38:
368:
4527:
607:
4441:
360:
4491:
4515:
516:
4479:
4503:
277:
4452:
184:. When the universe had cooled sufficiently, the first stars were born as population III stars, without any contaminating heavier metals. This is postulated to have affected their structure so that their stellar masses became hundreds of times more than that of the Sun. In turn, these massive stars also evolved very quickly, and their
203:. Those explosions would have thoroughly dispersed their material, ejecting metals into the interstellar medium (ISM), to be incorporated into the later generations of stars. Their destruction suggests that no galactic high-mass population III stars should be observable. However, some population III stars might be seen in high-
348:
data have found smaller planets around stars with a range of metallicities, while only larger, potential gas giant planets are concentrated around stars with relatively higher metallicity – a finding that has implications for theories of gas-giant formation. Between the intermediate population I
625:
from the Big Bang. Conversely, theories proposed in 2009 and 2011 suggest that the first star groups might have consisted of a massive star surrounded by several smaller stars. The smaller stars, if they remained in the birth cluster, would accumulate more gas and could not survive to the present
2048:
Sobral, David; Matthee, Jorryt; Darvish, Behnam; Schaerer, Daniel; Mobasher, Bahram; Röttgering, Huub J.A.; Santos, Sérgio; Hemmati, Shoubaneh (4 June 2015). "Evidence for Pop III-like stellar populations in the most luminous Lyman-α emitters at the epoch of re-ionisation: Spectroscopic
127:
By definition, each population group shows the trend where decreasing metal content indicates increasing age of stars. Hence, the first stars in the universe (very low metal content) were deemed population III, old stars (low metallicity) as population II, and recent stars (high
534:, except possibly for intermixing ejecta from other nearby, early population III supernovae. The term was first introduced by Neville J. Woolf in 1965. Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe (i.e., at high redshift) and may have started the production of
379:
Population II, or metal-poor, stars are those with relatively little of the elements heavier than helium. These objects were formed during an earlier time of the universe. Intermediate population II stars are common in the
621:, and possibly up to 1,000 solar masses. Such stars would be very short-lived and last only 2–5 million years. Such large stars may have been possible due to the lack of heavy elements and a much warmer
103:
Among the population types, significant differences were found with their individual observed stellar spectra. These were later shown to be very important and were possibly related to star formation, observed
152:
has revealed that stars older than the Sun have fewer heavy elements compared with the Sun. This immediately suggests that metallicity has evolved through the generations of stars by the process of
2834:"Astronomers Say They Have Spotted the Universe's First Stars - Theory has it that "Population III" stars brought light to the cosmos. The James Webb Space Telescope may have just glimpsed them"
771:. Past supernovae in these small galaxies could have ejected their metal-rich contents at speeds high enough for them to escape the galaxy, keeping the small galaxies' metal content very low.
644:, which are thought to contain the metals produced by population III stars, suggest that these metal-free stars had masses of 20~130 solar masses. On the other hand, analysis of
313:
is much richer in metals. (The term "metal rich star" is used to describe stars with a significantly higher metallicity than the Sun; higher than can be explained by measurement error.)
699:, other hypothetical seeds of heavy black holes which would have existed in the early development of the Universe before hydrogen and helium were contaminated by heavier elements.
238:
The oldest stars observed thus far, known as population II, have very low metallicities; as subsequent generations of stars were born, they became more metal-enriched, as the
2531:
Puzia, Thomas H.; Kissler-Patig, Markus; Goudfrooij, Paul (2006). "Extremely α-enriched globular clusters in early-type galaxies: A step toward the dawn of stellar populations?".
4292:
1883:
Christlieb, N.; Wisotzki, L.; Reimers, D.; Gehren, T.; Reetz, J.; Beers, T. C. (1998). "An
Automated Search for Metal-Poor Halo Stars in the Hamburg/ESO Objective-Prism Survey".
49:
stars in the central bulge are the older population II stars. In reality, many population I stars are also found mixed in with the older population II stars.
617:
Current theory is divided on whether the first stars were very massive or not. One possibility is that these stars were much larger than current stars: several hundred
2194:
132:
is considered population I, a recent star with a relatively high 1.4% metallicity. Note that astrophysics nomenclature considers any element heavier than
1912:
Tominga, N.; et al. (2007). "Supernova nucleosynthesis in population III 13-50 Msolar stars and abundance patterns of extremely metal-poor stars".
1632:
Lineweaver, Charles H. (2000). "An estimate of the age distribution of terrestrial planets in the universe: Quantifying metallicity as a selection effect".
199:
Many theoretical stellar models show that most high-mass population III stars rapidly exhausted their fuel and likely exploded in extremely energetic
633:) or less was ejected from its birth cluster before it accumulated more mass, it could survive to the present day, possibly even in our Milky Way galaxy.
603:. The rest of the galaxy has some later redder population II stars. Some theories hold that there were two generations of population III stars.
2108:
2811:
Wang, Xin; et al. (8 December 2022). "A strong He II λ1640 emitter with extremely blue UV spectral slope at z=8.16: presence of Pop III stars?".
2764:
2468:
Umeda, Hideyuki; Nomoto, Ken'Ichi (2003). "First-generation black-hole-forming supernovae and the metal abundance pattern of a very iron-poor star".
561:
in a very distant part of the universe. Their existence may account for the fact that heavy elements – which could not have been created in the
763:
where such super-massive population III stars exploded. Clark (2010) speculates that these stars could have formed relatively recently in
2833:
1438:
Heger, A.; Fryer, C. L.; Woosley, S. E.; Langer, N.; Hartmann, D. H. (2003). "How massive single stars end their life".
1492:
294:
Population I stars are young stars with the highest metallicity out of all three populations and are more commonly found in the
2641:
Gibson, Carl H.; Nieuwenhuizen, Theo M.; Schild, Rudolph E. (2013). "Why are so many primitive stars observed in the Galaxy halo".
1385:
Fryer, C. L.; Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A. (2001). "Pair-instability supernovae, gravity waves, and gamma-ray transients".
4547:
399:
A characteristic of population II stars is that despite their lower overall metallicity, they often have a higher ratio of "
149:
1306:
Xu, Hao; Wise, John H.; Norman, Michael L. (29 July 2013). "Population III stars and remnants in high-redshift galaxies".
