395:
The subducting slab can be lifted by aseismic ridges, seamount chains, or oceanic plateaus – which can provide a favourable environment for the development of a porphyry deposit. This interaction between subduction zones and the aforementioned oceanic features can explain the development of multiple metallogenic belts in a given region; as each time the subduction zone interacts with one of these features it can lead to ore genesis. Finally, in oceanic island arcs, ridge subduction can lead to slab flattening or arc reversal; whereas, in continental arcs it can lead to periods of
35:
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20:
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exploration methodology and model assumptions, as large examples are known in areas which were previously left only partially or under-explored partly due to their perceived older host rock ages, but which were then later found to contain large, world-class examples of much older porphyry copper deposits.
356:
magma and crustal magma. This progressively evolving magma will become enriched in volatiles, sulfur, and incompatible elements – an ideal combination for the generation of a magma capable of generating an ore deposit. From this point forward in the evolution of a porphyry deposit, ideal tectonic and
315:
conditions that results in sulfide minerals releasing ore minerals (copper, gold, molybdenum), which are then able to be transported to upper crustal levels. Mantle melting can also be induced by transitions from convergent to transform margins, as well as the steepening and trenchward retreat of the
207:
Porphyry deposits represent an important resource of copper; however, they are also important sources of gold and molybdenum – with porphyry deposits being the dominant source of the latter. In general, porphyry deposits are characterized by low grades of ore mineralization, a porphyritic intrusive
203:
in age and were emplaced at depths of approximately 1 to 6 kilometres with vertical thicknesses on average of 2 kilometres. Throughout the
Phanerozoic an estimated 125,895 porphyry copper deposits were formed; however, 62% of them (78,106) have been removed by uplift and erosion. Thus, 38% (47,789)
1304:
Sillitoe, R.H. Major regional factors favoring large size, high hypogene grade, elevated gold content and supergene oxidation and enrichment of porphyry copper deposits. in
Porphyry and hydrothermal copper and gold deposits: A global perspective. 1998. Glenside, South Australia: Australian Mineral
394:
above the flat-slab, and low heat flow. Upon a return to normal subduction, the hot asthenosphere will once again interact with the hydrated mantle, causing wet melting, crustal melting will ensue as mantle melts pass through, and lithospheric thinning and weakening due to the increased heat flow.
377:
of the magma along with volatile saturation and generation of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids, 4) compression restricts offshoots from developing into the surrounding rock, thus concentrating the fluid into a single stock, and 5) rapid uplift and erosion promotes decompression and efficient, eventual
105:
The first mining of low-grade copper porphyry deposits from large open pits coincided roughly with the introduction of steam shovels, the construction of railroads, and a surge in market demand near the start of the 20th century. Some mines exploit porphyry deposits that contain sufficient gold or
269:
of this type of deposit; as they are typically located in zones of highly active tectonic and geological processes, such as deformation, uplift, and erosion. It may be however, that the skewed distribution towards most deposits being less than 20 million years is at least partially an artifact of
402:
Arc reversal has been shown to slightly pre-date the formation of porphyry deposits in the south-west
Pacific, after a collisional event. Arc reversal occurs due to collision between an island arc and either another island arc, a continent, or an oceanic plateau. The collision may result in the
410:
and lineaments are associated with some. The presence of intra-arc fault systems are beneficial, as they can localize porphyry development. Furthermore, some authors have indicated that the occurrence of intersections between continent-scale traverse fault zones and arc-parallel structures are
435:
369:, they are not the typical products in that environment. It is believed that tectonic change acts as a trigger for porphyry formation. There are five key factors that can give rise to porphyry development: 1) compression impeding magma ascent through crust, 2) a resultant larger shallow
264:
period, however notable exceptions are known. Most large-scale porphyry deposits have an age of less than 20 million years, however there are notable exceptions, such as the 438 million-year-old Cadia-Ridgeway deposit in New South Wales. This relatively young age reflects the
1294:
Sillitoe, R.H., Characteristics and controls of the largest porphyry copper-gold and epithermal gold deposits in the circum-Pacific region. Australian
Journal of Earth Sciences: An International Geoscience Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 1997. 44(3): pp.
