of the 20th century, as a result of a few archaeological
1294:
husband-to-be as a virgin, but had already had sexual relations, she was returned to her parents' house and the wedding would be considered invalid. On the other hand, if the husband-to-be had known before the wedding that the woman was not a virgin, the marriage would be considered valid.
1247:
Lands and valuable pieces of jewelry were inherited by the couple's children. However, if one of the spouses died without the marriage bearing descendants, these wares would return to the control of the parents. The father had the authority to sell the children for sacrificial rituals.
1218:
Here ... I came accompanied by Father Velazco more than twenty-five years ago, when this gentleman made his expeditions to the island. In a place very near, after five months of expedition, we discovered something very important called the Choretega missal, a square book with many
798:, etc.). This was the height of sphere-making, as well as of stone artisanship in such works as animal figures, grindstones, grand anthropomorphic statues (which appear to represent important social figures) that featured smooth surfaces. There was an increase in goldsmithing with
777:
In the south Pacific region have also been found great quantities of home foundations, roads, dump sites, plus funeral areas and mounds. These settlements were located in very fertile regions, bringing about the extensive cultivation of corn and cotton, and the use of palm trees
1163:
or gathering firewood for the temples. Counselors who divulged the content of these consultations, and third parties who listened to them surreptitiously, were severely punished. These counselors, in contrast to custom among the priests, remained permanently unmarried.
1154:... that in the case of the drunken women, he saw that it was bad; but that such was the custom and of their past, and that if it wasn't done the people would not love him well and would hold him in poor conversation, and that he would depart from them from the land.
333:
The presence of humans in the Americas was a much later phenomenon than on other continents. The first humans are barely dated to around 40,000 to 50,000 BC, and it is suggested a later date. In any case, the concentration of ice over the continents during the last
904:
In the opening decades of the 16th century, most of the people inhabiting the Nicoya Peninsula and the vicinity of its eponymous gulf belonged to the Mesoamerican cultural area. Their presence has also been attested in the central Pacific region between the
1334:
compensation, the thief could remain in slavery. A similar situation could occur whenever a homicide was committed, since the criminal had to pay restitution for the wrongdoing with goods to satisfy the victim's relatives, or otherwise become their slave.
472:), in combination with hunting and fishing. This activity was very stable, since it demanded few nutrients from the soil, rarely caused erosion and could be developed in hilly areas. By such means, societies based on vegeculture would change very slowly.
1590:, most chiefdoms in Costa Rica were lifelong and of matrilineal heredity as in other parts of the Intermediate Area. In some communities this system must have been dynastic-elective; it was still this way, for example, in certain indigenous groups of
403:
fruits and the growth of familiar plants (that would later form the basis of agriculture) as well as the availability of other resources. Along these familiar paths they could find temporary shelter under rock ledges, or establish outdoor camps with
744:, who subordinated, displaced or mixed with populations that had previously settled in the Nicoyan territory. These new peoples introduced changes in religion, burial rites, art and other aspects of life; as well as new domesticated animals such as
1698:
group with a common name – for example, one taken from an animal. In certain indigenous groups of what are today the Talamanca, sexual relations between people of the same cognatic group were rigorously prohibited, which imposed requirements of
833:
has been abandoned, since these names in fact only identified a small part of the nations that existed in Costa Rican proper at the time. In light of recent studies, it has become much more appropriate to identify two major principal areas:
820:
was not a unified land but was inhabited by diverse peoples independent from each other, and whose respective cultures had many different levels of complexity and development. The traditional view that divides this territory between the
383:. The increase in temperature caused substantial changes in vegetation and saw the extinction of the mega-fauna, through either the disappearance of the plants they consumed, excessive predation by hunter or a combination of both. The
1137:
sacrifice. Each chief has for his people a special sign in war and even at home. The free towns elect a captain general who is the most skillful and expert they find, who rules and punishes absolutely and without appeal to the elders.
1762:
allow one to suppose that in some places there was very intense commerce. In certain settlements the existence has been confirmed of plazas that could have been utilized for redistribution of goods, as well as for religious rites.
1607:
It is known that in some villages a woman could be the chieftain: In 1562, a Spanish captain who visited the Voto community was "well received by an Indian chieftainess of theirs and by her husband who ruled little among them."
1467:
dress and contracting practices. In the 17th century, some natives of Talamanca still preserved the practice of counting numbers of people on ropes with different types of knots, analogous to the use of knotted straps by the
1455:
especially on the Atlantic side, had many elements similar to those of the Caribbean islands; but in other groups a South American influence was discernible. For example, in 1562 the town hall of the recently founded city of
422:. The manufacturing of specialized tools for various activities continued, and artifacts from this era such as scrapers, knives and spear tips display differences in form and size relative to those of the mega-fauna hunters.
1375:
indicated that the natives of Nicoya were "loyal and obedient to justice", and at the beginning of the 17th century they were still remembered as being ruled by wise laws, that among them there did not exist punishments for
987:, who would accompany him and protect him, and be his court subjects and captains. It is possible that these elders, whom the chronicler describes as arrogant and cruel, represented the various tributary villages of Nicoya.