4324:
2929:
2908:
1076:
961:
2865:
881:
80:
Baade observed that bluer stars were strongly associated with the spiral arms, and yellow stars dominated near the central
1131:
Cyburt, Richard H.; Fields, Brian D.; Olive, Keith A.; Yeh, Tsung-Han (2016). "Big bang nucleosynthesis: Present status".
695:, they would have produced light ones. If they could have grown to larger than expected masses, then they could have been
1685:
Buchhave, L.A.; et al. (2012). "An abundance of small exoplanets around stars with a wide range of metallicities".
257:
and supernovae, enriching further the nebulae, out of which the newer stars formed. These youngest stars, including the
4299:
3618:
2395:
859:
530:
Population III stars are a hypothetical population of extremely massive, luminous and hot stars with virtually no
2586:
Siess, Lionel; Livio, Mario; Lattanzio, John (2002). "Structure, evolution, and nucleosynthesis of primordial stars".
489:
astronomical survey data. Less extreme in their metal deficiency, but nearer and brighter and hence longer known, are
434:
Scientists have targeted these oldest stars in several different surveys, including the HK objective-prism survey of
328:. It was earlier hypothesized that the high metallicity of population I stars makes them more likely to possess
827:
The two types of stellar populations had been recognized among the stars of our own galaxy by Oort as early as 1926.
4011:
664:
observed, despite models constructed for smaller population III stars. Clusters containing zero-metallicity
41:
Artist's conception of the spiral structure of the Milky Way showing Baade's general population categories. The
4304:
3941:
3925:
2960:
207:
galaxies whose light originated during the earlier history of the universe. Scientists have found evidence of
109:
37:
17:
4351:
4218:
2135:
Fosbury, R.A.E.; et al. (2003). "Massive star formation in a gravitationally lensed H II galaxy at
722:
589:
558:
442:
2279:"Evolution of very massive Population III stars with mass accretion from pre-main sequence to collapse"
2214:
Bromm, V.; Yoshida, N.; Hernquist, L.; McKee, C.F. (2009). "The formation of the first stars and galaxies".
1838:
Beers, T. C.; Preston, G. W.; Shectman, S. A. (1992). "A Search for Stars of Very Low Metal
Abundance. II".
4334:
4285:
4260:
3553:
557:, but they have not yet been observed directly. Indirect evidence for their existence has been found in a
4275:
4255:
677:
208:
30:"Star generation" redirects here. For the process by which molecular clouds collapse and form stars, see
3638:
120:
galaxies. These three simple population classes usefully divided stars by their chemical composition or
4552:
4469:
4339:
4270:
4240:
2680:
760:
703:
692:
681:
653:
389:
200:
449:. Thus far, they have uncovered and studied in detail about ten ultra-metal-poor (UMP) stars (such as
81:
4346:
4223:
4200:
3782:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
2588:
2533:
2283:
2051:
1359:
1133:
687:
Population II stars are considered seeds of black holes in the early universe. Unlike high-mass
367:
2365:
1579:
Soriano, M.S.; Vauclair, S. (2009). "New seismic analysis of the exoplanet-host star Mu Arae".
481:
data. However, in
February 2014 the discovery of an even lower-metallicity star was announced,
3489:
3363:
2998:
1968:
709:
On 8 December 2022, astronomers reported the possible detection of
Population III stars, in a high-
482:
478:
341:
2277:
Ohkubo, Takuya; Nomoto, Ken'ichi; Umeda, Hideyuki; Yoshida, Naoki; Tsuruta, Sachiko (2009-12-01).
419:(Fe) as compared with population I stars; current theory suggests that this is the result of
4265:
4016:
3815:
3725:
3685:
3667:
3593:
3164:
3090:
2900:
1999:
797:"The resolution of Messier 32, NGC 205, and the central region of the Andromeda nebula"
524:
153:
4426:
4406:
4178:
4173:
4071:
3966:
3915:
3720:
3710:
3383:
3181:
3149:
3040:
3023:
345:
2339:
1782:
4280:
4250:
4245:
4235:
4163:
3951:
3117:
2141:
1914:
1744:
1191:
371:
Artist’s impression of a field of population III stars 100 million years after the
3398:
2703:
1984:
1808:
1602:
984:
4421:
4319:
4309:
4158:
4126:
3920:
3715:
3700:
3013:
2783:
2730:
2699:
2660:
2607:
2552:
2489:
2432:
2391:
2302:
2235:
2160:
2070:
2011:
1980:
1933:
1849:
1840:
1816:
1804:
1753:
1696:
1651:
1598:
1545:
1457:
1404:
1325:
1270:
1210:
1152:
1044:
980:
906:
808:
474:
584:
of the hydrogen gas composing most of the interstellar medium. Observations of the galaxy
218:
Stars too massive to produce pair-instability supernovae would have likely collapsed into
45:
regions in the spiral arms are composed of the younger population I stars, while the
8:
4519:
3881:
3864:
3535:
3437:
3260:
1523:
1189:
Heger, A.; Woosley, S.E. (2002). "The nucleosynthetic signature of
Population III".
768:
649:
622:
424:
250:
223:
4021:
2787:
2734:
2664:
2611:
2556:
2493:
2436:
2306:
2239:
2164:
2074:
2015:
1937:
1853:
1757:
1700:
1655:
1549:
1461:
1408:
1329:
1274:
1214:
1156:
1048:
910:
812:
363:
The Milky Way. Population II stars are in the galactic bulge and globular clusters.
4507:
4495:
4416:
4377:
4329:
4314:
4228:
4168:
4091:
4001:
3971:
3961:
3905:
3827:
3518:
2953:
2812:
2773:
2689:
2650:
2623:
2597:
2568:
2542:
2513:
2479:
2450:
2422:
2315:
2292:
2278:
2259:
2225:
2199:
2176:
2150:
2113:
2086:
2060:
1949:
1923:
1892:
1865:
1820:
1794:
1720:
1667:
1641:
1614:
1588:
1561:
1535:
1473:
1447:
1420:
1394:
1341:
1315:
1288:
1260:
1226:
1200:
1168:
1142:
1080:
1034:
996:
970:
956:
922:
896:
851:
844:
554:
337:
2082:
261:, therefore have the highest metal content, and are known as population I stars.