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by dense, mafic magma as it ascends), and magma homogenization. The underplated magma will add a lot of heat to the base of the crust, thereby inducing crustal melting and assimilation of lower-crustal rocks, creating an area with intense interaction of the
310:
of the upper part of post-subduction, stalled slabs that are altered by seawater. Shallow subduction of young, buoyant slabs can result in the production of adakitic lavas via partial melting. Alternatively, metasomatised mantle wedges can produce highly
204:
remain in the crust, of which there are 574 known deposits that are at the surface. It is estimated that the Earth's porphyry copper deposits contain approximately 1.7×10 tonnes of copper, equivalent to more than 8,000 years of global mine production.
389:
that transitions from normal to flat and then back to normal subduction produces a series of effects that can lead to the generation of porphyry deposits. Initially, there will be decreased alkalic magmatism, horizontal shortening, hydration of the
198:
Porphyry copper deposits represent an important resource and the dominant source of copper that is mined today to satisfy global demand. Via compilation of geological data, it has been found that the majority of porphyry deposits are
282:
intrusions, although some of the largest gold-rich deposits are associated with high-K calc-alkaline magma compositions. Numerous world-class porphyry copper-gold deposits are hosted by high-K or shoshonitic intrusions, such as
235:
There also appear to be discrete time periods in which porphyry deposit formation was concentrated or preferred. For copper-molybdenum porphyry deposits, formation is broadly concentrated in three time periods:
216:. Porphyry deposits are formed in arc-related settings and are associated with subduction zone magmas. Porphyry deposits are clustered in discrete mineral provinces, which implies that there is some form of
1536:
Keith, J.D., Shanks III, W.C., Archibald, D.A., and Farrar, E., 1986, Volcanic and
Intrusive History of the Pine Grove Porphyry Molybdenum System, Southwestern Utah: Economic Geology, v. 81, pp. 553–587
422:
It has been proposed that "misoriented" deep-seated faults that were inactive during magmatism are important zones where porphyry copper-forming magmas stagnate allowing them to achieve their typical
426:. At a given time differentiated magmas would burst violently out of these fault-traps and head to shallower places in the crust where porphyry copper deposits would be formed.
30:. It appears that the bottom of the pit is in the mixed oxide-sulfide zone, and that is also what the two haul trucks in the foreground are carrying. Click to enlarge photo.
547:
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Müller D., Groves D.I. (2019) Potassic igneous rocks and associated gold-copper mineralization (5th ed.). Mineral
Resource Reviews. Springer-Verlag Heidelberg, 398 pp
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Cooke, D.R., P. Hollings, and J.L. Walshe, Giant
Porphyry Deposits: Characteristics, Distribution, and Tectonic Controls. Economic Geology, 2005. 100(5): pp. 801–818.
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mineralization typically occurs between or within fragments. These breccia zones are typically hydrothermal in nature, and may be manifested as pebble dikes.
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John, D. A.; Taylor, R. D. (2016). "Chapter 7: By-Products of
Porphyry Copper and Molybdenum Deposits". In Philip L. Verplanck and Murray W. Hitzman (ed.).
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86:-forming hairline fractures and veins. Because of their large volume, porphyry orebodies can be economic from copper concentrations as low as 0.15%
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enrichment. This involves the metals in the upper portion being dissolved and carried down to below the water table, where they precipitate.
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Porphyry copper deposits are currently the largest source of copper ore. Most of the known porphyry deposits are concentrated in: western
1022:
1139:
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Solomon, M., Subduction, arc reversal, and the origin of porphyry copper-gold deposits in island arcs. Geology, 1990. 18: p. 630-633.
2142:
2097:
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Richards, J.P., Tectono-Magmatic
Precursors for Porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au) Deposit Formation. Economic Geology, 2003. 98: pp. 1515–1533.
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Multi-Stage
Construction of the Little Cottonwood Stock, Utah: Origin, Intrusion, Venting, Mineralization, and Mass Movement
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structural conditions are necessary to allow the transport of the magma and ensure its emplacement in upper-crustal levels.
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Copper is not the only metal that occurs in porphyry deposits. There are also porphyry ore deposits mined primarily for
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control or crustal influence affecting the location of porphyry formation. Porphyry deposits tend to occur in linear,
1484:"PT BUMI RESOURCES TBK : Stock Market News and Information | BUMI| ID1000068703 | MarketScreener"
339:, enriching it with volatiles and large ion lithophile elements (LILE). The current belief is that the generation of
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with sulfides. Closely spaced fractures of several orientations are usually associated with the highest grade ore.