774:
and the northern plains. In this era there was a great development in stonework with volcanic rocks, to make tables, stone tablets, grinding stones and anthropomorphic figures (women, heads, shamans, warriors and so forth).
1213:
in 1935. In her article, "Chira, olvidada cuna de aguerridas tribus precolombina" (Chira, forgotten cradle of war-hardened pre-Columbian tribes), she relates the account of Fernández Le Cappellain of an islander who said:
1286:
there said to them: "See that you are good spouses and that you look over your estate, and that you always improve it and not let it be spoiled." Afterwards, the couple would observe silence as they watched a sliver of
1805:
1553:, "the sentry of Abito"; the Diego de Artieda Chirinos and Uclés agreement speaks of the province of "Guaravito" instead of Garabito) in the central Pacific region and part of the western section of the Central Valley
768:
In the heart of Costa Rica populations became more concentrated in organized economic and political centers, that would form living and ceremonial groups. The most well-known archaeological site of this kind is
626:
artisans, people of hereditary power and so on. These chiefdoms likely arose from the need to organize production and trade, manage relations with other communities and plan offensive and defensive initiatives.
1492:
by chroniclers such as Fernández de Oviedo and missionaries such as Bobadilla, and the data that exists regarding these peoples' religious and judicial lives is exceptionally scant, isolated, and fragmentary.
760:
and other important rivers. In addition there were other places that specialized in the salt extraction, providing a precious trading commodity, especially for groups that lived inland. Skill in multi-colored
1183:
indicates that the chieftain would name experienced and capable elders as judges, whose rulings could not be appealed. Quesada also notes that in the case of bigamy, the counselor would dictate the sentence.
1145:
there existed a similar system. In each case, the governor had limited authority and needed to take into account the traditions and opinions of the community. In 1529, when Fernández de Oviedo recommended to
1603:
selection would fall upon some second cousin of the last chief.... It has been customary that the heir apparent, the future successor, was second in position or vice-chieftain, with little or no authority.
1090:
or council, and bestow fortune (after agreeing to what is to be given) to which of them is to remain in the office of provision or of distribution to all citizens, and to make them expand the way that the
1733:
woman, since groups of the Intermediate Area do not appear to have given importants to virginity and there were women who deliver themselves to those who solicited them. At the end of the 19th century,
1680:
Military confrontations between the groups were frequent, and prisoners of war were sent to ritual sacrifice, even without the habitual cannibalism in Mesoamerican ceremonies. The missionary friar
1415:
In the 16th century, the present-day territory of Costa Rica – with the exception of the Nicoya Peninsula, its eponymous gulf and the Nahuan enclaves – was part of the cultural region known as the
1673:, as well as the aforementioned Dulcehe, who was later baptized as Doña Inés. Garabito's biographer, Oscar Bákit, points out how absurd these idenfiers were, saying: "Dulcehe was never nicknamed
1644:
Warriors and priests typically belong to the upper classes, and also had special clothes and insignias. In some towns, such as those of the Coctus and Cotos, there were female warriors known as
673:, whose purpose is still a mystery, though it is suggested that they may have been symbols of rank or territorial markers, or had an astronomical function associated with cycles of agriculture.
1518:(major chieftain and principal chieftain). In other cases it is difficult to determine whether relations between various groups was of subordination or simple alliance. In addition to the term
1359:
Although barter played an important role in trade, Chorotegans used cacao beans as currency. Cases of counterfeiting appeared, where cacao would be extracted from beans and replaced with dirt.
1273:
preferred to give their wives-to-be "to the chieftains who would break them, to be honored more or to rid themselves of suspicion or anxiety." When Fernández de Oviedo reprimanded chieftain
320:
From the 9th century certain villages grew in size, and the latter-period chiefdoms of the 16th century came to develop greater social hierarchies and major improvements in infrastructure.
1715:
However, in the latter half of the 19th century, many men among the natives of Talamanca would have two or sometimes three wives, and the husband had his choice of a plurality of women.
1297:
Many men preferred to take women who were no longer virgins as spouses, and even those of licentious conduct. Also, references survive regarding a peculiar matrimonial practice of the
1180:
1741:, "when puberty arrives, it is the sign that they should get married, at least on the part of the young women.... I am certain that very few kept their virginity until marriage."
1290:(native pine) burn. When that was consumed, the ceremony would be declared complete and the new husband and wife would retire into a room in the house to consummate the marriage.
700:, etc.). It is supposed that they were used as personal ornaments then later on in individual burial clothes, since most have been found at burial sites. Deep local tradition in
1342:
such prohibitions could be stoned, be sold as slaves or be sold as cannibal fodder. Presiding over the markets were judge-administrators elected once every four months by the
808:(gold and copper alloy) using hammering and thin-sheet techniques. Mineral deposits themselves were not exploited, as gold was extracted from rivers and copper from outcrops.