4367:
3792:
3765:
3745:
3545:
3329:
3317:
3144:
3124:
3078:
3060:
3028:
2925:
2904:
2760:"Detection of isolated population III stars with the James Webb Space Telescope"
2505:
2454:
2320:
2251:
2027:
1953:
1869:
1824:
1712:
1345:
1337:
1172:
1057:
1022:
855:
656:, which are typically associated with very massive stars, were responsible for their
593:
573:
569:
428:
420:
393:
381:
325:
285:
249:
As those population II stars died, they returned metal-enriched material to the
117:
3852:
2627:
2263:
2180:
2090:
1671:
1565:
1477:
1292:
1230:
1000:
926:
211:, slightly smaller than the Sun, found in a binary system of the spiral arms in the
4483:
4195:
4148:
4098:
4086:
4064:
4059:
3986:
3946:
3893:
3675:
3598:
3573:
3467:
3388:
3112:
3073:
2791:
2738:
2615:
2572:
2560:
2517:
2497:
2470:
2440:
2310:
2243:
2216:
2168:
2078:
2019:
1941:
1857:
1812:
1761:
1724:
1704:
1687:
1659:
1618:
1606:
1553:
1465:
1424:
1412:
1333:
1278:
1218:
1160:
1052:
988:
914:
816:
645:
581:
535:
454:
450:
435:
329:
317:
254:
227:
85:
2023:
1610:
1084:
596:
from the reionization period around 800 million years after the Big Bang, at
458:
4382:
4185:
4054:
3898:
3869:
3810:
3805:
3680:
3408:
3373:
3307:
3253:
3248:
3193:
3003:
2919:
2876:
2838:
2678:
Kerins, E.J. (1997). "Zero-metallicity very low mass stars as halo dark matter".
1557:
1164:
930:
732:
321:
185:
176:(25%), with only a very tiny fraction consisting of other light elements such as
1106:
660:
composition. This also explains why there have been no low-mass stars with zero
4531:
4444:
4210:
4049:
3876:
3847:
3822:
3755:
3444:
3312:
3198:
3100:
2990:
2980:
2445:
2410:
2104:
1283:
1248:
839:
764:
727:
592:
discovered a bright pocket of early population stars in the very bright galaxy
477:
was identified as the most metal-poor star yet when it was found in 2012 using
400:
193:
31:
4541:
4396:
4190:
4153:
4121:
3996:
3705:
3528:
3499:
3477:
3095:
3068:
3045:
2946:
2324:
1497:
585:
404:
113:
306:
is considered as an intermediate population I star, while the sun-like
4456:
4131:
4081:
4076:
3976:
3859:
3842:
3800:
3770:
3760:
3695:
3578:
3523:
3504:
3484:
3462:
3454:
3297:
3290:
3129:
3050:
3033:
2796:
2759:
2719:"On the stringent constraint on massive dark clusters in the galactic halo"
2509:
2255:
2031:
1897:
1716:
1663:
792:
669:
641:
577:
470:
466:
462:
58:
992:
4372:
4044:
4036:
4026:
4006:
3981:
3910:
3832:
3588:
3563:
3558:
3472:
3432:
3393:
3358:
3341:
3336:
3008:
2694:
2602:
2547:
2484:
2155:
1928:
1799:
1646:
1540:
1452:
1399:
1205:
975:
901:
673:
661:
657:
637:
626:
day, but a 2017 study concluded that if a star of 0.8 solar masses (
610:
Artist's impression of the first stars, 400 million years after the
588:
suggest that it may have played a role in this reionization process. The
531:
349:
and the population II stars comes the intermediate disc population.
243:
121:
2501:
2247:
1708:
672:(possibly created by pair-instability supernovae) have been proposed as
606:
246:
manufactured by previous generations of stars from population III.
215:. The discovery opens up the possibility of observing even older stars.
3956:
3653:
3626:
3603:
3583:
3568:
3420:
3324:
3302:
3280:
3275:
3139:
2758:
Rydberg, C.-E.; Zackrisson, E.; Lundqvist, P.; Scott, P. (March 2013).
2195:"Best observational evidence of first-generation stars in the universe"
880:
Gibson, B.K.; Fenner, Y.; Renda, A.; Kawata, D.; Hyun-chul, L. (2013).
696:
688:
665:
618:
445:
survey of
Norbert Christlieb et al., originally started for faint
295:
226:. Here some matter may have escaped during this process in the form of
219:
137:
105:
4526:
431:
metal-enrichment came at a later stage in the universe's development.
230:, and this could have distributed the first metals into the universe.
4143:
3991:
3775:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3690:
3643:
3633:
3427:
3403:
3378:
3285:
3236:
3169:
3159:
3134:
3107:
3083:
3018:
756:
752:
498:
494:
490:
486:
385:
299:
212:
181:
62:
2109:"Astronomers report finding earliest stars that enriched the cosmos"
1517:
1515:
918:
359:
4136:
3837:
3511:
3270:
3243:
2817:
2743:
2718:
2619:
2564:
2427:
2172:
2065:
1945:
1861:
1766:
1739:
1469:
1416:
1265:
1222:
1147:
821:
796:
710:
611:
562:
539:
502:
372:
204:
169:
165:
70:
2778:
2655:
2411:"Modeling the Survival of Population III Stars to the Present Day"
2297:
2230:
1593:
1320:
1039:
4411:
3886:
3648:
3415:
3368:
3351:
3346:
3265:
1512:
1247:
Schlaufman, Kevin C.; Thompson, Ian B.; Casey, Andrew R. (2018).
1242:
1240:
446:
307:
288:
177:
4401:
4389:
3608:
3494:
2757:
1882:
566:
543:
515:
408:
333:
173:
133:
1237:
69:. In the abstract of the article by Baade, he recognizes that
1781:
Wolfe, Arthur M.; Gawiser, Eric; Prochaska, Jason X. (2005).
281:
276:
164:
Under current cosmological models, all matter created in the
2530:
2047:
553:
The existence of population III stars is inferred from
3750:
2969:
702:
Detection of population III stars is a goal of NASA's
547:
520:
416:
412:
189:
74:
54:
4451:
2579:
2213:
1526:(2004). "Induced formation of primordial low-mass stars".
1521:
1249:"An ultra metal-poor star near the hydrogen-burning Limit"
264:
4116:
2921:
100 Billion Suns: The birth, life, and death of the stars
2640:
303:
258:
239:
129:
2938:
2276:
2187:
576:. These stars likely triggered the universe's period of
1437:
1246:
879:
396:
also contain high numbers of population II stars.
