Population genetics

2036: 1514: 1572: 959: 1106:. Dobzhansky examined the genetic diversity of wild populations and showed that, contrary to the assumptions of the population geneticists, these populations had large amounts of genetic diversity, with marked differences between sub-populations. The book also took the highly mathematical work of the population geneticists and put it into a more accessible form. Many more biologists were influenced by population genetics via Dobzhansky than were able to read the highly mathematical works in the original. 47: 1741:. That is, the alleles in the offspring are a random sample of those in the parents. Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely, and thereby reduce genetic variability. In contrast to natural selection, which makes gene variants more common or less common depending on their reproductive success, the changes due to genetic drift are not driven by environmental or adaptive pressures, and are equally likely to make an allele more common as less common. 942: 10197: 8847: 7562: 7176: 602: 10223: 10210: 8857: 1952: 1907: 10252: 589: 1161:. In this view, many mutations are deleterious and so never observed, and most of the remainder are neutral, i.e. are not under selection. With the fate of each neutral mutation left to chance (genetic drift), the direction of evolutionary change is driven by which mutations occur, and so cannot be captured by models of change in the frequency of (existing) alleles alone. 1627:

shifts in continuous frequencies, as if the population is infinite. The occurrence of mutations in individuals is represented by a population-level "force" or "pressure" of mutation, i.e., the force of innumerable events of mutation with a scaled magnitude u applied to shifting frequencies f(A1) to f(A2). For instance, in the classic

2217:. Most current solutions to the paradox of variation invoke some level of selection at linked sites. For example, one analysis suggests that larger populations have more selective sweeps, which remove more neutral genetic diversity. A negative correlation between mutation rate and population size may also contribute. 1546:

epistasis. When deleterious mutations also have a smaller fitness effect on high fitness backgrounds, this is known as "synergistic epistasis". However, the effect of deleterious mutations tends on average to be very close to multiplicative, or can even show the opposite pattern, known as "antagonistic epistasis".

1894:, who argue that selection on linked sites is a more important stochastic force, doing the work traditionally ascribed to genetic drift by means of sampling error. The mathematical properties of genetic draft are different from those of genetic drift. The direction of the random change in allele frequency is 984:, Fisher showed that the continuous variation measured by the biometricians could be produced by the combined action of many discrete genes, and that natural selection could change allele frequencies in a population, resulting in evolution. In a series of papers beginning in 1924, another British geneticist, 2205:

in a population will be proportional to the product of the population size and the neutral mutation rate. The fact that levels of genetic diversity vary much less than population sizes do is known as the "paradox of variation". While high levels of genetic diversity were one of the original arguments

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This concept of mutation pressure is mostly useful for considering the implications of deleterious mutation, such as the mutation load and its implications for the evolution of the mutation rate. Transformation of populations by mutation pressure is unlikely. Haldane argued that it would require

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is more complex. Population genetics must either model this complexity in detail, or capture it by some simpler average rule. Empirically, beneficial mutations tend to have a smaller fitness benefit when added to a genetic background that already has high fitness: this is known as diminishing returns

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This biological process of mutation is represented in population-genetic models in one of two ways, either as a deterministic pressure of recurrent mutation on allele frequencies, or a source of variation. In deterministic theory, evolution begins with a predetermined set of alleles and proceeds by

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have two contrasting regimes. When the product of the beneficial mutation rate and population size is small, asexual populations follow a "successional regime" of origin-fixation dynamics, with adaptation rate strongly dependent on this product. When the product is much larger, asexual populations

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The role of mutation as a source of novelty is different from these classical models of mutation pressure. When population-genetic models include a rate-dependent process of mutational introduction or origination, i.e., a process that introduces new alleles including neutral and beneficial ones,

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of fitness as a function of the number of deleterious mutations. Synergistic epistasis is represented by the red line - each subsequent deleterious mutation has a larger proportionate effect on the organism's fitness. Antagonistic epistasis is in blue. The black line shows the non-epistatic case,

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held the view that genetic drift plays at the most a minor role in evolution, and this remained the dominant view for several decades. No population genetics perspective have ever given genetic drift a central role by itself, but some have made genetic drift important in combination with another

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means that the phenotypic and/or fitness effect of an allele at one locus depends on which alleles are present at other loci. Selection does not act on a single locus, but on a phenotype that arises through development from a complete genotype. However, many population genetics models of sexual

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takes place within an individual, resulting in heritable changes to the genetic material. This process is often characterized by a description of the starting and ending states, or the kind of change that has happened at the level of DNA (e.g,. a T-to-C mutation, a 1-bp deletion), of genes or

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provided the best explanation for the complexity they observed in the living world. During the modern synthesis, these ideas were purged, and only evolutionary causes that could be expressed in the mathematical framework of population genetics were retained. Consensus was reached as to which

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sites are assumed to be neutral. Genes undergoing positive selection have an excess of divergent sites relative to polymorphic sites. The test can also be used to obtain a genome-wide estimate of the proportion of substitutions that are fixed by positive selection, α. According to the

1681:. Loss of sporulation in this case can occur by recurrent mutation, without requiring selection for the loss of sporulation ability. When there is no selection for loss of function, the speed at which loss evolves depends more on the mutation rate than it does on the 932:

provides the solution to how variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance. According to this principle, the frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) will remain constant in the absence of selection, mutation, migration and genetic drift.

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models of population genetics. Assuming genetic drift is the only evolutionary force acting on an allele, after t generations in many replicated populations, starting with allele frequencies of p and q, the variance in allele frequency across those populations is

2328:. In the absence of population structure, Hardy-Weinberg proportions are reached within 1–2 generations of random mating. More typically, there is an excess of homozygotes, indicative of population structure. The extent of this excess can be quantified as the 2268:

The simplest test for population structure in a sexually reproducing, diploid species, is to see whether genotype frequencies follow Hardy-Weinberg proportions as a function of allele frequencies. For example, in the simplest case of a single locus with two

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model, the force of mutation pressure pushes the frequency of an allele upward, and selection against its deleterious effects pushes the frequency downward, so that a balance is reached at equilibrium, given (in the simplest case) by f = u/s.

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to an allele under selection at a nearby locus. Linkage also slows down the rate of adaptation, even in sexual populations. The effect of linkage disequilibrium in slowing down the rate of adaptive evolution arises from a combination of the

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Before the advent of population genetics, many biologists doubted that small differences in fitness were sufficient to make a large difference to evolution. Population geneticists addressed this concern in part by comparing selection to

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Manlik, Oliver; Chabanne, Delphine; Daniel, Claire; Bejder, Lars; Allen, Simon J.; Sherwin, William B. (13 November 2018). "Demography and genetics suggest reversal of dolphin source–sink dynamics, with implications for conservation".

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The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics. This integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics, which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked.

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One important aspect of such models is that selection is only strong enough to purge deleterious mutations and hence overpower mutational bias towards degradation if the selection coefficient s is greater than the inverse of the

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suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.

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Boucher, Yan; Douady, Christophe J.; Papke, R. Thane; Walsh, David A.; Boudreau, Mary Ellen R.; Nesbø, Camilla L.; Case, Rebecca J.; Doolittle, W. Ford (2003). "Lateral Gene Transfer and the Origins of Prokaryotic Groups".

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proteins (e.g., a null mutation, a loss-of-function mutation), or at a higher phenotypic level (e.g., red-eye mutation). Single-nucleotide changes are frequently the most common type of mutation, but many other types of

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at one or a small number of loci. In this way, natural selection converts differences in the fitness of individuals with different phenotypes into changes in allele frequency in a population over successive generations.

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then the properties of mutation may have a more direct impact on the rate and direction of evolution, even if the rate of mutation is very low. That is, the spectrum of mutation may become very important, particularly

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means that the phenotypic and/or fitness effect of one allele at a locus depends on which allele is present in the second copy for that locus. Consider three genotypes at one locus, with the following fitness values

2451:. Drift barrier theory predicts that species with large effective population sizes will have highly streamlined, efficient genetic systems, while those with small population sizes will have bloated and complex 1164:

The origin-fixation view of population genetics generalizes this approach beyond strictly neutral mutations, and sees the rate at which a particular change happens as the product of the mutation rate and the

1065:. Authors such as Beatty have asserted that population genetics defines the core of the modern synthesis. For the first few decades of the 20th century, most field naturalists continued to believe that 1985:

is the exchange of genes between populations or species, breaking down the structure. Examples of gene flow within a species include the migration and then breeding of organisms, or the exchange of

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and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small, isolated sub-population away from an adaptive peak, allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks.