726:
methods coincided with an increase in population, a deeper social hierarchy and stronger relationships between communities further down the social chain. In some villages the
1326:
they lacked descendants, when they felt that their final hour had arrived. Fernández de Oviedo's references to the Chorotegans' deerskin leather book imply that some type of
1350:... the first thing one does in the city councils, is determining faithful executors for another four months, who all, or at least one of them, never leaves the plaza and
1244:
from their respective parents, which may have included, in accordance with a family's economic means, arable land, a dwelling, cocoa beans, jewelry, animals, fruits, etc.
669:
and along the Pacific, archaeologists have uncovered housing plots delimited with rounded edges, mounds, clay floors and roads. In the south Pacific region are the famous
1711:
respect, had by the rich and by valiant gentlemen among others, had a plurality of women, that commonly were their sisters-in-law, which they would elevate to nobility.
1372:
704:-work (which began around 500 BC and continued until around AD 700 for the most part developed without external influence, although some pieces display features of
971:(1535) includes details from his meetings with the Nicoyan people in 1529. It is possible that many of their institutions and customs were similar to those of the
1681:
1205:(the Chorotegan missal or prayer book); but it is unknown where this document was used. The sole reference known about this find is offered by the archaeologist
1583:
Both appear to have had an important number of communities and groups under their control. Other chieftains, however, did not have subordinate ties with them.
749:
2173:
642:, housing structures at the sites of Severo Ledesma and Las Mercedes – and on the Atlantic side, other settlement ruins in Valle del General, as well as the
1189:
780:
217:
1030:
1591:
975:
indigenous communities that at the time inhabited the Nicaraguan side of the Pacific. Details of the latter, among those regions administered by friar
1636:(maize liquor). But (in) case of war, the chief would have to defend himself against beatings from long and heavy clubs, as any other ordinary mortal.
1309:
and expulsion from the home. Their relatives would insult her and not recognize her, and the community would consider her an impure, shameless woman.
622:
essential to expand a group's sphere of territorial dominance. Almost inevitably, this brought about the rise of armed conflict with other groups.
1759:
1565:
264:
1269:
upon request from the woman's family, so that it would be easier for her to find a husband. According to LĂłpez de GĂłmara, some native peoples of
179:
1277:
for continuing to have several wives and continuing to spend many nights with virgin women despite being baptized, the Nicoyan chief protested:
1099:
are elected by fours for four moons, and those completed, become like any other citizens, and others server in kind; but is always done by the
236:
1042:
956:, around 1520. The interest in these areas was strengthened by the erroneous assumption that it would allow communication between the gulf and
1053:
The Chorotega society was hierarchical, and in the upper social strata appeared chieftains, warriors, priests and elders of prestige known as
1443:. It is possible that in earlier eras, the Nicoyan region had formed part of this area, and that its original settlers had been displaced by
476:
449:
1061:
1501:
occurred in other places in Central America, the Spaniards did not manage to find any population center large enough to qualify as a city.
1022:
243:
1256:
1034:
1018:
998:
2044:
1877:
1662:
1006:
952:
The Nicoya Peninsula and gulf region were the first Costa Rican territories to definitively and lastingly submit to the dominion of the
1646:
1577:
1112:
1510:
hierarchical line, because documentation is too vague and imprecise about particular aspects, and sometimes uses imprecise terms such
1274:
1147:
2297:
1797:
1197:
964:
500:
250:
993:
wrote that the Chorotegan villages in the Gulf of Nicoya area organized themselves into four "provinces": two within the peninsula,
2391:
2029:
1890:
1055:
59:
1124:
they would elect another, and sometimes those same would kill each other if one were found to be an inconvenience to the republic.
2146:
1658:
1651:
1081:) – that were assigned to a neighborhood, village or district among the indigenous people of Mexico. Fernández de Oviedo wrote:
765:
reached an advanced level; new colors and styles became available to local ceramic artisans, clearly inspired by Mesoamericana.
232:
2168:
2117:
2070:
69:
661:
are linked to this period, particularly tombs covered in tons of stone. Similar funeral mounds have appeared in the canton of
2431:
124:
1224:
cruel and very subject to their women". Marriage between blood relatives was prohibited and incest was practically unknown.
2272:
2102:
2014:
1777:
1677:, as such a name would have been an insult to her, since it belonged to the very same women whom she had taken prisoner."
1150:, chieftain of Nicoya, that he put an end to certain rites of collective drunkenness, he received the following response:
1939:
1826:
172:
109:
79:
1196:
had voluminous books of paper and parchment, where they recorded memorable facts and had their laws and rites depicted.
2107:
1934:
1206:
74:
1069:
elected monthly and in which there were possibly representatives of various clans and communities. The members of the
104:
99:
2034:
1999:
1355:
decrees and customs, and to strangers they offer courtesy and welcome, because they always come more by their hiring.