2043:
2041:
242:
clouds from which they formed received the metal-rich
4467:
2873:
2340:"The universe's first stars weren't loners after all"
1780:
1572:
889:
519:
Possible glow of population III stars imaged by
1837:
1184:
1182:
1130:
188:
processes created the first 26 elements (up to
73:
originally conceived this type of classification in
2585:
2409:Dutta, J.; Sur, S.; Stacy, A.; Bagla, J.S. (2020).
2038:
1740:"On the two Oosterhoff groups of globular clusters"
767:, since they contain mainly primordial, metal-free
96:, with another newer, hypothetical division called
2408:
1678:
875:
873:
871:
843:
233:
2765:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2461:
2128:
1905:
1384:
1179:
1027:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
850:(3 ed.). Harvard University Press. pp.
4539:
2270:
948:
388:, whereas population II stars found in the
2716:
2524:
2402:
2366:"How massive stars form: Simple solution found"
1774:
1738:van Albada, T. S.; Baker, N. (1973).
1737:
1625:
1578:
1124:
1020:
868:
461:) and three of the oldest stars known to date:
159:
2825:
2097:
1023:"Origin and structure of the Galactic disc(s)"
542:, which are needed for the later formation of
2954:
1493:"Primordial giant: The star that time forgot"
316:Population I stars usually have regular
2804:
2710:
1876:
1360:"One of Milky Way's oldest stars discovered"
1305:
1188:
1070:
1068:
1014:
751:It has been proposed that recent supernovae
676:candidates, but searches for these types of
572:. They are also thought to be components of
2671:
2467:
1787:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
954:
832:
2961:
2947:
2917:
2634:
2383:
1631:
1484:
955:Kunth, Daniel & Östlin, Göran (2000).
2831:
2816:
2810:
2795:
2777:
2742:
2693:
2654:
2601:
2546:
2483:
2444:
2426:
2314:
2296:
2229:
2154:
2064:
1927:
1896:
1798:
1765:
1645:
1592:
1539:
1451:
1431:
1398:
1378:
1319:
1282:
1264:
1204:
1146:
1065:
1056:
1038:
974:
900:
820:
785:
423:being more important contributors to the
392:are older and thus more metal-deficient.
2864:Gibson, B. K.; et al. (2013).
2363:
2357:
2331:
1997:
1684:
605:
514:
427:at the time of their formation, whereas
366:
358:
344:of metals. However, observations of the
332:than the other two populations, because
275:
209:an extremely small ultra metal-poor star
36:
27:Grouping of stars by similar metallicity
2832:Callaghan, Jonathan (30 January 2023).
2751:
2134:
2103:
1911:
1831:
1352:
1299:
838:
508:
265:Chemical classification by Walter Baade
128:metallicity) as population I. The
61:categorized groups of stars within the
14:
4540:
2894:
2863:
2677:
1817:10.1146/annurev.astro.42.053102.133950
1731:
352:
143:
2942:
2866:"Review: Galactic Chemical Evolution"
2207:
1966:
1490:
962:The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review
882:"Review: Galactic chemical evolution"
791:
269:
88:. Two main divisions were defined as
2337:
2000:"Observational Aspects of Cosmology"
1969:"Observational Aspects of Cosmology"
1099:
1079:. Research & Creative Activity.
136:to be a "metal", including chemical
24:
2857:
2396:California Institute of Technology
1074:
1021:Schönrich, R.; Binney, J. (2009).
636:Analysis of data of extremely low-
340:, are thought to be formed by the
25:
4564:
2364:Thompson, Andrea (January 2009).
1308:The American Astronomical Society
640:population II stars such as
4525:
4513:
4501:
4489:
4477:
4450:
4440:
4439:
2392:"Cosmology, Population III"
2389:
1058:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15365.x
895:(4). CSIRO publishing: 401–415.
713:galaxy called RX J2129–z8He II.
684:have produced negative results.
1991:
1960:
1491:Clark, Stuart (February 2010).
745:
234:Formation of the observed stars
4548:Physical cosmological concepts
2924:. Princeton University Press.
2897:Coming of Age in the Milky Way
2717:Sanchez-Salcedo, F.J. (1997).
2010:(3716): 1411–1414, 1416–1418.
957:"The most metal-poor galaxies"
13:
1:
4352:Timeline of stellar astronomy
2723:Astrophysical Journal Letters
2024:10.1126/science.151.3716.1411
1998:Thornton, Page (March 1966).
1522:Salvaterra, R.; Ferrara, A.;
778:
723:Lists of astronomical objects
590:European Southern Observatory
559:gravitationally lensed galaxy
483:SMSS J031300.36-670839.3
2338:Redd, Nola (February 2011).
2316:10.1088/0004-637X/706/2/1184
1558:10.1016/j.newast.2004.06.003
1165:10.1103/RevModPhys.88.015004
403:" (elements produced by the
160:Formation of the first stars
7:
4012:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
2918:Kippenhahn, Rudolf (1993).
2083:10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/139
1967:Green, Louis (April 1966).
1611:10.1051/0004-6361/200911862
842:(1977). Hodge, Paul (ed.).
761:pair-instability supernovae
716:
693:direct collapse black holes
654:pair-instability supernovae
222:through a process known as
201:pair-instability supernovae
10:
4569:
3926:Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism
2681:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1581:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1338:10.1088/0004-637X/773/2/83
704:James Webb Space Telescope
682:gravitational microlensing
29:
4435:
4360:
4209:
4107:
4035:
3934:
3791:
3666:
3544:
3453:
3189:
3180:
3059:
2989:
2976:
2968:
2934:– via Google Books.
2589:The Astrophysical Journal
2534:The Astrophysical Journal
2415:The Astrophysical Journal
2284:The Astrophysical Journal
2052:The Astrophysical Journal
1440:The Astrophysical Journal
1387:The Astrophysical Journal
1253:The Astrophysical Journal
1134:Reviews of Modern Physics
4305:With multiple exoplanets
2901:William Morrow & Co.
2895:Ferris, Timothy (1988).
2446:10.3847/1538-4357/abadf8
1284:10.3847/1538-4357/aadd97
1010:– via caltech.edu.
864:– via Archive.org.
738:
485:located with the aid of
479:Sloan Digital Sky Survey
108:, stellar age, and even
3091:Asymptotic giant branch
2704:1997A&A...322..709K
1985:1966S&T....31..199G
1809:2005ARA&A..43..861W
1603:2010A&A...513A..49S
1077:"What makes stars tick"
985:2000A&ARv..10....1K
525:Spitzer Space Telescope
421:type II supernovas
384:near the centre of the
154:stellar nucleosynthesis
4427:Tidal disruption event
3916:Circumstellar envelope
3150:Luminous blue variable
1664:10.1006/icar.2001.6607
614:
594:Cosmos Redshift 7
527:
429:type Ia supernova
376:
364:
346:Kepler Space Telescope
291:
86:globular star clusters
50:
3952:Effective temperature
2142:Astrophysical Journal
2139: = 3.357".