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The effect of genetic drift is larger for alleles present in few copies than when an allele is present in many copies. The population genetics of genetic drift are described using either

1117:, continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s to empirically demonstrate the power of selection due to ecological factors including the ability to maintain genetic diversity through genetic 2463:. However, somewhat paradoxically, species with large population sizes might be so tolerant to the consequences of certain types of errors that they evolve higher error rates, e.g. in 2346:, which is a measure of the proportion of genetic variance that can be explained by population structure. Genetic population structure can then be related to geographic structure, and 1317: 1609:

within a population. Duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes. Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA.

1157:. Fisher and Wright had some fundamental disagreements about the relative roles of selection and drift. The availability of molecular data on all genetic differences led to the 1651:

are no longer useful when animals live in the darkness of caves, and tend to be lost. An experimental example involves the loss of sporulation in experimental populations of

853:. Traditionally a highly mathematical discipline, modern population genetics encompasses theoretical, laboratory, and field work. Population genetic models are used both for 2057:, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species. Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast 2360:, and so sequences from more neutrally evolving portions of genomes are therefore selected for such analyses. It can be used to infer the relationships between species ( 1679: 3953:"Average time until fixation of a mutant allele in a finite population under continued mutation pressure: Studies by analytical, numerical, and pseudo-sampling methods" 8579: 318: 1636:

high mutation rates unopposed by selection, and Kimura concluded even more pessimistically that even this was unlikely, as the process would take too long (see

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Linkage is a problem for population genetic models that treat one gene locus at a time. It can, however, be exploited as a method for detecting the action of

7400: 7139: 7004: 1997:. Population genetic models can be used to identify which populations show significant genetic isolation from one another, and to reconstruct their history. 1763: 1125:. Ford's work, in collaboration with Fisher, contributed to a shift in emphasis during the modern synthesis towards natural selection as the dominant force. 1644: 1637: 6444: 730: 1948:

to one another than those randomly selected from the general population. This is described as the extent to which a population is genetically structured.

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Buston, P. M.; Pilkington, J. G.; et al. (2007). "Are clownfish groups composed of close relatives? An analysis of microsatellite DNA vraiation in

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Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among

9068: 8925: 2773:; Brandvain, Yaniv; Dhole, Sumit; Fitzpatrick, Courtney L.; Goldberg, Emma E.; Stern, Caitlin A.; Van Cleve, Jeremy; Yeh, D. Justin (9 December 2014). 6320: 3513:

Kouyos, Roger D.; Silander, Olin K.; Bonhoeffer, Sebastian (June 2007). "Epistasis between deleterious mutations and the evolution of recombination".

8893: 2651: 1713: 4336: 4162: 1655:. Sporulation is a complex trait encoded by many loci, such that the mutation rate for loss of the trait was estimated as an unusually high value, 4771:

Repaci, V.; Stow, A. J.; Briscoe, D. A. (2007). "Fine-scale genetic structure, co-founding and multiple mating in the Australian allodapine bee (

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The original, modern synthesis view of population genetics assumes that mutations provide ample raw material, and focuses only on the change in

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McCandlish, David M.; Stoltzfus, Arlin (September 2014). "Modeling Evolution Using the Probability of Fixation: History and Implications".

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for new mutations, only a minority of mutations are beneficial. Mutations with gross effects are typically deleterious. Studies in the fly

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claims that most genetic differences within and between populations are caused by the combination of neutral mutations and genetic drift.

928:. But with blending inheritance, genetic variance would be rapidly lost, making evolution by natural or sexual selection implausible. The 782: 6369: 7425: 6885: 756: 552: 2232:

Population genetics models are used to infer which genes are undergoing selection. One common approach is to look for regions of high

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could be larger than Fisher assumed, leading to more rapid adaptive evolution as a camouflage strategy following increased pollution.

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Su, H.; Qu, L.-J.; He, K.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, J; Chen, Z.; Gu, H. (2003). "The Great Wall of China: a physical barrier to gene flow?".

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Provine, William B. (1978). "The role of mathematical population geneticists in the evolutionary synthesis of the 1930s and 1940s".

10057: 9659: 8832: 8287: 6941: 6727: 360: 2260:, this number should be near zero. High numbers have therefore been interpreted as a genome-wide falsification of neutral theory. 2209:

It is clear that levels of genetic diversity vary greatly within a species as a function of local recombination rate, due to both

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is possible under some circumstances and has long been suggested as a possible cause for the loss of unused traits. For example,

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under a broad range of conditions. Haldane also applied statistical analysis to real-world examples of natural selection, such as

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to population B, which has fewer of the dominant alleles, and through mating incorporates its alleles into the other population.

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By assuming that there are loci that control the genetic system itself, population genetic models are created to describe the

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relates genetic diversity in a sample to demographic history of the population from which it was taken. It normally assumes

2008:. If a significant proportion of individuals or gametes migrate, it can also change allele frequencies, e.g. giving rise to 9749: 8957: 7952: 7405: 7124: 6936: 494: 4115:"The roles of mutation accumulation and selection in loss of sporulation in experimental populations of Bacillus subtilis" 3656:

M., Long; Betrán, E.; Thornton, K.; Wang, W. (November 2003). "The origin of new genes: glimpses from the young and old".

1229:, so population genetic models assume relatively simple relationships to predict the phenotype and hence fitness from the 9529: 9454: 9381: 9357: 9305: 8678: 7598: 7249: 17: 10189: 10141: 9774: 9160: 8913: 8340: 8000: 7420: 7214: 7114: 6897: 6873: 6796: 5576: 3055: 1102: 701: 626: 355: 186: 9569: 7159: 7086: 6868: 6863: 6394: 6088:

Gutenkunst, Ryan N.; Hernandez, Ryan D.; Williamson, Scott H.; Bustamante, Carlos D.; McVean, Gil (23 October 2009).

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in favor of neutral theory, the paradox of variation has been one of the strongest arguments against neutral theory.

1402:– a group of closely related organisms which, if sexual, are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring 706: 8407: 1019:

on small, relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift. In 1932 Wright introduced the concept of an

10202: 9809: 9594: 9386: 8879: 8412: 8010: 5797: 2408: 1964: 1554: 88: 9804: 9784: 9497: 9242: 8950: 8945: 8918: 8657: 8647: 8571: 7846: 6958: 6909: 6853: 6489: 4925:"How species evolve collectively: implications of gene flow and selection for the spread of advantageous alleles" 2251:) to the divergence between species (substitutions) at two types of sites; one assumed to be neutral. Typically, 1062: 1056: 834: 775: 345: 313: 10062: 10022: 9977: 9684: 9507: 9077: 9014: 8785: 8652: 8432: 8176: 7974: 7878: 7767: 7134: 6970: 6858: 6494: 2646: 2551: 2511: 2182: 1628: 1251: 1166: 865: 567: 350: 1932:

Because of physical barriers to migration, along with the limited tendency for individuals to move or spread (

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to another population through immigration of individuals. In this example, one of the birds from population A

1418:– the collective genetic information contained within a population of sexually reproducing organisms; ignores 1074:

evolutionary factors might influence evolution, but not as to the relative importance of the various factors.

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follow a "concurrent mutations" regime with adaptation rate less dependent on the product, characterized by

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Barton, Nicholas H.; Briggs, Derek E. G.; Eisen, Jonathan A.; Goldstein, David B.; Patel, Nipam H. (2007).