283:
1305:
jealously or punishment. Under normal circumstances, however, a woman's adultery was punished by admonition, severe
1111:
had the legal authority to elect or bring death to the chieftain or principal ruler. On the Chorotegan community of
896:
superficial, fragmentary or very general; and talk about a very small number of the indigenous groups that existed.
2350:
2214:
2156:
2009:
1749:
it. Such men are not joined with other men without a license to what they have, and if they do, they are killed."
414:
Tradesman work areas, campfire pits and other fragmentary evidence of life in these groups have been found in the
2097:
2024:
1870:
1586:
Although there are indications that certain communities had patrilineal dynastic systems similar to those of the
257:
139:
917:, and this is why sometimes they are generically designated as such. Furthermore, in the vicinity of modern-day
44:
2426:
2250:
2112:
1926:
1129:
604:
In the beginning, the social organization of these groups would've been of a tribal or clan-based nature, with
221:
165:
24:
963:
Much of the knowledge known regarding the life of this region's inhabitants is derived from the chronicles of
339:
generations, the descendants of these hunters spread out throughout the Americas and her neighboring islands.
2360:
2315:
2163:
2004:
888:
preserved their legal codes by means of some writing system similar to those of other Mesoamerican cultures.
387:
had to develop strategies to adapt to new conditions, and they continued by hunting smaller species such as
2365:
2136:
2019:
1815:
1801:
1669:. As a proper name or nickname, "Biriteca" has been freely given to the first lady of the famous chieftain
558:
1994:
1632:
luxury and would be offered chocolate, while people of lower class would have to content themselves with
979:, were more numerously recorded by Fernández de Oviedo and other conquistadors as well as a few priests.
670:
512:
1666:
2436:
2330:
2320:
2262:
2236:
2141:
2124:
1989:
1949:
1921:
1863:
1393:
responded that it never happened, "because the chieftain does not communicate with despicable people."
922:
681:
666:
129:
94:
1541:
Among the major chiefdoms that have been identified, perhaps one of the most well-known are those of:
2201:
2129:
1388:, because the Nicoyans believed that no person was capable of committing such crimes. The chronicler
399:. The new wealth of tropical vegetation, moreover, helped them to survive through all times of year.
1456:
2277:
2224:
1944:
408:
342:
There is archaeological evidence that places the arrival of the first humans to Costa Rica between
84:
1095:
was ordered. The governors and officials who are to attend with the chieftain or president in the
1077:– since the buildings where the council met were known by that name (surely derived from the term
2292:
2282:
2267:
2231:
2151:
2092:
2085:
2075:
1977:
990:
613:(a kind of priest), physician and witch doctor would have overseen religious and spiritual life.
210:
1899:
1330:
existed, though is possible that litigation over lands was not between individuals, but groups.
2345:
2287:
2058:
2039:
1472:
empire. Similarities can also be found between the customs of certain communities and those of
1406:
1402:
1201:
excavations on the island of Chira, a square book with hieroglyphics was found that was called
976:
906:
891:
Part of what is known about these societies is from reports and letters written by the Spanish
2384:
2307:
2219:
2189:
2080:
1959:
1908:
1772:
1416:
846:
119:
33:
504:
2325:
1389:
942:
713:
difficulty of obtaining these articles are a means of indicating the person's social rank.
304:
2206:
1059:. The authority of the village chieftains was not absolute, since they shared it with the
868:
8:
2400:
2355:
2335:
1306:
658:
647:
520:
492:
419:
380:
335:
2340:
1738:
1624:
1460:
1420:
914:
790:
347:
2405:
1734:
1612:
1611:
The Costa Rican chieftains in the Intermediate Area had greater powers than those of
1595:
1451:
1261:
885:
840:
709:
496:
487:
415:
351:
343:
155:
910:
736:
At the start of this period, Mesoamerican cultural groups began to trickle over the
1002:
972:
953:
918:
872:
822:
753:
741:
737:
697:
639:
392:
311:
rarely hierarchical and dependent on self-sustenance – to a hierarchical one, with
651:
524:
516:
1410:
884:, based on custom rather than the rule of law. It is possible, however, that the
757:
748:. This period corresponds to habitation sites located in coastal valleys such as
745:
662:
457:
384:
360:
1179:(Costa Rica, the southern border of Mesoamerica), the lawyer and anthropologist
946:
1298:
957:
933:. According to several documents from the second half of the 16th century, the
605:
508:
439:
586:
2420:
1954:
1670:
1594:
in the second half of the 19th century, according to American paleontologist
1546:
960:, and beginning in 1522 there was constant Castilian presence in the region.