1915:Astrophysical Journal
1885:ASP Conference Series
1783:"Damped Ly‑α systems"
1745:Astrophysical Journal
1192:Astrophysical Journal
1111:astronomy.swin.edu.au
993:10.1007/s001590000005
801:Astrophysical Journal
609:
518:
436:Timothy C. Beers
370:
362:
279:
40:
4422:Planet-hosting stars
4300:With resolved images
4271:Historical brightest
4201:Photometric-standard
4127:Solar radio emission
3921:Eddington luminosity
3701:Triple-alpha process
3639:Thorne–Żytkow object
3014:Young stellar object
2797:10.1093/mnras/sts653
2643:Journal of Cosmology
1841:Astronomical Journal
509:Population III stars
4246:Highest temperature
4017:Color–color diagram
3882:Protoplanetary disk
3686:Proton–proton chain
3364:Chemically peculiar
2788:2013MNRAS.429.3658R
2735:1997ApJ...487L..61S
2665:2013JCos...2210163G
2612:2002ApJ...570..329S
2557:2006ApJ...648..383P
2502:10.1038/nature01571
2494:2003Natur.422..871U
2437:2020ApJ...901...16D
2307:2009ApJ...706.1184O
2248:10.1038/nature07990
2240:2009Natur.459...49B
2165:2003ApJ...596..797F
2075:2015ApJ...808..139S
2016:1966Sci...151.1411P
1938:2007ApJ...660..516T
1854:1992AJ....103.1987B
1758:1973ApJ...185..477V
1709:10.1038/nature11121
1701:2012Natur.486..375B
1656:2001Icar..151..307L
1550:2004NewA...10..113S
1462:2003ApJ...591..288H
1409:2001ApJ...550..372F
1330:2013ApJ...773...83X
1275:2018ApJ...867...98S
1215:2002ApJ...567..532H
1157:2016RvMP...88a5004C
1049:2009MNRAS.399.1145S
911:2003PASA...20..401G
813:1944ApJ...100..137B
769:interstellar matter
650:elliptical galaxies
623:interstellar medium
574:faint blue galaxies
425:interstellar medium
353:Population II stars
338:terrestrial planets
251:interstellar medium
224:photodisintegration
144:Stellar development
98:population III
67:stellar populations
4251:Lowest temperature
4002:Photometric system
3972:Absolute magnitude
3906:Circumstellar dust
3519:Stellar black hole
3155:Stellar population
3041:Herbig–Haro object
2882:on 20 January 2021
2200:Astronomy Magazine
2114:The New York Times
1898:astro-ph/9810183v1
1081:Indiana University
1075:Bryant, Lauren J.
936:on 20 January 2021
615:
565:– are observed in
555:physical cosmology
528:
441:. and the Hamburg-
377:
365:
292:
280:Population I star
270:Population I stars
94:population II
51:
4553:Stellar astronomy
4465:
4464:
4368:Substellar object
4347:Planetary nebulae
3766:Luminous red nova
3676:Deuterium burning
3662:
3661:
3145:Instability strip
3125:Wolf-Rayet nebula
3079:Horizontal branch
3024:Pre-main-sequence
2931:978-0-691-08781-8
2910:978-0-688-05889-0
2478:(6934): 871–873.
2390:Carr, Bernard J.
1973:Sky and Telescope
1695:(7403): 375–377.
1366:. 6 November 2018
646:globular clusters
642:HE 0107-5240
536:chemical elements
471:HE 1523-0901
467:HE 1327-2326
463:HE 0107-5240
394:Globular clusters
330:planetary systems
326:relative velocity
318:elliptical orbits
286:reflection nebula
255:planetary nebulae
228:relativistic jets
90:Population I star
16:(Redirected from
4560:
4530:
4529:
4518:
4517:
4516:
4506:
4505:
4504:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4482:
4481:
4480:
4473:
4457:Stars portal
4455:
4454:
4443:
4442:
4099:Planetary system
4022:Strömgren sphere
3894:Asteroseismology
3615:Black hole star
3187:
3186:
3113:Planetary nebula
3074:Red-giant branch
2963:
2956:
2949:
2940:
2939:
2935:
2914:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2881:
2875:. Archived from
2870:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2846:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2808:
2802:
2801:
2799:
2781:
2772:(4): 3658–3664.
2755:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2697:
2695:astro-ph/9610070
2675:
2669:
2668:
2658:
2638:
2632:
2631:
2605:
2603:astro-ph/0201284
2583:
2577:
2576:
2550:
2548:astro-ph/0605210
2528:
2522:
2521:
2487:
2485:astro-ph/0301315
2465:
2459:
2458:
2448:
2430:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2350:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2318:
2300:
2291:(2): 1184–1193.
2274:
2268:
2267:
2233:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2158:
2156:astro-ph/0307162
2132:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2107:(17 June 2015).
2101:
2095:
2094:
2068:
2045:
2036:
2035:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1931:
1929:astro-ph/0701381
1909:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1802:
1800:astro-ph/0509481
1778:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1649:
1647:astro-ph/0012399
1629:
1623:
1622:
1596:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1543:
1541:astro-ph/0304074
1519:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1455:
1453:astro-ph/0212469
1435:
1429:
1428:
1402:
1400:astro-ph/0007176
1382:
1376:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1323:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1286:
1268:
1244:
1235:
1234:
1208:
1206:astro-ph/0107037
1186:
1177:
1176:
1150:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1119:
1118:
1103:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1083:. Archived from
1072:
1063:
1062:
1060:
1042:
1033:(3): 1145–1156.
1018:
1012:
1011:
1009:
1007:
978:
976:astro-ph/9911094
952:
946:
945:
943:
941:
935:
929:. Archived from
904:
902:astro-ph/0312255
886:
877:
866:
865:
849:
836:
830:
829:
824:
789:
772:
749:
648:associated with
602:
582:phase transition
570:emission spectra
310:
140:such as oxygen.