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Porphyry deposits do not generally have any requisite structural controls for their formation; although major
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several kilometers below the deposit itself. Predating or associated with those fluids are vertical dikes of
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at >3 billion tonnes at 1 ppm Au, is one of the world's largest and richest porphyry deposits of any type
1414:
Sillitoe, R.H., 1985, Ore-Related Breccias in Volcanoplutonic Arcs: Economic Geology, v. 80, pp. 1467–1514.
1114:
908:
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1329:"Long-lived crustal damage zones associated with fault intersections in the high Andes of Central Chile"
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open pit in 2012. The red rocks in the upper benches, and the outcrops in the background, are in the
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zones with angular or locally rounded fragments are commonly associated with the intrusives. The
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After dehydration, solute-rich fluids are released from the slab and metasomatise the overlying
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The magmas responsible for porphyry formation are conventionally thought to be generated by the
1029:
738:
266:
927:, many of which contain very little copper. Examples of porphyry molybdenum deposits are the
260:
gold deposits, they are generally from the time period ranging from the middle Miocene to the
2147:
2092:
1374:"A new model for the optimal structural context for giant porphyry copper deposit formation"
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in 2005. The gray rocks visible in the pit are almost all in the primary-sulfide ore zone.
8:
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Sulfur and Copper in Magma and Rocks: Ray Porphyry Copper Deposit, Pinal County, Arizona,
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810:
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27:
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1958:
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Earth's copper resources estimated from tectonic diffusion of porphyry copper deposits,
940:
64:
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porphyry copper deposits each of which lies at the intersection of two fault systems.
1866:
1456:
1432:
1378:
1133:
1047:
828:
729:
725:
177:. The greatest concentration of the largest copper porphyry deposits is in northern
981:, are sufficiently rich in gold that they are called copper-gold porphyry deposits.
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1004:
978:
710:
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607:
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Some porphyry copper deposits in oceanic crust environments, such as those in the
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subducted slab. However, the latest belief is that dehydration that occurs at the
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Piquer Romo, José Meulen; Yáñez, Gonzálo; Rivera, Orlando; Cooke, David (2019).
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magmas is multistage, and involves crustal melting and assimilation of primary
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from which this deposit type derives its name. In later stages, circulating
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23:
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associated with porphyry formation. This is actually the case of Chile's
391:
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200:
889:
is one of the world's largest and richest Cu porphyry deposits, Mongolia
490:
alteration zone typically occurs closer to the center and may overprint.
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In general, the majority of large porphyry deposits are associated with
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Porphyry deposits are commonly developed in regions that are zones of
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transition affects most subducted slabs, rather than partial melting.
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US Geological Survey, Scientific Investigations Report 2010-5090-D.
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The upper portions of porphyry copper deposits may be subjected to
487:
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253:
181:. Almost all mines exploiting large porphyry deposits produce from
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Piquer, José; Sanchez-Alfaro, Pablo; Pérez-Flores, Pamela (2021).
786:, still under exploration, but likely to be bigger than Batu Hijau
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2017:
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Fractures are often filled or coated by sulfides, or by quartz
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typically enclose a core of disseminated ore minerals in often
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termination of subduction and thereby induce mantle melting.
225:
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Dennis P. Cox, 1986, "Descriptive model of porphyry Cu," in
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1914:
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Porphyry copper assessment of Southeast Asia and Melanesia,
1523:
1326:
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678:
332:
99:
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The orebodies are associated with multiple intrusions and
1669:
1647:
817:, copper-gold deposit mined by open pit and block caving.
800:, at 292 million tonnes at 0.50 ppm gold and 0.47% copper
52:
1453:
Advances in the Geology of the Porphyry Copper Deposits
1429:
Advances in the Geology of the Porphyry Copper Deposits
505:
alteration is commonly associated with most of the ore.
1594:, US Geological Survey, Bulletin 1693, p. 76, 79.
1581:
Porphyry copper-gold deposits of the southwest Pacific
939:; the White Pine and Pine Grove deposits in Utah; the
442:
Characteristics of porphyry copper deposits include:
90:
and can have economic amounts of by-products such as
102:. In some mines, those metals are the main product.