934:
926:
881:
830:
826:
114:
1967:
1444:
1419:, encompassing those territories occupied predominantly by speakers of the
1210:
892:
859:
461:
364:
134:
929:
basin there were enclaves of groups with Mexican cultural roots who spoke
303:
extends from the establishment of the first settlers until the arrival of
1424:
1369:
1232:
Marriage was monogamous and appeared indissoluble, except in the case of
762:
1573:
354:
sites have been found in areas where quarry and tradesman tools such as
1886:
1620:
817:
689:
299:
150:
89:
1855:
1616:
930:
1557:
1432:
1381:
1377:
1270:
1193:
1116:
851:
785:
643:
610:
64:
1569:
676:
There was a great development in the manufacture of objects made of
199:
1561:
1477:
1440:
1428:
1385:
1327:
1233:
1026:
937:
colony in Sixaola had been founded by tributary groups sent by the
630:
572:
368:
1010:
379:
Around 8000 BC climatic changes brought about the end of the last
1699:
1527:
1522:, the conquistadors use synonyms for principal chieftain such as
1497:
1496:
entire family, clan or lineage." Although in certain places like
1014:
864:
804:
770:
728:
677:
465:
453:
313:
452:(cultivation of plants on stakes) came about by farming tubers (
1811:
1723:
but in which the mother of the bride played an important role:
1719:
1484:
1473:
1436:
1313:
1252:
1237:
1142:
1038:
994:
685:
634:
developed trading networks with other communities and regions.
547:
540:
355:
1665:, who was freed through the intervention of the conquistador
1241:
938:
795:
705:
495:. More recent ones (1500–300 BC) have been discovered in the
469:
435:
431:
388:
1796:
1534:, which could identify brothers or sons of a chieftain, and
1587:
1469:
1464:
701:
693:
396:
1073:
were perhaps the same individuals previously mentioned as
997:
and Cantrén (Canjel); and two others on the west coast,
945:, who were driven there during the Spanish conquest of
1615:; for example, when Correque moved his residence from
1423:. In addition, this cultural region included eastern
564:
A Pre-Columbian incense burner with a crocodile lid.
224:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2418:
359:included the so-called mega-fauna such as giant
1459:, located in the Central Valley, wrote to King
578:Pre-Columbian Ceramics from Nicoya, Costa Rica.
1564:ruled over a territory that extended from the
1871:
863:, a great cultural expanse that extends from
173:
1790:
1758:accumulation of artifacts in places such as
1878:
1864:
1177:Costa Rica, la frontera sur de Mesoamérica
811:
483:(a type of gourd related to the pumpkin).
180:
166:
1175:also had judicial functions. In his work
284:Learn how and when to remove this message
1807:Historia general y natural de las Indias
1504:
1463:that the natives of Costa Rica imitated
969:Historia general y natural de las Indias
599:
1885:
1526:, meaning "chief" or "he who rules" in
2419:
1192:states that the Chorotegan peoples of
1048:
95:First Costa Rican Republic (1848–1948)
16:Costa Rica before Spanish colonization
1859:
1839:
1798:Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Gonzalo
1209:de Tinoco, who visited the island of
1103:, that is, the most principal elders.
530:
411:tree) or other temporary structures.
233:"Pre-Columbian history of Costa Rica"
125:Founding Junta of the Second Republic
1778:Models of migration to the New World
1657:captured Dulcehe, the sister of the
1549:(whose indigenous name was possibly
1396:
1346:, according to Fernández de Oviedo:
1198:Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés
965:Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés
899:
430:By 5000 BC it became common to farm
374:
222:adding citations to reliable sources
193:
1940:Federal Republic of Central America
1827:Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library
1737:stated that between the natives of
684:(green or off-white stones such as
425:
418:valley and in various spots around
110:Dictatorship of the Tinoco Brothers
80:Federal Republic of Central America
13:
720:
616:
323:
14:
2448:
328:
1447:groups arriving from the north.
657:Several archaeological sites in
585:
571:
557:
539:
407:(windbreaker walls based on the
198:
149:
43:
464:) and diverse palms and trees (
209:needs additional citations for
140:COVID-19 pandemic in Costa Rica
1842:Garavito, nuestra raĂz perdida
1833:
1265:(right of the first night) or
1188:written norms. The chronicler
1119:), Fernández de Oviedo wrote:
756:; and the flood plains of the
592:A Diquis human effigy pendant.
499:Valley, the coastal region of
1:
1783:
1692:
1207:MarĂa Fernández Le Cappellain
1181:Ricardo Quesada LĂłpez-Calleja
1128:For his part, the chronicler
875:as well as its eponymous gulf
871:in present-day Mexico to the
854:and South American influences
2432:Cannibalism in North America
1816:Real Academia de la Historia
1752:
1483:There were commercial ties,
816:When the Europeans arrived,
475:In contrast to vegeculture,
7:
2298:Water supply and sanitation
1766:
1718:The word used today in the
1259:, the chieftains exercised
1227:
1037:, as well as the island of
949:and decided to stay there.