2591: 2156:, linkage is complete, and population genetic equations can be derived and solved in terms of a travelling 929: 860:

What sets population genetics apart from newer, more phenotypic approaches to modelling evolution, such as

537: 6346: 6090:"Inferring the Joint Demographic History of Multiple Populations from Multidimensional SNP Frequency Data" 1261: 10256: 10228: 9794: 9029: 8860: 8454: 7059: 7039: 6784: 6762: 6469: 6365: 2521: 2361: 1975:. Gene flow is hindered by mountain ranges, oceans and deserts or even human-made structures such as the 1613: 690: 593: 4276: 10242: 9689: 9559: 9539: 9318: 9063: 8556: 7730: 7254: 7076: 6992: 6777: 2631: 2244: 1945: 768: 650: 93: 6340: 1752:

describing changes in allele frequency. These approaches are usually applied to the Wright-Fisher and

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of survival and reproduction in a particular environment. The fitness is normally given by the symbol

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are possible, and they occur at widely varying rates that may show systematic asymmetries or biases (

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Corbett-Detig, Russell B.; Hartl, Daniel L.; Sackton, Timothy B.; Barton, Nick H. (10 April 2015).

3061: 2526: 2464: 2428: 2416: 2377: 2065: 2059: 2044: 1994: 861: 449: 444: 419: 374: 340: 334: 323: 8257: 4230:"Mutation bias can shape adaptation in large asexual populations experiencing clonal interference" 2435:

for a species may be a trade-off between the damage from a high deleterious mutation rate and the

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Sniegowski, P. (2000). "The evolution of mutation rates: separating causes from consequences".

2676: 2671: 2626: 2541: 2404: 2400: 2365: 2248: 2233: 2110: 2035: 2016: 1693:, predictable differences in the rates of occurrence for different types of mutations, because 1419: 1206: 1118: 881: 474: 429: 251: 146: 8323: 2900: 2894: 2004:. Migration into a population can introduce new genetic variants, potentially contributing to 10151: 10114: 10012: 9921: 9916: 9891: 9619: 9599: 9449: 9369: 9342: 9273: 9041: 8758: 8632: 8551: 8546: 8531: 8516: 8506: 8422: 8397: 8232: 8188: 8152: 8120: 8061: 8039: 8020: 7883: 7836: 7787: 7782: 7740: 7542: 7376: 7341: 7034: 6801: 6681: 6575: 6570: 6474: 4330: 4156: 3797:"Prevalence of positive selection among nearly neutral amino acid replacements in Drosophila" 2691: 2616: 2606: 2516: 2506: 2468: 2054: 2001: 1940:), natural populations rarely all interbreed as may be assumed in theoretical random models ( 1738: 1606: 1602: 1535: 1523: 1438: 1222: 1077: 1001: 905: 877: 854: 850: 736: 572: 454: 399: 365: 278: 1513: 10104: 9911: 9896: 9864: 9851: 9712: 9624: 9492: 9459: 9434: 9288: 9252: 9146: 9116: 8935: 8732: 8627: 8561: 8362: 8277: 8193: 8105: 8088: 8015: 8005: 7715: 7623: 7607: 7441: 7259: 6997: 6772: 6755: 6527: 6272: 6203: 5847: 5709: 5223: 5121: 5043: 4936: 4879: 4410: 4290: 4069: 3964: 3808: 3561: 3281: 2721: 2681: 2611: 2596: 2586: 2460: 2373: 2221: 2214: 2202: 2153: 2131: 1705: 1534:

species are "single locus" models, where the fitness of an individual is calculated as the

1327: 925: 869: 815: 807: 424: 196: 81: 38: 8367: 8237: 4112: 3366:"Soft sweeps: molecular population genetics of adaptation from standing genetic variation" 2009: 8: 10171: 9721: 9639: 9180: 9124: 9051: 8795: 8753: 8703: 8622: 8470: 8462: 8392: 8372: 8318: 8162: 7915: 7720: 7703: 7681: 7521: 7511: 7471: 7351: 7244: 7239: 6821: 6671: 6547: 6434: 5694: 5596: 2641: 2576: 2491: 2424: 2210: 2178: 2135: 2118: 2102: 2005: 1976: 1956: 1701: 1114: 1061:

The mathematics of population genetics were originally developed as the beginning of the

997: 964: 893: 751: 741: 514: 504: 439: 404: 288: 191: 51: 8073: 6276: 6207: 5851: 5713: 5275:"Evolution and horizontal transfer of dUTPase-encoding genes in viruses and their hosts" 5227: 5125: 4940: 4883: 4414: 4294: 4073: 3968: 3812: 3565: 3285: 10129: 9972: 9962: 9931: 9726: 9674: 9584: 9534: 9393: 9352: 9268: 9175: 9155: 9009: 8987: 8982: 8768: 8720: 8713: 8310: 8222: 8083: 8044: 7868: 7812: 7802: 7762: 7676: 7671: 7666: 7584: 7481: 7366: 7361: 7336: 6661: 6657: 6517: 6355: 6295: 6260: 6237: 6174: 6126: 6101: 6089: 6070: 6029: 5996: 5972: 5939: 5920: 5871: 5732: 5670: 5643: 5624: 5542: 5518:"Beneficial Mutation Selection Balance and the Effect of Linkage on Positive Selection" 5517: 5493: 5470: 5458: 5434: 5407: 5383: 5358: 5255: 5011: 4957: 4924: 4900: 4869: 4857: 4838: 4753: 4701: 4670: 4658: 4619: 4594: 4569: 4516: 4491: 4451: 4313: 4278: 4277:

A. V. Cano, H. Rozhonova, A. Stoltzfus, D. M. McCandlish and J. L. Payne (2022-02-10).

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with genes at other loci, especially with genes located nearby on the same chromosome.

1849:{\displaystyle V_{t}\approx pq\left(1-\exp \left\{-{\frac {t}{2N_{e}}}\right\}\right).} 1749: 1571: 1089: 1028: 921: 557: 489: 273: 201: 166: 5299: 5274: 5188: 5152: 5110:"Genome fragment of Wolbachia endosymbiont transferred to X chromosome of host insect" 5109: 3987: 3952: 2746: 2439:

costs of maintaining systems to reduce the mutation rate, such as DNA repair enzymes.

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Smith, N. G. C.; Eyre-Walker, A. (2002). "Adaptive protein evolution in Drosophila".

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and h is the dominance coefficient. The value of h yields the following information:

1250:. When this criterion is met, the probability that a new advantageous mutant becomes 1202: 1182: 1142: 1085: 1020: 958: 917: 913: 746: 658: 258: 136: 126: 121: 6241: 6178: 6074: 5693:

Sung, W.; Ackerman, M. S.; Miller, S. F.; Doak, T. G.; Lynch, M. (17 October 2012).

5628: 5290: 5259: 5015: 4842: 4757: 4042: 3685: 3301: 3147: 3092:(. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 338–341. 2964:(. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 295–298. 9421: 9362: 9151: 9094: 8402: 7969: 7947: 7755: 7526: 7501: 6611: 6522: 6290: 6280: 6221: 6158: 6121: 6111: 6062: 6024: 6008: 5967: 5951: 5924: 5902: 5875: 5855: 5812: 5768: 5727: 5717: 5665: 5655: 5608: 5537: 5529: 5488: 5480: 5429: 5419: 5378: 5370: 5331: 5322:

Poole, A.; Penny, D. (2007). "Evaluating hypotheses for the origin of eukaryotes".

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held that the combination of population structure and genetic drift was important.

1734: 1598: 1425: 1186: 1134: 1040: 989: 985: 842: 293: 9293: 8247: 1429:– the frequency or proportion of a particular allele of a gene within a population 10161: 10052: 10017: 9926: 9814: 9708: 9664: 9644: 9517: 9233: 9212: 8967: 8763: 8387: 8214: 8203: 8157: 8100: 8049: 7829: 7633: 7386: 6838: 6429: 6359: 6335: 6116: 5955: 5660: 5424: 4610: 3466:"Biased Estimates of Diminishing-Returns Epistasis? Empirical Evidence Revisited" 2854: 2791: 2701: 2686: 2237: 2146: 2122: 1968: 1944:). There is usually a geographic range within which individuals are more closely 1895: 1190: 1036: 1012: 246: 236: 98: 6012: 5533: 5484: 5374: 4891: 4684: 4507: 4130: 3481: 3381: 3237: 3179: 2933: 2339:

subpopulations. The degree of population structure can then be calculated using

2069:

may also have occurred. An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic

9654: 9634: 9544: 9237: 9129: 9004: 8603: 8475: 8417: 7777: 7772: 7710: 7688: 7516: 7456: 7356: 6736: 6676: 6666: 6580: 6459: 5816: 5644:"Natural Selection Constrains Neutral Diversity across A Wide Range of Species" 3554:

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Life history affects genetic diversity more than population history does, e.g.