1268:
438:
From Cox, (1986) US Geological Survey Bulletin 1693
360:
1322:
1320:
2178:
1367:
1365:
1000:Rare earth and critical elements in ore deposits
523:Porphyry copper deposits are typically mined by
347:magmas, magma storage at the base of the crust (
365:Although porphyry deposits are associated with
194:Geological background and economic significance
1317:
273:
1620:
1362:
1570:, US Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, p.108.
1290:
1288:
1286:
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1282:
1280:
827:, with 63 million tonnes at 1.1% Cu and 0.5
1259:Sillitoe, R.H., "Porphyry Copper Systems".
919:Porphyry-type ore deposits for other metals
1627:
1613:
1425:Geology of the Sierrita-Esperanza Deposit,
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1455:, The University of Arizona Press, 1982,
1431:, The University of Arizona Press, 1982,
1399:
1346:
1298:
1277:
950:The US Geological Survey has classed the
1583:, Mining Engineering, 1/1995, pp. 33–38.
1472:Tujuh Bukit – Indonesia | Intrepid Mines
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1552:(MS thesis). Brigham Young University.
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1520:Mineral Resources On-Line Spatial Data
1423:West, Richard J. and Daniel M. Aiken,
1138:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1052:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
458:composition with porphyritic textures.
188:
1608:
1146:
471:The deposits typically have an outer
208:complex that is surrounded by a vein
106:molybdenum, but little or no copper.
1198:
835:
530:
13:
2143:Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS)
1597:Michael L. Zientek, et al., 2013,
1003:. Vol. 18. pp. 137–164.
947:; and Endako in British Columbia.
429:
14:
2203:
1161:Kesler, S.E. and B.H. Wilkinson,
59:that originate from a voluminous
2160:
1564:Descriptive model of porphyry Sn
649:
383:low-angle (flat-slab) subduction
361:Tectonic and structural controls
2123:Magmatic nickel-copper-iron-PGE
2113:Kambalda-type komatiitic nickel
1573:
1556:
1539:
1530:
1508:
1490:
1476:
1465:
1441:
1417:
1408:
161:. Only a few are identified in
2133:Sedimentary exhalative (SedEx)
1096:
1078:
1060:
1015:
990:
301:Peschanka copper-gold prospect
1:
2108:Iron oxide copper gold (IOCG)
984:
224:-parallel belts (such as the
1168:, 2008, 36(3): pp. 255–258.
804:
754:
293:Northparkes copper-gold mine
137:and the area around eastern
55:bodies that are formed from
7:
909:Saindak Copper Gold Project
642:, southeast of the city of
297:Oyu Tolgoi copper-gold mine
274:Magmas and mantle processes
10:
2208:
2098:Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc
1497:Cobre Panama, Inmet Mining
574:
78:. Successive envelopes of
2156:
2085:
1998:
1949:
1792:
1655:
1646:
823:copper porphyry deposit,
553:
535:
289:Grasberg copper-gold mine
1348:10.5027/andgeoV46n2-3108
931:, Urad, Mt. Emmons, and
865:
570:
479:mineral alteration zone.
285:Bingham copper-gold mine
256:. For both porphyry and
46:Porphyry copper deposits
1638:, mineral mixtures and
1546:Jensen, Collin (2019).
628:
424:igneous differentiation
80:hydrothermal alteration
16:Type of copper ore body
1592:Mineral Deposit Models
1568:Mineral Deposit Models
1265:, 2010. 105: pp. 3–41.
739:Santa Rita, New Mexico
439:
267:preservation potential
74:may interact with the
42:
31:
2148:Orogenic gold deposit
2093:Banded iron formation
1562:Bruce L. Reed (1986)
1111:www.mawsonwest.com.au
964:porphyry tin deposits
437:
141:; scattered areas in
37:
22:
1579:R. L. Andrew (1995)
943:deposit in northern
935:deposits in central
397:flat slab subduction
173:; none are known in
127:Pacific Ring of Fire
2167:Minerals portal
2103:Heavy mineral sands
1486:. 5 September 2023.
1392:2021Geo....49..597P
851:Bougainville Copper
811:Cadia-Ridgeway Mine
716:San Manuel, Arizona
675:Bingham Canyon Mine
378:deposition of ore.