913:Rivers. These people spoke
671:stone spheres of Costa Rica
10:
2453:
1950:First Costa Rican Republic
1400:
1320:
667:Costa Rican Central Valley
120:1948 Costa Rican Civil War
2378:
2306:
2258:
2249:
2197:
2188:
2066:
2057:
1985:
1976:
1907:
1897:
1687:
1130:Francisco LĂłpez de GĂłmara
1107:In some communities, the
665:. In other places in the
546:Stone sphere made by the
298:pre-Columbian history of
2071:Administrative divisions
1945:Free State of Costa Rica
1846:Garavito, our lost roots
1667:Juan Vázquez de Coronado
1538:meaning "master's son".
1362:
1005:. Other sources mention
85:Free State of Costa Rica
1802:JosĂ© Amador de los RĂos
1171:It is not clear if the
1166:
1141:It is possible that in
991:Fray Juan de Torquemada
812:Societal classification
733:territorial conflicts.
503:, the northern plains,
2103:International rankings
1730:
1713:
1638:
1605:
1457:Castillo de Garcimuñoz
1407:Eastern Huetar Kingdom
1403:Western Huetar Kingdom
1357:
1283:
1221:
1156:
1139:
1126:
1105:
977:Francisco de Bobadilla
921:, at the mouth of the
680:or so-called "social"
2427:History of Costa Rica
1917:Pre-Columbian history
1840:Bákit, Oscar (1981),
1773:History of Costa Rica
1725:
1708:
1629:
1600:
1417:Isthmo-Colombian Area
1373:Juan LĂłpez de Velasco
1348:
1279:
1216:
1152:
1134:
1121:
1083:
847:Isthmo-Colombian Area
802:(low-grade gold) and
600:Egalitarian societies
350:BC. In the valley of
55:Pre-Columbian History
2108:Legislative Assembly
2045:World Heritage Sites
305:Christopher Columbus
218:improve this article
1682:AgustĂn de Cevallos
1505:Social organization
1307:corporal punishment
1049:Social organization
886:indigenous Nicoyans
788:) and fruit trees (
659:Guanacaste Province
521:Coto Colorado River
2215:Telecommunications
1927:Captaincy General
1848:] (in Spanish)
1560:, whose successor
1421:Chibchan languages
1203:el misal chorotega
1190:Antonio de Herrera
740:, principally the
531:Societal evolution
2437:Pre-Columbian era
2414:
2413:
2374:
2373:
2245:
2244:
2184:
2183:
2147:Political parties
2098:Foreign relations
2053:
2052:
1735:William More Gabb
1596:William More Gabb
1516:cacique principal
1452:Intermediate Area
1397:Intermediate Area
1267:ius primae noctis
1262:droit du seigneur
1086:enter into their
900:Mesoamerican Area
869:Yucatán Peninsula
860:Mesoamerican Area
841:Intermediate Area
488:2nd millennium BC
375:Mesolithic Period
307:to the Americas.
294:
293:
286:
268:
190:
189:
156:Costa Rica Portal
130:1949 Constitution
115:The Liberal State
2444:
2394:
2387:
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2255:
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2194:
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1983:
1982:
1963:
1930:
1880:
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1866:
1857:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1824:
1822:
1794:
1706:1763 indicates:
1572:and eastward to
1480:native peoples.
1041:(today known as
954:Crown of Castile
873:Nicoya Peninsula
742:Chorotega people
738:Nicoya Peninsula
640:Nicoya Peninsula
589:
575:
561:
543:
491:the province of
426:Neolithic Period
393:collared peccary
385:hunter-gatherers
289:
282:
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275:
269:
267:
226:
202:
194:
182:
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135:The Reform State
105:1917 coup d'Ă©tat
100:1870 coup d'Ă©tat
60:Spanish Conquest
47:
37:
19:
18:
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2361:Public holidays
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2180:
2164:Public finances
2049:
2030:Water resources
1972:
1961:
1928:
1903:
1893:
1884:
1854:
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1820:
1818:
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1755:
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1507:
1413:
1411:Garabito Empire
1399:
1390:LĂłpez de GĂłmara
1365:
1323:
1230:
1169:
1065:, a council of
1051:
902:
814:
758:Tempisque River
723:
721:Later chiefdoms
619:
617:Early chiefdoms
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597:
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486:Throughout the
442:relationships.
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324:Ancient history
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75:Mexican Control
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2120:
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2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2015:National parks
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1986:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1924:
1919:
1913:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1883:
1882:
1875:
1868:
1860:
1852:
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1832:
1788:
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1554:
1506:
1503:
1398:
1395:
1364:
1361:
1322:
1319:
1229:
1226:
1219:hieroglyphics.