110:galaxy evolution
21:
4568:
4567:
4563:
4562:
4561:
4559:
4558:
4557:
4538:
4537:
4536:
4524:
4514:
4512:
4502:
4500:
4490:
4488:
4478:
4476:
4468:
4466:
4461:
4449:
4431:
4356:
4325:Milky Way novae
4261:Smallest volume
4205:
4186:Radial velocity
4109:
4103:
4055:Common envelope
4031:
3930:
3899:Helioseismology
3870:Bipolar outflow
3811:Microturbulence
3806:Convection zone
3787:
3681:Lithium burning
3668:Nucleosynthesis
3658:
3540:
3449:
3176:
3055:
3004:Molecular cloud
2985:
2972:
2967:
2932:
2911:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2868:
2860:
2858:Further reading
2855:
2854:
2844:
2842:
2839:Quanta Magazine
2830:
2826:
2809:
2805:
2756:
2752:
2715:
2711:
2676:
2672:
2639:
2635:
2584:
2580:
2529:
2525:
2466:
2462:
2407:
2403:
2388:
2384:
2374:
2372:
2362:
2358:
2348:
2346:
2336:
2332:
2275:
2271:
2224:(7243): 49–54.
2212:
2208:
2203:. 17 June 2015.
2193:
2192:
2188:
2133:
2129:
2119:
2117:
2105:Overbye, Dennis
2102:
2098:
2049:confirmation".
2046:
2039:
1996:
1992:
1965:
1961:
1910:
1906:
1881:
1877:
1836:
1832:
1779:
1775:
1736:
1732:
1683:
1679:
1630:
1626:
1577:
1573:
1520:
1513:
1503:
1501:
1489:
1485:
1436:
1432:
1383:
1379:
1369:
1367:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1304:
1300:
1245:
1238:
1187:
1180:
1129:
1125:
1116:
1114:
1105:
1104:
1100:
1090:
1088:
1087:on May 16, 2016
1073:
1066:
1019:
1015:
1005:
1003:
953:
949:
939:
937:
933:
919:10.1071/AS03052
884:
878:
869:
862:
840:Shapley, Harlow
837:
833:
790:
786:
781:
776:
775:
750:
746:
741:
733:Peekaboo Galaxy
719:
691:seeds, such as
632:
629:
597:
550:as we know it.
511:
355:
336:, particularly
322:Galactic Center
308:
272:
267:
236:
186:nucleosynthetic
162:
150:stellar spectra
148:Observation of
146:
100:added in 1978.
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4566:
4556:
4555:
4550:
4535:
4534:
4522:
4510:
4498:
4486:
4463:
4462:
4460:
4459:
4447:
4436:
4433:
4432:
4430:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4393:
4392:
4387:
4386:
4385:
4380:
4364:
4362:
4358:
4357:
4355:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4337:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4289:
4288:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4256:Largest volume
4253:
4248:
4243:
4233:
4232:
4231:
4226:
4215:
4213:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4182:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4140:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4113:
4111:
4105:
4104:
4102:
4101:
4096:
4095:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4074:
4069:
4068:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4041:
4039:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3967:Magnetic field
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3938:
3936:
3932:
3931:
3929:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3902:
3901:
3891:
3890:
3889:
3884:
3877:Accretion disk
3874:
3873:
3872:
3867:
3857:
3856:
3855:
3853:Alfvén surface
3850:
3848:Stellar corona
3845:
3840:
3835:
3825:
3823:Radiation zone
3820:
3819:
3818:
3813:
3803:
3797:
3795:
3789:
3788:
3786:
3785:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3672:
3670:
3664:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3621:
3613:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3561:
3556:
3550:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3521:
3516:
3515:
3514:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3502:
3492:
3482:
3481:
3480:
3470:
3465:
3459:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3445:Blue straggler
3442:
3441:
3440:
3430:
3425:
3424:
3423:
3413:
3412:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3361:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3334:
3333:
3332:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3300:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3203:Main sequence
3201:
3196:
3190:
3184:
3182:Classification
3178:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3167:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3118:Protoplanetary
3110:
3105:
3104:
3103:
3098:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3076:
3071:
3065:
3063:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3037:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2995:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2966:
2965:
2958:
2951:
2943:
2937:
2936:
2930:
2915:
2909:
2892:
2859:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2824:
2803:
2750:
2744:10.1086/310873
2709:
2670:
2633:
2620:10.1086/339733
2596:(1): 329–343.
2578:
2565:10.1086/505679
2541:(1): 383–388.
2523:
2460:
2401:
2382:
2356:
2330:
2269:
2206:
2186:
2173:10.1086/378228
2149:(1): 797–809.
2127:
2096:
2037:
1990:
1959:
1946:10.1086/513063
1922:(5): 516–540.
1904:
1875:
1862:10.1086/116207
1830:
1793:(1): 861–918.
1773:
1767:10.1086/152434
1730:
1677:
1640:(2): 307–313.
1624:
1571:
1534:(2): 113–120.
1511:
1483:
1470:10.1086/375341
1446:(1): 288–300.
1430:
1417:10.1086/319719
1393:(1): 372–382.
1377:
1351:
1298:
1236:
1223:10.1086/338487
1199:(1): 532–543.
1178:
1123:
1098:
1064:
1013:
947:
867:
861:978-0674340510
860:
831:
822:10.1086/144650
783:
782:
780:
777:
774:
773:
765:dwarf galaxies
759:may have been
757:SN 2007bi
753:SN 2006gy
743:
742:
740:
737:
736:
735:
730:
728:Lists of stars
725:
718:
715:
630:
627:
510:
507:
499:HD 140283
491:HD 122563
415:) relative to
401:alpha elements
354:
351:
271:
268:
266:
263:
235:
232:
194:periodic table
161:
158:
145:
142:
82:galactic bulge
32:Star formation
26:
18:Population III
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4565:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4545:
4543:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4521:
4511:
4509:
4499:
4497:
4487:
4485:
4475:
4474:
4471:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4446:
4438:
4437:
4434:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4417:Intergalactic
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4397:Galactic year
4395:
4391:
4388:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4375:
4374:
4371:
4370:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4359:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4332:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4294:
4291:
4287:
4284:
4283:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4276:Most luminous
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4238:
4237:
4234:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4221:
4220:
4217:
4216:
4214:
4212:
4208:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4191:Proper motion
4189:
4187:
4184:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4154:Constellation
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4122:Solar eclipse
4120:
4119:
4118:
4115:
4114:
4112:
4108:Earth-centric
4106:
4100:
4097:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4079:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4038:
4034:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3939:
3937:
3933:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3895:
3892:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3875:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3781:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3706:Alpha process
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3669:
3665:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3628:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3543:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3513:
3510:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3487:
3486:
3483:
3479:
3478:Helium planet
3476:
3475:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3468:Parker's star
3466:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3452:
3446:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3422:
3419:
3418:
3417:
3414:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3399:Lambda Boötis
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3366:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3338:
3335:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3323:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3242:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3191:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3179:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3165:Superluminous
3163:
3162:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3089:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3069:Main sequence
3067:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3058:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3046:Hayashi track
3044:
3042:
3039:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2988:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2975:
2971:
2964:
2959:
2957:
2952:
2950:
2945:
2944:
2941:
2933:
2927:
2923:
2922:
2916:
2912:
2906:
2903:p. 512.