2165: 1883: 1500: 1097: 1093: 1032: 328: 231: 5086: 4659:"Genetic Draft and Quasi-Neutrality in Large Facultatively Sexual Populations" 4423: 4398: 4081: 3904: 3293: 2775:"Not Just a Theory—The Utility of Mathematical Models in Evolutionary Biology" 1538:

of the contributions from each of its loci—effectively assuming no epistasis.

1015:

experiments, focused on combinations of interacting genes, and the effects of

46: 10266: 10156: 10099: 10089: 9649: 9469: 9429: 9425: 9416: 9259: 9228: 9217: 9207: 9134: 9036: 8930: 8805: 8683: 8642: 8488: 8242: 7910: 7905: 6616: 6606: 6562: 6326: 6020: 5963: 5243: 5143: 5051: 4826: 4692: 4181:"The loss of adaptive plasticity during long periods of environmental stasis" 3830: 3188: 2636: 2621: 2571: 2432: 2412: 2381: 2090: 2077:

can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across

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The Evolutionary synthesis : perspectives on the unification of biology

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Mutation plays a key role in other classical and recent theories including

1550: 1198: 1081: 1070: 1044: 499: 484: 268: 263: 181: 8871: 6261:"Evolution of molecular error rates and the consequences for evolvability" 5196: 3977: 3593: 978:. In a series of papers starting in 1918 and culminating in his 1930 book 10085: 9997: 9941: 9779: 9564: 9263: 9082: 8827: 8698: 8427: 7962: 7792: 7698: 7656: 7446: 4492:"Fixation when N and s Vary: Classic Approaches Give Elegant New Results" 2086: 2020: 988:, worked out the mathematics of allele frequency change at a single gene 974:

The next key step was the work of the British biologist and statistician

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and the appearance of a new beneficial mutation before the last one has

967:: the black-bodied form of the peppered moth appeared in polluted areas. 941: 10032: 10027: 9744: 9479: 9019: 8688: 8589: 8511: 8498: 8132: 7932: 7819: 7797: 7750: 7745: 7693: 7661: 7576: 7451: 7320: 7300: 7275: 6373: 6087: 5997:"Estimating the Number of Subpopulations (K) in Structured Populations" 5335: 4034: 3701:"The evolution and functional diversification of animal microRNA genes" 3085: 3051: 2957: 2601: 2436: 2301: 2173: 2081:. Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of 2070: 2050: 2024: 1937: 1915: 1685:, indicating that it is driven more by mutation than by genetic drift. 1406: 1138: 1122: 1110: 1066: 1016: 819: 803: 696: 677: 283: 206: 161: 141: 55: 6379: 6066: 4595:"Genetic Drift in an Infinite Population: The Pseudohitchhiking Model" 3321:

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3033: 2726: 2566: 2561: 2121:, where an allele at one locus rises to high frequency because it is 2106: 2082: 1982: 1927: 1919: 1530: 1518: 1414: 1226: 1150: 873: 830: 681: 542: 156: 76: 4058:"Regressive evolution in the Mexican cave tetra, Astyanax mexicanus" 3749: 3669: 3624: 2988:

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Synergistic epistasis is central to some theories of the purging of

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Current tree of life showing vertical and horizontal gene transfers

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2364:), as well as the population structure, demographic history (e.g. 2105:, the effect of an allele at one locus can be averaged across the 1951: 1906: 10047: 8110: 7824: 6705: 5457:

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Genetic structuring can be caused by migration due to historical

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and low genetic variance along the chromosome, to detect recent

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Evolution : the remarkable history of a scientific theory

2431:. For example, most mutations are deleterious, so the optimal 1258:. The time until fixation of such an allele is approximately 1201:. Population genetics describes natural selection by defining 1128: 849:, who also laid the foundations for the related discipline of 8031: 4279:"Mutation bias shapes the spectrum of adaptive substitutions" 2109:

at other loci. In reality, one allele is frequently found in

2074: 2134:(delays in separating beneficial mutations from deleterious 1096:

developed by the population geneticists and the patterns of

1092:. He helped to bridge the divide between the foundations of 7192: 6352:

How Selection Changes the Genetic Composition of Population

3795:

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2447:. This is known as the drift barrier and is related to the 2157: 6341:

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5209: 4538: 3606: 3550:"The high spontaneous mutation rate: is it a health risk?" 2117:

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2247:

which compares the amount of variation within a species (

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Another approach to demographic inference relies on the

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is an obstacle to gene flow of some terrestrial species.

1141:. The main processes influencing allele frequencies are 5212:"Massive Horizontal Gene Transfer in Bdelloid Rotifers" 5203: 5107: 5028: 3698: 3040:(4th ed.). London: Chapman and Hall. pp. 1ff. 2130:(delays in bringing beneficial mutations together) and 1936:), and tendency to remain or come back to natal place ( 1035:

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worked with both Hamilton and Maynard Smith. American

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3748:

McLysaght, Aoife; Hurst, Laurence D. (25 July 2016).

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Mutations can involve large sections of DNA becoming

1264: 802:

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The population genetics of their 6265:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5702:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5594: 5114:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4922: 3801:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3106: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2394: 868:, is its emphasis on such genetic phenomena as 4858:"Population Genetics Models of Local Ancestry" 3855: 3747: 2992:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 49–79. 2817: 2000:Subjecting a population to isolation leads to 1979:, which has hindered the flow of plant genes. 1697:can impose biases on the course of evolution. 892:. This makes it appropriate for comparison to 8887: 7592: 7208: 6721: 6395: 5994: 5516:Desai, Michael M.; Fisher, Daniel S. (2007). 5177:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 4800: 4798: 4656: 4389: 4387: 3864:An Introduction to Population Genetics Theory 3220:Casillas, Sònia; Barbadilla, Antonio (2017). 916:will only cause evolution if there is enough 776: 627: 5754: 5748: 5272: 4979: 4335:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4161:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3463: 2881: 2842: 2449:nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution 2023:species are required for the populations to 1242:. Selection can overcome genetic drift when 8901: 6191: 5795: 5590: 5588: 5515: 5273:Baldo, A.; McClure, M. (1 September 1999). 4804: 4106: 4003: 3929: 3084: 3001: 2999: 2983: 2981: 2956: 2085:and prokaryotes, during the acquisition of 2030: 1526:of the contributions from each of its loci. 1129:Neutral theory and origin-fixation dynamics 1084:'s lab, had been influenced by the work on 8894: 8880: 7599: 7585: 7215: 7201: 6728: 6714: 6402: 6388: 6254: 6148: 6142: 5789: 5321: 4795: 4384: 4228:K. Gomez, J. Bertram and J. Masel (2020). 3944: 3866:( ed.). New Jersey: Blackburn Press. 3861: 3609:"Mechanisms of change in gene copy number" 3464:Berger, D.; Postma, E. (13 October 2014). 2411:and recombination rates, the evolution of 783: 769: 634: 620: 6294: 6284: 6215: 6125: 6115: 6105: 6028: 5971: 5906: 5772: 5731: 5721: 5669: 5659: 5541: 5492: 5474: 5433: 5423: 5382: 5298: 5151: 5133: 4997: 4956: 4899: 4873: 4700: 4674: 4618: 4592: 4515: 4422: 4367: 4312: 4302: 4253: 4221: 4204: 4138: 4089: 3986: 3976: 3950: 3912: 3880: 3838: 3820: 3724: 3632: 3583: 3573: 3489: 3412: 3389: 3340: 3245: 3196: 3178: 3154: 3062:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 2800: 2790: 981:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 920:in a population. Before the discovery of 10058:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 8833:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 7606: 5798:"The genomic rate of adaptive evolution" 5585: 5568:The genetic basis of evolutionary change 5564: 4350:Stoltzfus, A.; Yampolsky, L. Y. (2009). 4270: 2996: 2978: 2263: 2034: 2019:between two diverging populations of an 1950: 1905: 1570: 1512: 7548:List of genetics research organizations 6409: 5174: 4563: 4445: 4009: 3364:Hermisson, J.; Pennings, P. S. (2005). 3268: 3005: 2987: 2860:Evolution : the history of an idea 2160:of genotype frequencies along a simple 1047:were influenced by Wright and Haldane. 14: 10265: 6695:Index of evolutionary biology articles 5315: 5044:10.1146/annurev.genet.37.050503.084247 4855: 3862:Crow, James F.; Kimura, Motoo (1970). 2923: 2892: 2853: 2227: 2194:Explaining levels of genetic variation 1882:The role of genetic drift by means of 731:Y-chromosome haplogroups by population 9550:Psychological effects of Internet use 8875: 8596:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 7580: 7196: 6709: 6383: 5831: 5755:Charlesworth, J. Eyre-Walker (2008). 5509: 5072: 4474: 4468: 4393: 3886: 2823: 2662:Neutral theory of molecular evolution 2522:Distribution of fitness effects (DFE) 2497:Bias in the introduction of variation 2258:neutral theory of molecular evolution 1877:neutral theory of molecular evolution 1695:bias in the introduction of variation 1614:distribution of fitness effects (DFE) 1159:neutral theory of molecular evolution 947:The typical white-bodied form of the 5888: 5882: 4489: 3940:. Longmans, Green and Co., New York. 3547: 3440: 3418:Population Genetics: A Concise Guide 3160: 3088:; Provine, William B., eds. (1998). 3050: 3032: 2960:; Provine, William B., eds. (1998). 2828:(2nd ed.). New York: Springer. 2015:In the presence of gene flow, other 1886:in evolution has been criticized by 1312:{\displaystyle (2log(sN)+\gamma )/s} 9530:Digital media use and mental health 5597:"Determinants of genetic diversity" 4641: 4179:; King, O. D.; Maughan, H. (2007). 3314: 2727:Supergene (co-adapted gene complex) 2697:Runaway process (Fisherian runaway) 1050: 24: 9161:Automatic and controlled processes 8001:Evolutionary developmental biology 6797:Blood type distribution by country 6735: 4923:Morjan, C.; Rieseberg, L. (2004). 4644:The "Random Genetic Drift" Fallacy 2926:Integrating Scientific Disciplines 2335:Individuals can be clustered into 1103:Genetics and the Origin of Species 25: 10294: 9570:Smartphones and pedestrian safety 6314: 3515:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3008:Studies of the History of Biology 1246:is greater than 1 divided by the 1172: 10250: 10221: 10208: 10196: 10195: 9595:Mobile phones and driving safety 8855: 8846: 8845: 7561: 7560: 7175: 7174: 5908:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00308.x 4999:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00179.x 4949:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02164.x 4789:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00191.x 4742:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01762.x 4477:Process and Pattern in Evolution 3889:"Evolution of the mutation rate" 2826:Mathematical Population Genetics 2409:evolution of sexual reproduction 2243:A second common approach is the 1719: 1555:evolution of sexual reproduction 957: 940: 601: 600: 587: 45: 9498:Computer-mediated communication 8658:Extended evolutionary synthesis 7847:Gene-centered view of evolution 6248: 6185: 6081: 6045: 5988: 5931: 5805:Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5761:Molecular Biology and Evolution 5686: 5635: 5558: 5450: 5399: 5350: 5291:10.1128/JVI.73.9.7710-7721.1999 5266: 5168: 5075:Current Opinion in Microbiology 5066: 4973: 4916: 4849: 4764: 4717: 4650: 4635: 4586: 4532: 4483: 4439: 4343: 4169: 4049: 3741: 3692: 3649: 3600: 3541: 3506: 3457: 3434: 3406: 3357: 3308: 3262: 3222:"Molecular Population Genetics" 3120:The Quarterly Review of Biology 3078: 3044: 3026: 2188: 1088:by Russian geneticists such as 1057:Modern synthesis (20th century) 594:Evolutionary biology portal 9775:Empathising–systemising theory 9078:female intrasexual competition 9015:Evolutionarily stable strategy 8786:Hologenome theory of evolution 8653:History of molecular evolution 7879:Evolutionarily stable strategy 7768:Last universal common ancestor 6495:Constructive neutral evolution 6347:History of population genetics 3887:Lynch, Michael (August 2010). 2950: 2917: 2763: 2739: 2512:Constructive neutral evolution 2289:, random mating predicts freq( 1645:evolution by mutation pressure 1638:evolution by mutation pressure 1298: 1289: 1280: 1265: 884:, and the random phenomena of 553:Creation–evolution controversy 307:History of evolutionary theory 13: 1: 10135:Standard social science model 9188:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis 8580:Renaissance and Enlightenment 6332:The ALlele FREquency Database 6327:Molecular population genetics 6321:Population Genetics Tutorials 5189:10.1016/S0959-437X(05)80203-5 3548:Crow, J. F. (5 August 1997). 2733: 2224:have more genetic diversity. 