1168:
1165:
1050:
1047:
958:Lake Nicaragua
923:San Juan River
901:
898:
882:consuetudinary
877:
876:
855:
813:
810:
722:
719:
618:
615:
601:
598:
591:
584:
583:
582:
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569:
568:
563:
556:
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545:
538:
537:
536:
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534:
532:
529:
462:sweet potatoes
427:
424:
376:
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330:
329:First settlers
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325:
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292:
291:
206:
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197:
188:
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40:
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30:
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22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2299:
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2279:
2276:
2274:
2273:Ethnic groups
2271:
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2257:
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2238:
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2218:
2216:
2213:
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2205:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2196:
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2191:
2187:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2170:
2169:Supreme Court
2167:
2165:
2162:
2158:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2123:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2106:
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2099:
2096:
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2091:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
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2069:
2068:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1995:Deforestation
1993:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1958:
1956:
1955:Liberal State
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1892:
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1869:
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1858:
1847:
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1828:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1808:
1803:
1799:
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1750:
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1729:
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1685:
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1678:
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1664:
1660:
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1648:
1642:
1637:
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1628:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1512:cacique mayor
1502:
1499:
1493:
1489:
1486:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1439:and northern
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1394:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1371:
1368:century, the
1360:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1329:
1318:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1302:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1289:
1282:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1164:
1161:
1155:
1151:
1149:
1144:
1138:
1133:
1131:
1125:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1063:
1058:
1057:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
986:
980:
978:
974:
970:
966:
961:
959:
955:
950:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
927:Sixaola River
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
897:
894:
893:conquistadors
889:
887:
883:
874:
870:
866:
862:
861:
856:
853:
849:
848:
843:
842:
837:
836:
835:
832:
828:
824:
819:
809:
807:
806:
801:
797:
793:
792:
787:
783:
782:
775:
772:
766:
764:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
734:
731:
730:
718:
714:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
674:
672:
668:
664:
660:
655:
653:
652:TĂ©rraba River
649:
648:Coto Colorado
645:
641:
635:
632:
627:
623:
614:
612:
607:
588:
574:
560:
549:
542:
528:
526:
525:Isla del Caño
522:
518:
517:TĂ©rraba River
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
489:
484:
482:
478:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
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441:
437:
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421:
417:
412:
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366:
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353:
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340:
337:
321:
318:
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302:
301:
288:
285:
277:
274:December 2008
266:
263:
259:
256:
252:
249:
245:
242:
238:
235: –
234:
230:
229:Find sources:
223:
219:
213:
212:
207:This article
205:
201:
196:
195:
192:
183:
178:
176:
171:
169:
164:
163:
161:
160:
157:
152:
147:
146:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
91:
88:
86:
83:
81:
78:
76:
73:
71:
68:
66:
63:
61:
58:
56:
53:
52:
51:
50:
46:
42:
41:
38:
32:
31:
26:
21:
20:
2331:Coat of arms
2321:Architecture
2263:Demographics
2125:Human rights
1990:Conservation
1968:Reform State
1935:Mexican rule
1929:(Guatemalan)
1916:
1845:
1841:
1835:
1825:– via
1819:. Retrieved
1806:
1792:
1756:
1747:
1743:
1731:
1726:
1717:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1696:
1679:
1674:
1654:
1645:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1630:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1585:
1582:
1550:
1540:
1535:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1508:
1494:
1490:
1482:
1449:
1445:Mesoamerican
1431:, Caribbean
1414:
1370:cosmographer
1366:
1358:
1351:
1349:
1343:
1338:
1336:
1332:
1324:
1311:
1303:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1266:
1260:
1250:
1246:
1231:
1222:
1217:
1202:
1186:
1176:
1172:
1170:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1140:
1135:
1127:
1122:
1108:
1106:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1084:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1060:
1054:
1052:
1043:Isla Caballo
989:
984:
981:
968:
962:
951:
947:Tenochtitlán
943:Moctezuma II
903:
890:
878:
858:
845:
839:
815:
803:
799:
789:
779:
776:
767:
735:
727:
724:
715:
675:
656:
636:
628:
624:
620:
603:
485:
480:
474:
448:
444:
429:
413:
404:
401:
378:
341:
332:
319:
312:
309:
297:
295:
280:
271:
261:
254:
247:
240:
228:
216:Please help
211:verification
208:
191:
70:Independence
54:
2202:Agriculture
2000:Earthquakes
1922:New Granada
1760:LĂnea Vieja
1675:La Biriteca
1566:RĂo Virilla
1425:El Salvador
1132:indicates:
907:JesĂşs MarĂa
786:royal palms
763:ceramic art
606:egalitarian
519:Basin, the
477:semiculture
450:Vegeculture
440:egalitarian
405:tapavientos
34:History of
2421:Categories
2346:Literature
2225:Ecotourism
2209:(currency)
2174:Presidents
2035:Waterfalls
1960:Civil War
1887:Costa Rica
1784:References
1661:chieftain
1621:Tucurrique
1551:Guar-Abito
1485:vassalages
1474:Panamanian
1427:, eastern
1401:See also:
1079:"calpulli"
1023:Nicopasaya
973:Chorotegan
823:Chorotegas
818:Costa Rica
791:guapinoles
698:serpentine
690:chalcedony
523:Basin and
493:Guanacaste
420:Guanacaste
409:cipresillo
361:armadillos
300:Costa Rica
244:newspapers
90:League War
36:Costa Rica
2293:Squatting
2283:Languages
2268:Education
2232:Transport
2152:President
2113:Deputies
2093:Elections
2086:Districts
2076:Provinces
2025:Volcanoes
2010:Mountains
1978:Geography
1902:(capital)
1800:(1851) .