189:Geological overview
133:; southern central
57:hydrothermal fluids
39:Bingham Canyon mine
1502:2011-05-10 at the
1447:Banks, Norman G.,
1090:2008-06-02 at the
1072:2008-06-02 at the
856:Wafi-Golpu project
497:zone of secondary
440:
43:
32:
2174:
2173:
2081:
2080:
1009:10.5382/Rev.18.07
749:Ray Mine, Arizona
730:Superior, Arizona
726:Resolution Copper
721:Sierrita, Arizona
212:and hydrothermal
2199:
2187:Economic geology
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2118:Lateritic nickel
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1113:. Archived from
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1057:
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1028:. Archived from
1027:
1019:
1013:
1012:
994:
979:Papua New Guinea
958:tin deposits in
836:Papua New Guinea
711:Safford, Arizona
693:Morenci, Arizona
531:Notable examples
456:quartz monzonite
299:in Mongolia and
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2128:Porphyry copper
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1175:
1160:
1147:
1131:
1130:
1123:
1121:
1120:on 7 March 2010
1117:
1106:
1104:"Archived copy"
1102:
1101:
1097:
1092:Wayback Machine
1083:
1079:
1074:Wayback Machine
1065:
1061:
1045:
1044:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1025:
1023:"Archived copy"
1021:
1020:
1016:
995:
991:
987:
921:
868:
860:Wafi-Golpu mine
838:
825:New South Wales
815:New South Wales
807:
757:
688:Bisbee, Arizona
661:Bagdad, Arizona
652:
631:
579:
573:
560:Highland Valley
556:
538:
533:
432:
430:Characteristics
387:subduction zone
363:
308:partial melting
276:
196:
191:
76:magmatic fluids
72:meteoric fluids
68:intrusive rocks
28:leached capping
17:
12:
11:
5:
2205:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2172:
2171:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2075:
2063:
2051:
2039:
2027:
2015:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1980:
1968:
1955:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1931:
1919:
1907:
1895:
1883:
1871:
1859:
1847:
1835:
1823:
1811:
1798:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1774:
1762:
1750:
1738:
1726:
1714:
1702:
1686:
1674:
1661:
1659:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1632:
1631:
1624:
1617:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1595:
1586:
1585:
1572:
1555:
1538:
1529:
1507:
1489:
1475:
1464:
1451:Chapter 10 in
1440:
1427:Chapter 21 in
1416:
1407:
1386:(5): 597–601.
1361:
1341:(2): 223–239.
1334:Andean Geology
1316:
1307:
1297:
1276:
1267:
1233:
1197:
1173:
1145:
1095:
1077:
1059:
1014:
988:
986:
983:
920:
917:
916:
915:
906:
900:
890:
884:
878:Majdanpek mine
875:
867:
864:
863:
862:
853:
844:
837:
834:
833:
832:
818:
806:
803:
802:
801:
787:
777:
767:
756:
753:
752:
751:
746:
741:
732:
723:
718:
713:
704:
695:
690:
681:
672:
670:Butte, Montana
663:
658:
651:
648:
647:
646:
637:
630:
627:
626:
625:
623:Radomiro Tomić
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
583:Cerro Colorado
572:
569:
568:
567:
565:Gibraltar Mine
562:
555:
552:
551:
550:
545:
542:
537:
534:
532:
529:
521:
520:
513:
506:
491:
480:
469:
459:
431:
428:
373:, 3) enhanced
362:
359:
295:in Australia,
291:in Indonesia,
275:
272:
195:
192:
190:
187:
157:; and eastern
119:Southeast Asia
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2204:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2169:
2168:
2155:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2088:
2086:Deposit types
2084:
2072:
2067:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2052:
2048:
2043:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2004:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1989:
1984:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1940:
1935:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1896:
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1887:
1884:
1880:
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1596:
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1501:
1498:
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1397:
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1228:
1226:
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1216:
1214:
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1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1171:
1167:
1164:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1152:
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1141:
1135:
1116:
1112:
1105:
1099:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1081:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1063:
1055:
1049:
1035:on 2009-05-10
1031:
1024:
1018:
1010:
1006:
1002:
1001:
993:
989:
982:
980:
976:
972:
967:
965:
961:
957:
953:
948:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
914:
910:
907:
905:
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898:
894:
891:
888:
885:
883:
879:
876:
874:
870:
869:
861:
857:
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852:
848:
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843:
840:
839:
830:
826:
822:
819:
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809:
808:
799:
795:
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785:
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778:
775:
771:
768:
766:
762:
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758:
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747:
745:
742:
740:
736:
733:
731:
727:
724:
722:
719:
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714:
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703:
699:
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694:
691:
689:
685:
682:
680:
676:
673:
671:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
653:
650:United States
645:
641:
638:
636:
633:
632:
624:
621:
619:
618:Los Pelambres
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
580:
578:
577:Domeyko Fault
566:
563:
561:
558:
557:
549:
546:
543:
540:
539:
528:
526:
518:
514:
511:
507:
504:
500:
496:
492:
489:
485:
481:
478:
474:
470:
467:
463:
460:
457:
453:
449:
445:
444:
443:
436:
427:
425:
420:
418:
414:
409:
404:
400:
398:
393:
388:
384:
379:
376:
375:fractionation
372:
371:magma chamber
368:
367:arc volcanism
358:
355:
350:
346:
342:
338:
337:asthenosphere
334:
330:
325:
323:
319:
314:
309:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
281:
280:calc-alkaline
271:
268:
263:
259:
255:
251:
248:, and middle
247:
243:
239:
233:
231:
230:South America
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
205:
202:
186:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
115:North America
112:
107:
103:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
66:
62:
61:magma chamber
58:
54:
51:
47:
40:
36:
29:
25:
21:
2158:
2127:
1838:Chalcopyrite
1640:ore deposits
1636:Ore minerals
1598:
1591:
1580:
1575:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1548:
1541:
1532:
1519:
1510:
1492:
1478:
1467:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1410:
1383:
1377:
1352:. Retrieved
1338:
1332:
1310:
1300:
1270:
1260:
1165:
1162:
1122:. Retrieved
1115:the original
1110:
1098:
1080:
1062:
1037:. Retrieved
1030:the original
1017:
999:
992:
968:
963:
949:
922:
707:Safford Mine
684:Lavender Pit
666:Berkeley Pit
656:Ajo, Arizona
588:Chuquicamata
522:
494:
441:
421:
405:
401:
380:
364:
349:underplating
329:mantle wedge
326:
305:
277:
234:
206:
197:
125:– along the
108:
104:
45:
44:
24:Morenci mine
1922:Pentlandite
1898:Molybdenite
1665:Cassiterite
1305:Foundation.
1085:Base Metals
1067:Base Metals
971:Philippines
904:Philippines
871:Coclesito,
821:Northparkes
794:Cabang Kiri
780:Tujuh Bukit
744:Ely, Nevada
698:Pebble Mine
640:Cerro Verde
613:El Teniente
608:El Salvador
548:Santo Tomas
417:El Teniente
413:Los Bronces
392:lithosphere
303:in Russia.
201:Phanerozoic
65:porphyritic
2181:Categories
2066:Wolframite
2042:Sperrylite
1951:Carbonates
1934:Sphalerite
1903:molybdenum
1850:Chalcocite
1753:Pyrolusite
1461:0816507309
1437:0816507309
1124:12 January
1039:2009-08-31
985:References
945:New Mexico
925:molybdenum
893:La Caridad
887:Oyu Tolgoi
790:Sungai Mak
774:West Papua
761:Batu Hijau
593:Collahuasi
575:See also:
544:La Caridad
503:orthoclase
493:A central
318:blueschist
258:epithermal
238:Palaeocene
218:geodynamic
175:Antarctica
155:CIS states
153:, and the
92:molybdenum
2054:Scheelite
2035:beryllium
2023:aluminium
1983:Malachite
1976:magnesium
1971:Magnesite
1964:magnesium
1874:Cobaltite
1814:Argentite
1802:Acanthite
1777:Uraninite
1765:Tantalite
1758:manganese
1741:Magnetite
1705:Columbite
1516:"Saindak"
975:Indonesia
952:Chorolque
933:Henderson
805:Australia
798:Gorontalo
755:Indonesia
635:Toquepala
598:Escondida
527:methods.