2902:
2898:
2893:
2878:
2874:
2867:
2862:
2861:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2828:
2819:
2814:
2807:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2754:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2713:
2705:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2682:
2674:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2590:
2582:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2527:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2472:
2464:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2371:
2367:
2360:
2345:
2341:
2334:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2273:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2210:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2190:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2131:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2100:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2044:
2042:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1908:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1879:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1842:
1834:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1777:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1734:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1689:
1681:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1628:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1575:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1528:New Astronomy
1525:
1524:Schneider, R.
1518:
1516:
1500:
1499:
1498:New Scientist
1494:
1487:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1434:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1381:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1243:
1241:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1185:
1183:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1141:(1): 015004.
1140:
1136:
1135:
1127:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1071:
1069:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1017:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
977:
972:
968:
964:
963:
958:
951:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
903:
898:
894:
890:
883:
876:
874:
872:
863:
857:
853:
848:
847:
841:
835:
828:
823:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
788:
784:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
748:
744:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
720:
714:
712:
707:
705:
700:
698:
694:
690:
685:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
634:
624:
620:
613:
608:
604:
600:
595:
591:
587:
586:UDFy-38135539
583:
579:
575:
571:
568:
564:
560:
556:
551:
549:
545:
541:
538:heavier than
537:
533:
526:
522:
517:
513:
506:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
475:Caffau's star
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
455:Cayrel's Star
452:
451:Sneden's Star
448:
444:
440:
437:
432:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
405:alpha process
402:
397:
395:
391:
390:galactic halo
387:
383:
374:
369:
361:
357:
350:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
324:, with a low
323:
319:
314:
312:
305:
301:
297:
290:
287:
283:
278:
274:
262:
260:
256:
252:
247:
245:
241:
231:
229:
225:
221:
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
157:
155:
151:
141:
139:
135:
131:
125:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
101:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
78:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
48:
44:
39:
33:
19:
4520:Solar System
4320:White dwarfs
4310:Brown dwarfs
4293:Most distant
4241:Most massive
4219:Proper names
4179:Photographic
4132:Solar System
4110:observations
4037:Star systems
3860:Stellar wind
3843:Chromosphere
3816:Oscillations
3696:Helium flash
3546:Hypothetical
3524:X-ray binary
3463:Compact star
3298:Bright giant
3154:
3051:Henyey track
3029:Herbig Ae/Be
2920:
2896:
2884:. Retrieved
2877:the original
2872:
2843:. Retrieved
2837:
2827:
2806:
2769:
2763:
2753:
2726:
2722:
2712:
2685:
2679:
2673:
2646:
2642:
2636:
2593:
2587:
2581:
2538:
2532:
2526:
2475:
2469:
2463:
2418:
2414:
2404:
2385:
2373:. Retrieved
2369:
2359:
2347:. Retrieved
2343:
2333:
2288:
2282:
2272:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2198:
2189:
2146:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2118:. Retrieved
2112:
2099:
2056:
2050:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1976:
1972:
1962:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1888:
1884:
1878:
1845:
1839:
1833:
1790:
1786:
1776:
1749:
1743:
1733:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1637:
1633:
1627:
1584:
1580:
1574:
1531:
1527:
1502:. Retrieved
1496:
1486:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1390:
1386:
1380:
1368:. Retrieved
1363:
1354:
1311:
1307:
1301:
1256:
1252:
1196:
1190:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1115:. Retrieved
1110:
1101:
1091:September 7,
1089:. Retrieved
1085:the original
1030:
1026:
1016:
1004:. Retrieved
966:
960:
950:
938:. Retrieved
931:the original
892:
888:
845:
834:
826:
804:
800:
787:
747:
708:
701:
686:
670:brown dwarfs
635:
619:solar masses
616:
598:
578:reionization
552:
529:
512:
459:BD +17° 3248
438:
433:
398:
378:
356:
315:
302:galaxy. The
293:
289:IC 2118
273:
248:
237:
217:
198:
163:
147:
126:
102:
97:
93:
89:
79:
66:
59:Walter Baade
52:
46:
42:
4508:Outer space
4496:Spaceflight
4373:Brown dwarf
4149:Circumpolar
4027:Kraft break
4007:Color index
3982:Metallicity
3942:Designation
3911:Cosmic dust
3833:Photosphere
3599:Dark-energy
3574:Electroweak
3559:Black dwarf
3490:Radio-quiet
3473:White dwarf
3359:White dwarf
3009:Bok globule
1752:: 477–498.
969:(1): 1–79.
807:: 137–146.
697:quasi-stars
674:dark matter
662:metallicity
638:metallicity
296:spiral arms
220:black holes
168:was mostly
122:metallicity
84:and within
4542:Categories
4335:Candidates
4330:Supernovae
4315:Red dwarfs
4174:Extinction
3962:Kinematics
3957:Luminosity
3935:Properties
3828:Atmosphere
3726:Si burning
3716:Ne burning
3654:White hole
3627:Quasi-star
3554:Blue dwarf
3409:Technetium
3325:Hypergiant
3303:Supergiant
2845:31 January
2818:2212.04476
2729:(1): L61.
2428:1712.06912
2375:1 February
2349:1 February
2066:1504.01734
2059:(2): 139.
1504:1 February
1266:1811.00549
1148:1505.01076
1117:2022-04-01
779:References
689:black hole
666:red dwarfs
580:, a major
439:et al
172:(75%) and
138:non-metals
118:elliptical
106:kinematics
4484:Astronomy
4266:Brightest
4164:Magnitude
4144:Pole star
4065:Symbiotic
4060:Eclipsing
3992:Starlight
3793:Structure
3783:Supernova
3776:Micronova
3771:Recurrent
3756:Symbiotic
3741:p-process
3736:r-process
3731:s-process
3721:O burning
3711:C burning
3691:CNO cycle
3634:Gravastar
3170:Hypernova
3160:Supernova
3135:Dredge-up
3108:Blue loop
3101:super-AGB
3084:Red clump
3061:Evolution
3019:Protostar
2999:Accretion
2991:Formation
2779:1206.0007
2656:1206.0187
2649:: 10163.