1739:Talamanca
1663:Corrohore
1655:biritecas
1647:biritecas
1625:Talamanca
1592:Talamanca
1558:El Guarco
1478:Colombian
1461:Philip II
1433:Nicaragua
1382:matricide
1378:patricide
1271:Nicaragua
1194:Nicaragua
1117:Nicaragua
1003:Chorotega
915:Chorotega
852:Caribbean
750:Nacascolo
644:Coto Brus
513:Herradura
505:SarapiquĂ
497:Turrialba
416:Turrialba
369:mastodons
352:Turrialba
65:New Spain
2401:Category
2288:Religion
2142:Military
2059:Politics
2040:Wildlife
1900:San José
1891:articles
1767:See also
1693:Marriage
1671:Garabito
1578:Parragua
1574:ChirripĂł
1562:Correque
1547:Garabito
1465:Peruvian
1441:Colombia
1429:Honduras
1386:regicide
1352:tianguez
1344:monéxico
1339:tianguez
1328:cadastre
1299:Nicaraos
1234:adultery
1228:Marriage
1173:monéxico
1160:monéxico
1113:Nagrando
1109:monéxico
1097:monéxico
1093:monéxico
1088:monéxico
1075:galpones
1071:monéxico
1062:monéxico
1027:Papagayo
985:galpones
967:, whose
941:emperor
925:and the
911:Tárcoles
867:and the
850:), with
754:Papagayo
729:caciques
631:chiefdom
550:culture.
466:avocados
314:caciques
25:a series
23:Part of
2385:Outline
2336:Cuisine
2308:Culture
2251:Society
2220:Tourism
2190:Economy
2118:History
2081:Cantons
2005:Islands
1909:History
1821:15 July
1804:(ed.).
1753:Economy
1700:exogamy
1617:Ujarrás
1528:Chibcha
1520:cacique
1498:Guayabo
1321:Economy
1257:Orotiña
1101:huehues
1067:huehues
1056:huehues
1035:ZapandĂ
1019:NamiapĂ
1015:Nacaome
999:Orotiña
931:Náhuatl
919:Bagaces
865:Chiapas
831:Bruncas
827:Huetars
805:tumbaga
781:coyoles
771:Guayabo
746:turkeys
678:jadeite
654:basin.
507:Basin,
501:Gandoca
381:Ice Age
356:bifaces
336:Ice Age
258:scholar
2406:Portal
2326:Cinema
2316:Anthem
2278:Health
2237:Unions
2207:ColĂłn
2137:Mayors
2020:Rivers
1962:(1948)
1889:
1812:Madrid
1720:Bribri
1650:. The
1634:chicha
1613:Nicoya
1570:AserrĂ
1556:Chief
1545:Chief
1437:Panama
1409:, and
1314:bigamy
1253:Nicoya
1238:bigamy
1143:Nicoya
1039:Pococi
1007:Canjén
995:Nicoya
800:guanĂn
796:nances
686:quartz
663:Grecia
629:These
611:shaman
548:Diquis
515:, the
481:ayotes
470:nances
432:tubers
389:tapirs
365:sloths
348:10,000
260:
253:
246:
239:
231:
27:on the
2392:Index
2366:Sport
2356:Music
2351:Media
1844:[
1814:: La
1659:Quepo
1652:Coctu
1588:Incas
1524:taque
1470:Incan
1363:Crime
1312:Male
1288:ocote
1275:NambĂ
1242:dowry
1211:Chira
1148:NambĂ
1011:Diriá
939:Aztec
935:Nahua
710:Mayan
706:Olmec
509:Barva
454:yucas
344:7,000
265:JSTOR
251:books
2341:Flag
2157:list
2130:LGBT
1823:2020
1688:Laws
1576:and
1532:ibux
1514:and
1476:and
1450:The
1337:The
1255:and
1167:Laws
1158:The
1033:and
1031:Paro
909:and
857:The
844:(or
838:The
829:and
784:and
752:and
708:and
702:jade
694:opal
682:jade
650:and
458:yams
436:corn
434:and
397:deer
395:and
367:and
346:and
296:The
237:news
1619:to
1568:to
1536:uri
1384:or
1251:In
1236:or
1045:).
220:by
2423::
1810:.
1627::
1598::
1530:;
1435:,
1405:,
1380:,
1029:,
1025:,
1021:,
1017:,
1013:,
1009:,
1001:y
825:,
794:,
696:,
692:,
688:,
646:,
527:.
511:,
468:,
460:,
456:,
391:,
371:.
363:,
1879:e
1872:t
1865:v
1829:.
1115:(
778:(
287:)
281:(
276:)
272:(
262:·
255:·
248:·
241:·
214:.
181:e
174:t
167:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