1910:Gene flow is the transfer of 1543:genotype to fitness landscape 835:modern evolutionary synthesis 9983:Missing heritability problem 9575:Social aspects of television 9198:Evolution of nervous systems 9166:Computational theory of mind 8791:Missing heritability problem 8418:Gamete differentiation/sexes 7507:Missing heritability problem 7222: 6445:Fisher's fundamental theorem 6376:-based human migration maps) 6117:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000695 5661:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002112 5425:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002740 3060:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: 2792:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002017 2652:Mutational hazard hypothesis 2395:Evolution of genetic systems 1901: 1714:mutational hazard hypothesis 1508: 1390:Population genetics glossary 1322: 1225:. Natural selection acts on 1177: 1031:was Haldane's pupil, whilst 924:, one common hypothesis was 837:. Its primary founders were 810:. Studies in this branch of 538:Evolution as fact and theory 7: 10229:Evolutionary biology portal 6470:Coefficient of relationship 6013:10.1534/genetics.115.180992 5534:10.1534/genetics.106.067678 5485:10.1534/genetics.109.109009 5375:10.1534/genetics.113.160705 4892:10.1534/genetics.112.139808 4685:10.1534/genetics.111.128876 4508:10.1534/genetics.111.131748 4131:10.1534/genetics.107.075663 3482:10.1534/genetics.114.169870 3382:10.1534/genetics.104.036947 3238:10.1534/genetics.116.196493 3180:10.1534/genetics.109.110023 2934:10.1007/978-94-010-9435-1_7 2474: 2201:predicts that the level of 2063:and the adzuki bean beetle 1971:or current availability of 1560: 1193:make it more likely for an 1080:, a postdoctoral worker in 691:Most recent common ancestor 10: 10299: 10190:Evolutionary psychologists 10063:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 9978:Human–animal communication 9690:Ovulatory shift hypothesis 9540:Imprinted brain hypothesis 9508:Human–computer interaction 8423:Life cycles/nuclear phases 7975:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 6778:Neanderthal genome project 6370:Atlas of the Human Journey 6323:(archived 23 January 2015) 5956:10.1093/genetics/155.2.945 5817:10.1016/j.tree.2006.06.015 4611:10.1093/genetics/155.2.909 4479:. Oxford University Press. 3527:10.1016/j.tree.2007.02.014 2893:Larson, Edward J. (2004). 2647:Mutation–selection balance 2592:Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium 2471:, than small populations. 2152:In the extreme case of an 2096: 2042: 1925: 1723: 1674:{\displaystyle \mu =0.003} 1629:mutation–selection balance 1564: 1254:is approximately equal to 1054: 1011:, who had a background in 899: 814:examine such phenomena as 573:Nature-nurture controversy 10184: 10110:Environmental determinism 10081:Cultural selection theory 10073: 9968:Evolutionary epistemology 9955: 9882:evolutionary neuroscience 9844: 9837: 9735: 9610: 9555:Rank theory of depression 9478: 9402: 9304: 9110: 9103: 9057:Parent–offspring conflict 8966: 8909: 8841: 8741: 8666: 8570: 8497: 8453: 8308: 8212: 8029: 7988: 7921:Parent–offspring conflict 7857: 7726:Earliest known life forms 7647: 7614: 7556: 7535: 7434: 7385: 7329: 7268: 7230: 7170: 7020: 6837: 6743: 6690: 6625: 6599: 6561: 6536: 6503: 6465:Coefficient of inbreeding 6417: 5087:10.1016/j.mib.2006.08.009 5032:Annual Review of Genetics 4593:Gillespie, J. H. 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The 1683:effective population size 1394: 1389: 1248:effective population size 1207:propensity or probability 460:Evolutionary neuroscience 435:Evolutionary epistemology 415:Evolutionary anthropology 395:Applications of evolution 10003:Cultural group selection 9887:Biocultural anthropology 9580:Societal impacts of cars 9513:Media naturalness theory 9203:Fight-or-flight response 8774:Cultural group selection 8638:The eclipse of Darwinism 8610:On the Origin of Species 8585:Transmutation of species 6915:Caucasus hunter-gatherer 6643:Evolutionary game theory 6425:Hardy–Weinberg principle 5796:Eyre-Walker, A. (2006). 5565:Lewontin, R. C. (1973). 4773:Ramphocinclus brachyurus 4283:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 3957:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2527:Drift-barrier hypothesis 2421:costly signalling traits 2066:Callosobruchus chinensis 2060:Saccharomyces cerevisiae 2045:Horizontal gene transfer 2031:Horizontal gene transfer 1995:horizontal gene transfer 1708:, Eigen's concept of an 1189:, is the fact that some 930:Hardy–Weinberg principle 862:evolutionary game theory 450:Evolutionary linguistics 445:Evolutionary game theory 420:Evolutionary computation 10203:Evolutionary psychology 10167:Sociocultural evolution 10008:Dual inheritance theory 9465:Personality development 8926:Theoretical foundations 8903:Evolutionary psychology 8779:Dual inheritance theory 8618:History of paleontology 6976:Ancient Northeast Asian 6952:Eastern hunter-gatherer 6932:Western hunter-gatherer 6903:Early Anatolian farmers 6455:Shifting balance theory 6343:(archived 13 July 2009) 6286:10.1073/pnas.1012918108 6226:10.1126/science.1089370 5723:10.1073/pnas.1216223109 5601:Nature Reviews Genetics 5236:10.1126/science.1156407 4304:10.1073/pnas.2119720119 3938:The Causes of Evolution 3822:10.1073/pnas.0701572104 3754:Nature Reviews Genetics 3613:Nature Reviews Genetics 3575:10.1073/pnas.94.16.8380 3161:Crow, James F. (2010). 2717:Shifting balance theory 2707:Selfish genetic element 2455:containing for example 2427:, and the evolution of 2417:evolutionary capacitors 1865:shifting balance theory 1619:Drosophila melanogaster 1581:The genetic process of 1576:Drosophila melanogaster 1007:The American biologist 994:peppered moth evolution 563:Objections to evolution 470:Evolutionary psychology 465:Evolutionary physiology 410:Evolutionary aesthetics 389:Fields and applications 371:History of paleontology 10125:Social constructionism 10120:Psychological nativism 10095:Biological determinism 10043:Recent human evolution 10038:Punctuated equilibrium 9861:Behavioral epigenetics 9856:evolutionary economics 9825:Variability hypothesis 9770:Emotional intelligence 9503:Engineering psychology 9193:Evolution of the brain 8467:Punctuated equilibrium 7788:Non-adaptive radiation 7736:Evolutionary arms race 6981:Ancient Paleo-Siberian 6964:Ancient North Eurasian 6927:Early European Farmers 6440:Linkage disequilibrium 6354:, video of lecture by 5135:10.1073/pnas.222228199 4819:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800237 4246:10.1098/rspb.2020.1503 3333:10.1098/rstb.2009.0282 2672:Outbreeding depression 2632:McDonald–Kreitman test 2627:Linkage disequilibrium 2542:Evolutionary landscape 2401:evolution of dominance 2366:population bottlenecks 2316:homozygotes, and freq( 2245:McDonald–Kreitman test 2234:linkage disequilibrium 2111:linkage disequilibrium 2040: 1960: 1923: 1850: 1675: 1578: 1527: 1420:linkage disequilibrium 1313: 1002:selection coefficients 882:linkage disequilibrium 876:, the degree to which 495:Speciation experiments 475:Experimental evolution 430:Evolutionary economics 252:Recent human evolution 110:Processes and outcomes 10152:Multilineal evolution 10115:Nature versus nurture 10074:Theoretical positions 9922:Functional psychology 9917:Evolutionary medicine 9892:Biological psychiatry 9600:Texting while driving 9590:Lead–crime hypothesis 9450:Cognitive development 9435:Caregiver deprivation 8946:Gene selection theory 8759:Evolutionary medicine 8633:Mendelian inheritance 8341:Biological complexity 8329:Programmed cell death 8021:Phenotypic plasticity 7741:Evolutionary pressure 7731:Evidence of evolution 7629:Timeline of evolution 7543:List of genetic codes 6802:Genealogical DNA test 6763:Evolutionary genetics 6682:Quantitative genetics 6591:Balding–Nichols model 6576:Population bottleneck 6571:Small population size 