2455:209386374
2421:(1): 16.
2370:Space.com
2344:Space.com
2325:0004-637X
2298:0902.4573
2231:0905.0929
1954:119496577
1870:121564385
1825:119368187
1594:0903.5475
1346:118303030
1321:1305.1325
1314:(2): 83.
1259:(2): 98.
1173:118409603
1040:0907.1899
1006:3 January
793:Baade, W.
652:suggests
495:red giant
487:SkyMapper
386:Milky Way
342:accretion
300:Milky Way
213:Milky Way
182:beryllium
63:Milky Way
4445:Category
4340:Remnants
4236:Extremes
4196:Parallax
4169:Apparent
4159:Asterism
4137:Sunlight
4087:Globular
4072:Multiple
3997:Variable
3987:Rotation
3947:Dynamics
3838:Starspot
3512:Magnetar
3455:Remnants
3271:Subgiant
3244:Subdwarf
3096:post-AGB
2886:17 April
2628:18385975
2510:12712199
2264:10258026
2256:19424148
2181:17808828
2091:18471887
2032:17817304
1848:: 1987.
1717:22722196
1672:14077895
1566:15085880
1478:59065632
1364:Sci-News
1293:54511945
1231:16050642
1113:. Cosmos
1107:"Metals"
1001:15487742
940:17 April
927:12253299
846:Galaxies
795:(1944).
717:See also
711:redshift
680:through
658:metallic
631:☉
612:Big Bang
563:Big Bang
540:hydrogen
532:"metals"
503:subgiant
373:Big Bang
205:redshift
170:hydrogen
166:Big Bang
112:in both
71:Jan Oort
4532:Science
4470:Portals
4412:Gravity
4361:Related
4281:Nearest
4229:Chinese
4077:Cluster
4050:Contact
3887:Proplyd
3761:Remnant
3649:Blitzar
3623:Hawking
3579:Strange
3529:Burster
3485:Neutron
3438:Extreme
3389:He-weak
3034:T Tauri
2784:Bibcode
2731:Bibcode
2700:Bibcode
2688:: 709.
2661:Bibcode
2608:Bibcode
2573:9815509
2553:Bibcode
2518:4424736
2490:Bibcode
2433:Bibcode
2303:Bibcode
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2161:Bibcode
2120:17 June
2071:Bibcode
2012:Bibcode
2004:Science
1981:Bibcode
1979:: 199.
1934:Bibcode
1850:Bibcode
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1754:Bibcode
1725:4427321
1697:Bibcode
1652:Bibcode
1619:5688996
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1546:Bibcode
1458:Bibcode
1425:7368009
1405:Bibcode
1370:12 June
1326:Bibcode
1271:Bibcode
1211:Bibcode
1153:Bibcode
1045:Bibcode
981:Bibcode
907:Bibcode
809:Bibcode
544:planets
447:quasars
407:, like
334:planets
320:of the
298:of the
240:gaseous
192:in the
178:lithium
4402:Galaxy
4390:Planet
4378:Desert
4286:bright
4224:Arabic
4045:Binary
3865:Bubble
3589:Planck
3564:Exotic
3500:Binary
3495:Pulsar
3433:Helium
3394:Barium
3337:Carbon
3330:Yellow
3318:Yellow
3291:Yellow
3130:PG1159
2928:
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1617:
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1344:
1291:
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1171:
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925:
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678:MACHOs
601:= 6.60
567:quasar
497:) and
409:oxygen
174:helium
134:helium
114:spiral
47:yellow
4407:Guest
4211:Lists
4092:Super
3746:Fusor
3619:Black
3604:Quark
3584:Preon
3569:Boson
3505:X-ray
3421:Shell
3374:Ap/Bp
3276:Giant
3194:Early
3140:OH/IR
2970:Stars
2880:(PDF)
2869:(PDF)
2813:arXiv
2774:arXiv
2690:arXiv
2651:arXiv
2624:S2CID
2598:arXiv
2569:S2CID
2543:arXiv
2514:S2CID
2480:arXiv
2451:S2CID
2423:arXiv
2293:arXiv
2260:S2CID
2226:arXiv
2177:S2CID
2151:arXiv
2087:S2CID
2061:arXiv
1950:S2CID
1924:arXiv
1893:arXiv
1866:S2CID
1821:S2CID
1795:arXiv
1721:S2CID
1668:S2CID
1642:arXiv
1615:S2CID
1589:arXiv
1562:S2CID
1536:arXiv
1474:S2CID
1448:arXiv
1421:S2CID
1395:arXiv
1342:S2CID
1316:arXiv
1289:S2CID
1261:arXiv
1227:S2CID
1201:arXiv
1169:S2CID
1143:arXiv
1035:arXiv
997:S2CID
971:arXiv
934:(PDF)
923:S2CID
897:arXiv
885:(PDF)
852:62–63
739:Notes
382:bulge
284:with
282:Rigel
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4082:Open
3977:Mass
3801:Core
3751:Nova
3644:Iron
3594:Dark
3404:Lead
3384:HgMn
3379:CEMP
3308:Blue
3281:Blue
3199:Late
2981:List
2926:ISBN
2905:ISBN
2888:2018
2847:2023
2506:PMID
2377:2015
2351:2015
2321:ISSN
2252:PMID
2122:2015
2028:PMID
1713:PMID
1506:2015
1372:2020
1093:2005
1008:2022
942:2018
856:ISBN
755:and
548:life
546:and
521:NASA
469:and
417:iron
413:neon
411:and
311:Arae
253:via
244:dust
190:iron
180:and
116:and
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75:1926
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3313:Red
3286:Red
2792:doi
2770:429
2739:doi
2727:487
2686:322
2616:doi
2594:570
2561:doi
2539:648
2498:doi
2476:422
2441:doi
2419:901
2311:doi
2289:706
2244:doi
2222:459
2169:doi
2147:596
2079:doi
2057:808
2020:doi
2008:151
1942:doi
1920:660
1889:666
1858:doi
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1762:doi
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