517:supergene
341:andesitic
246:Oligocene
244:, Eocene-
210:stockwork
183:open pits
159:Australia
131:Caribbean
84:stockwork
2071:tungsten
2059:tungsten
2047:platinum
1959:Dolomite
1862:Cinnabar
1794:Sulfides
1770:tantalum
1734:titanium
1729:Ilmenite
1717:Hematite
1698:tantalum
1682:chromium
1677:Chromite
1500:Archived
1295:373–388.
1170:Abstract
1134:cite web
1088:Archived
1070:Archived
1048:cite web
937:Colorado
913:Pakistan
899:, Mexico
770:Grasberg
735:El Chino
644:Arequipa
525:open-pit
495:potassic
488:sericite
477:chlorite
345:basaltic
322:eclogite
313:oxidized
287:in USA,
254:Pliocene
214:breccias
2138:Uranium
2018:Bauxite
1867:mercury
1826:Bornite
1782:uranium
1710:niobium
1694:niobium
1388:Bibcode
1379:Geology
1354:June 9,
1166:Geology
960:Bolivia
902:Dizon,
847:Panguna
842:Ok Tedi
765:Sumbawa
603:El Abra
541:Cananea
499:biotite
473:epidote
466:sulfide
462:Breccia
452:diorite
250:Miocene
167:Namibia
147:Mideast
123:Oceania
2192:Copper
2011:barium
2006:Baryte
1988:copper
1927:nickel
1910:Pyrite
1886:Galena
1879:cobalt
1855:copper
1843:copper
1831:copper
1819:silver
1807:silver
1689:Coltan
1657:Oxides
1459:
1435:
977:, and
956:Catavi
941:Questa
929:Climax
897:Sonora
882:Serbia
873:Panama
702:Alaska
554:Canada
536:Mexico
484:quartz
408:faults
354:mantle
335:-like
262:Recent
242:Eocene
222:orogen
171:Zambia
163:Africa
151:Russia
145:, the
139:Turkey
135:Europe
129:; the
98:, and
96:silver
88:copper
50:copper
2030:Beryl
1999:Other
1566:, in
1118:(PDF)
1107:(PDF)
1033:(PDF)
1026:(PDF)
866:Other
571:Chile
510:veins
448:dikes
226:Andes
179:Chile
165:, in
143:China
111:South
1939:zinc
1915:iron
1891:lead
1746:iron
1722:iron
1696:and
1648:Ores
1524:USGS
1457:ISBN
1433:ISBN
1356:2019
1140:link
1126:2022
1054:link
954:and
792:and
784:Java
679:Utah
629:Peru
501:and
415:and
385:. A
333:MORB
169:and
121:and
117:and
113:and
100:gold
48:are
1670:tin
1396:doi
1343:doi
1005:doi
962:as
831:Au.
829:ppm
454:to
450:of
331:of
232:).
228:in
53:ore
2183::
1522:.
1518:.
1394:.
1384:49
1382:.
1376:.
1364:^
1339:46
1337:.
1331:.
1319:^
1279:^
1236:^
1200:^
1176:^
1148:^
1136:}}
1132:{{
1109:.
1050:}}
1046:{{
973:,
966:.
911:,
895:,
880:,
813:,
796:,
782:,
772:,
763:,
737:,
728:,
709:,
700:,
686:,
677:,
668:,
486:–
482:A
475:–
399:.
185:.
149:,
94:,
2073:)
2069:(
2061:)
2057:(
2049:)
2045:(
2037:)
2033:(
2025:)
2021:(
2013:)
2009:(
1990:)
1986:(
1978:)
1974:(
1966:)
1962:(
1941:)
1937:(
1929:)
1925:(
1917:)
1913:(
1905:)
1901:(
1893:)
1889:(
1881:)
1877:(
1869:)
1865:(
1857:)
1853:(
1845:)
1841:(
1833:)
1829:(
1821:)
1817:(
1809:)
1805:(
1784:)
1780:(
1772:)
1768:(
1760:)
1756:(
1748:)
1744:(
1736:)
1732:(
1724:)
1720:(
1712:)
1708:(
1700:)
1692:(
1684:)
1680:(
1672:)
1668:(
1628:e
1621:t
1614:v
1526:.
1404:.
1398::
1390::
1358:.
1345::
1142:)
1128:.
1056:)
1042:.
1011:.
1007::
858:/
849:/
320:-
252:-
240:-
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