6475:Selection coefficient 6055:Marine Mammal Science 5774:10.1093/molbev/msn005 4369:10.1093/jhered/esp048 3978:10.1073/pnas.77.1.522 2990:Evolutionary progress 2692:Quantitative genetics 2617:Intragenomic conflict 2607:Inbreeding depression 2517:Directional selection 2507:Conservation genetics 2461:transposable elements 2264:Demographic inference 2128:Hill–Robertson effect 2055:antibiotic resistance 2038: 2002:inbreeding depression 1954: 1909: 1851: 1676: 1607:copy-number variation 1603:genetic recombination 1574: 1522:where fitness is the 1516: 1482:incomplete dominance 1439:selection coefficient 1314: 1223:selection coefficient 1078:Theodosius Dobzhansky 906:Mendelian inheritance 878:genetic recombination 855:statistical inference 851:quantitative genetics 737:Genealogical DNA test 455:Evolutionary medicine 400:Biosocial criminology 366:History of speciation 279:Evolutionary taxonomy 242:Timeline of evolution 10283:Statistical genetics 10278:Evolutionary biology 10257:Evolutionary biology 10105:Cultural determinism 9912:Evolutionary biology 9897:Cognitive psychology 9845:Academic disciplines 9493:Cognitive ergonomics 9460:Language acquisition 9440:Childhood attachment 9253:Wason selection task 9147:Behavioral modernity 8936:Cognitive revolution 8919:Evolutionary thought 8733:Teleology in biology 8628:Blending inheritance 8006:Genetic assimilation 7869:Artificial selection 7608:Evolutionary biology 7442:Behavioural genetics 6773:Neanderthal genetics 6756:Human Genome Project 6553:Background selection 6540:on genomic variation 6538:Effects of selection 6490:Population structure 5889:Hahn, M. W. (2008). 4642:Provine, William B. 4566:Evolutionary Biology 4490:Wahl, L. M. (2011). 4454:. p. Glossary. 4448:Evolutionary Biology 2824:Ewens, W.J. (2004). 2722:Subfunctionalization 2682:Polygenic adaptation 2612:Infinite sites model 2597:Idealised population 2378:source–sink dynamics 2374:biological dispersal 2215:background selection 2203:nucleotide diversity 2132:background selection 2101:If all genes are in 1898:across generations. 1764: 1706:subfunctionalization 1659: 1262: 1167:fixation probability 1135:frequency of alleles 926:blending inheritance 824:population structure 808:evolutionary biology 425:Evolutionary ecology 39:Evolutionary biology 27:Subfield of genetics 10273:Population genetics 10172:Unilineal evolution 9937:Population genetics 9722:Sexy son hypothesis 9660:Hormonal motivation 9640:Concealed ovulation 9181:Dual process theory 9052:Parental investment 8796:Molecular evolution 8754:Ecological genetics 8623:Transitional fossil 8413:Sexual reproduction 8253:endomembrane system 8182:pollinator-mediated 8138:dolphins and whales 7916:Parental investment 7522:Population genomics 7512:Molecular evolution 7472:Genetic engineering 7156:Sub-Saharan Africa 7125:Tamils (Sri Lankan) 7022:Population genetics 6829:Genetic enhancement 6822:Surname DNA project 6672:Population genomics 6548:Genetic hitchhiking 6435:Identity by descent 6411:Population genetics 6366:National Geographic 6277:2011PNAS..108.1082R 6208:2003Sci...302.1401L 6202:(5649): 1401–1404. 5852:2002Natur.415.1022S 5846:(6875): 1022–1024. 5714:2012PNAS..10918488S 5708:(45): 18488–18492. 5613:10.1038/nrg.2016.58 5279:Journal of Virology 5228:2008Sci...320.1210G 5222:(5880): 1210–1213. 5126:2002PNAS...9914280K 5120:(22): 14280–14285. 4941:2004MolEc..13.1341M 4884:2012arXiv1202.4811G 4856:Gravel, S. (2012). 4415:2011CBio...21.R837M 4356:Journal of Heredity 4295:2022PNAS..11919720C 4185:American Naturalist 4074:2007CBio...17..452P 4015:American Naturalist 3969:1980PNAS...77..522K 3813:2007PNAS..104.6504S 3766:10.1038/nrg.2016.78 3717:10.1038/cr.2008.278 3566:1997PNAS...94.8380C 3327:(1544): 1195–1201. 3315:Orr, H. A. (2010). 3286:1927PCPS...23..838H 3038:Ecological genetics 2577:Genetic hitchhiking 2492:Balancing selection 2425:evolution of ageing 2419:, the evolution of 2415:, the evolution of 2403:and other forms of 2228:Detecting selection 2211:genetic hitchhiking 2179:clonal interference 2119:genetic hitchhiking 2103:linkage equilibrium 2006:evolutionary rescue 1977:Great Wall of China 1957:Great Wall of China 1746:branching processes 1115:ecological genetics 998:industrial melanism 965:Industrial melanism 894:population genomics 806:, and is a part of 796:Population genetics 752:Genographic Project 742:Surname DNA project 702:Human mitochondrial 673:Population genetics 527:Social implications 515:Universal Darwinism 505:Island biogeography 440:Evolutionary ethics 405:Ecological genetics 351:Molecular evolution 289:Transitional fossil 117:Population genetics 33:Part of a series on 18:Population Genetics 10130:Social determinism 10013:Fisher's principle 9973:Great ape language 9963:Cultural evolution 9932:Philosophy of mind 9765:Division of labour 9727:Westermarck effect 9675:Mating preferences 9585:Distracted driving 9319:Literary criticism 9176:Domain specificity 9156:modularity of mind 8769:Cultural evolution 7884:Fisher's principle 7813:Handicap principle 7803:Parallel evolution 7667:Adaptive radiation 7482:Genetic monitoring 6658:Landscape genetics 6356:Stephen C. Stearns 6259:(3 January 2011). 5336:10.1002/bies.20516 4777:Journal of Zoology 4726:Amphiprion percula 4570:Sinauer Associates 4452:Sinauer Associates 4240:(1937): 20201503. 3951:M. Kimura (1980). 3893:Trends in Genetics 2771:Servedio, Maria R. 2487:Assortative mating 2384:within a species. 2154:asexual population 2079:biological domains 2041: 2025:become new species 1961: 1924: 1846: 1750:diffusion equation 1735:allele frequencies 1671: 1601:, usually through 1579: 1528: 1372:Relative fitness: 1309: 1090:Sergei Chetverikov 1029:John Maynard Smith 1021:adaptive landscape 1000:, and showed that 922:Mendelian genetics 707:Human Y-chromosome 558:Theistic evolution 490:Selective breeding 202:Parallel evolution 167:Adaptive radiation 10238: 10237: 10216:Psychology portal 10180: 10179: 10023:Hologenome theory 9993:Unit of selection 9988:Primate cognition 9902:Cognitive science 9833: 9832: 9704:Sexual attraction 9680:Mating strategies 9445:Cinderella effect 9375:Moral foundations 9279:Visual perception 9171:Domain generality 9140:Facial expression 9088:Sexual dimorphism 9047:Natural selection 8993:Hamiltonian spite 8869: 8868: 8485:Uniformitarianism 8438:Sex-determination 7943:Sexual dimorphism 7938:Natural selection 7842:Unit of selection 7808:Signalling theory 7574: 7573: 7497:He Jiankui affair 7487:Genetic genealogy 7477:Genetic diversity 7406:the British Isles 7311:Genetic variation 7190: 7189: 7010:Ancient Beringian 6812:Race and genetics 6807:Genetic genealogy 6792:Genetic variation 6703: 6702: 6653:Genetic genealogy 6648:Fitness landscape 6067:10.1111/mms.12555 4929:Molecular Ecology 4730:Molecular Ecology 4579:978-0-87893-189-7 4550:978-0-87969-684-9 4461:978-0-87893-189-7 4409:(20): R837–R838. 4011:Haldane, J. B. S. 3807:(16): 6504–6510. 3560:(16): 8380–8386. 3441:Miko, I. (2008). 3427:978-0-8018-8008-7 3270:Haldane, J. B. S. 3071:978-0-674-89665-9 2910:978-0-679-64288-6 2874:978-0-520-23693-6 2835:978-0-387-20191-7 2657:Natural selection 2587:Haldane's dilemma 2582:Genetic variation 2547:Fitness landscape 2537:Error catastrophe 2502:Coalescent theory 2370:population growth 2354:Coalescent theory 2350:can be detected. 2348:genetic admixture 2162:fitness landscape 2143:natural selection 2071:bdelloid rotifers 1831: 1710:error catastrophe 1506: 1505: 1435: 1434: 1385: 1384: 1185:, which includes 1183:Natural selection 1143:natural selection 1113:, the pioneer of 1109:In Great Britain 1086:genetic diversity 918:genetic variation 914:Natural selection 866:adaptive dynamics 798:is a subfield of 793: 792: 747:Personal genomics 659:Genetic genealogy 644: 643: 335:Origin of Species 137:Natural selection 16:(Redirected from 10290: 10255: 10254: 10246: 10225: 10212: 10199: 10198: 9842: 9841: 9838:Related subjects 9625:Adult attachment 9152:Cognitive module 9108: 9107: 9095:Social selection 9069:Costly signaling 9064:Sexual selection 8951:Modern synthesis 8896: 8889: 8882: 8873: 8872: 8859: 8849: 8848: 8648:Modern synthesis 8408:Multicellularity 8403:Mosaic evolution 8288:auditory ossicle 7970:Social selection 7953:Flowering plants 7948:Sexual selection 7601: 7594: 7587: 7578: 7577: 7564: 7563: 7527:Reverse genetics 7502:Medical genetics 7217: 7210: 7203: 7194: 7193: 7178: 7177: 6879:African diaspora 6869:Eastern Africa‎‎ 6817:Recent evolution 6768:Human-chimp MRCA 6730: 6723: 6716: 6707: 6706: 6612:J. B. S. Haldane 6404: 6397: 6390: 6381: 6380: 6309: 6308: 6298: 6288: 6271:(3): 1082–1087. 6252: 6246: 6245: 6219: 6189: 6183: 6182: 6146: 6140: 6139: 6129: 6119: 6109: 6100:(10): e1000695. 6085: 6079: 6078: 6049: 6043: 6042: 6032: 6007:(4): 1827–1839. 5992: 5986: 5985: 5975: 5935: 5929: 5928: 5910: 5886: 5880: 5879: 5860:10.1038/4151022a 5835: 5829: 5828: 5802: 5793: 5787: 5786: 5776: 5767:(6): 1007–1015. 5752: 5746: 5745: 5735: 5725: 5699: 5690: 5684: 5683: 5673: 5663: 5639: 5633: 5632: 5592: 5583: 5582: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5545: 5528:(3): 1759–1798. 5513: 5507: 5506: 5496: 5478: 5454: 5448: 5447: 5437: 5427: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5386: 5369:(4): 1167–1183. 5354: 5348: 5347: 5319: 5313: 5312: 5302: 5285:(9): 7710–7721. 5270: 5264: 5263: 5207: 5201: 5200: 5172: 5166: 5165: 5155: 5137: 5105: 5099: 5098: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5026: 5020: 5019: 5001: 4992:(9): 2229–2243. 4977: 4971: 4970: 4960: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4903: 4877: 4853: 4847: 4846: 4802: 4793: 4792: 4768: 4762: 4761: 4721: 4715: 4714: 4704: 4678: 4654: 4648: 4647: 4639: 4633: 4632: 4622: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4561: 4555: 4554: 4536: 4530: 4529: 4519: 4487: 4481: 4480: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4443: 4437: 4436: 4426: 4391: 4382: 4381: 4371: 4347: 4341: 4340: 4334: 4326: 4316: 4306: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4257: 4225: 4219: 4218: 4208: 4173: 4167: 4166: 4160: 4152: 4142: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4093: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4007: 4001: 4000: 3990: 3980: 3948: 3942: 3941: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3916: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3859: 3853: 3852: 3842: 3824: 3792: 3786: 3785: 3745: 3739: 3738: 3728: 3696: 3690: 3689: 3653: 3647: 3646: 3636: 3604: 3598: 3597: 3587: 3577: 3545: 3539: 3538: 3510: 3504: 3503: 3493: 3476:(4): 1417–1420. 3461: 3455: 3454: 3447:Nature Education 3438: 3432: 3431: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3393: 3376:(4): 2335–2352. 3361: 3355: 3354: 3344: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3249: 3232:(3): 1003–1035. 3217: 3211: 3210: 3200: 3182: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3115: 3104: 3103: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3030: 3024: 3023: 3003: 2994: 2993: 2985: 2976: 2975: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2921: 2915: 2914: 2890: 2879: 2878: 2855:Bowler, Peter J. 2851: 2840: 2839: 2821: 2815: 2814: 2804: 2794: 2785:(12): e1002017. 2767: 2761: 2760: 2758: 2757: 2743: 2712:Sexual selection 2642:Muller's ratchet 2238:selective sweeps 2147:selective sweeps 2083:eukaryotic cells 1888:John H Gillespie 1855: 1853: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1838: 1837: 1833: 1832: 1830: 1829: 1828: 1812: 1776: 1775: 1702:Muller's ratchet 1680: 1678: 1677: 1672: 1605:. This leads to 1444: 1443: 1426:allele frequency 1387: 1386: 1334: 1333: 1318: 1316: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1187:sexual selection 1063:modern synthesis 1051:Modern synthesis 1041:Richard Lewontin 986:J. B. S. Haldane 961: 944: 843:J. B. S. Haldane 785: 778: 771: 646: 645: 636: 629: 622: 609: 604: 603: 596: 592: 591: 568:Level of support 361:Current research 346:Modern synthesis 341:Before synthesis 294:Extinction event 52:Darwin's finches 49: 30: 29: 21: 10298: 10297: 10293: 10292: 10291: 10289: 10288: 10287: 10263: 10262: 10261: 10249: 10241: 10239: 10234: 10176: 10162:Neoevolutionism 10069: 10053:Species complex 10018:Group selection 9956:Research topics 9951: 9927:Neuropsychology 9829: 9815:Substance abuse 9737:Sex differences 9731: 9645:Coolidge effect 9606: 9518:Neuroergonomics 9483: 9474: 9398: 9300: 9234:Folk psychology 9115: 9099: 8969: 8962: 8905: 8900: 8870: 8865: 8837: 8764:Group selection 8737: 8662: 8566: 8493: 8455:Tempo and modes 8449: 8304: 8208: 8025: 7984: 7860: 7853: 7830:Species complex 7643: 7634:History of life 7610: 7605: 7575: 7570: 7552: 7531: 7430: 7421:the Middle East 7387:Archaeogenetics 7381: 7325: 7264: 7226: 7221: 7191: 7186: 7166: 7146:Southeast Asia 7024: 7016: 6874:Southern Africa 6841: 6839:Genetic history 6833: 6739: 6734: 6704: 6699: 6686: 6621: 6595: 6557: 6541: 6539: 6532: 6499: 6430:Genetic linkage 6413: 6408: 6360:Yale University 6336:Yale University 6317: 6312: 6253: 6249: 6190: 6186: 6147: 6143: 6086: 6082: 6050: 6046: 5993: 5989: 5936: 5932: 5887: 5883: 5836: 5832: 5811:(10): 569–575. 5800: 5794: 5790: 5753: 5749: 5697: 5691: 5687: 5654:(4): e1002112. 5640: 5636: 5593: 5586: 5579: 5563: 5559: 5514: 5510: 5455: 5451: 5418:(6): e1002740. 5404: 5400: 5355: 5351: 5320: 5316: 5271: 5267: 5208: 5204: 5173: 5169: 5106: 5102: 5071: 5067: 5027: 5023: 4978: 4974: 4921: 4917: 4854: 4850: 4803: 4796: 4769: 4765: 4722: 4718: 4655: 4651: 4640: 4636: 4591: 4587: 4580: 4572:. p. 320. 4562: 4558: 4551: 4537: 4533: 4488: 4484: 4473: 4469: 4462: 4444: 4440: 4403:Current Biology 4399:"Genetic drift" 4392: 4385: 4348: 4344: 4328: 4327: 4275: 4271: 4234:Proc. R. Soc. B 4226: 4222: 4174: 4170: 4154: 4153: 4111: 4107: 4062:Current Biology 4054: 4050: 4008: 4004: 3949: 3945: 3934: 3930: 3885: 3881: 3874: 3860: 3856: 3793: 3789: 3746: 3742: 3711:(10): 985–996. 3697: 3693: 3670:10.1038/nrg1204 3658:Nat. Rev. Genet 3654: 3650: 3625:10.1038/nrg2593 3605: 3601: 3546: 3542: 3511: 3507: 3462: 3458: 3439: 3435: 3428: 3414:Gillespie, John 3411: 3407: 3362: 3358: 3313: 3309: 3267: 3263: 3218: 3214: 3159: 3155: 3116: 3107: 3100: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3064:. p. 402. 3049: 3045: 3031: 3027: 3004: 2997: 2986: 2979: 2972: 2955: 2951: 2944: 2922: 2918: 2911: 2891: 2882: 2875: 2852: 2843: 2836: 2822: 2818: 2768: 2764: 2755: 2753: 2745: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2702:Selective sweep 2687:Population size 2477: 2397: 2344: 2320:) = 2 2281:at frequencies 2266: 2230: 2196: 2191: 2099: 2047: 2033: 1969:range expansion 1930: 1904: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1790: 1786: 1771: 1767: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1739:random sampling 1733:is a change in 1728: 1722: 1691:mutation biases 1660: 1657: 1656: 1569: 1563: 1511: 1473: 1469: 1457: 1453: 1367: 1363: 1357: 1353: 1347: 1343: 1325: 1301: 1263: 1260: 1259: 1197:to survive and 1180: 1175: 1131: 1059: 1053: 1037:George R. Price 1013:animal breeding 972: 971: 970: 969: 968: 962: 953: 952: 951: 945: 902: 789: 733: 710: 705: 699: 697:DNA haplogroups 640: 599: 586: 585: 578: 577: 528: 520: 519: 390: 382: 381: 380: 308: 300: 299: 298: 247:Human evolution 237:History of life 221: 220:Natural history 213: 212: 211: 111: 103: 58: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10296: 10286: 10285: 10280: 10275: 10260: 10259: 10236: 10235: 10233: 10232: 10219: 10206: 10193: 10185: 10182: 10181: 10178: 10177: 10175: 10174: 10169: 10164: 10159: 10154: 10149: 10144: 10139: 10138: 10137: 10132: 10127: 10122: 10117: 10112: 10107: 10102: 10097: 10083: 10077: 10075: 10071: 10070: 10068: 10067: 10066: 10065: 10060: 10055: 10050: 10045: 10040: 10035: 10030: 10025: 10020: 10015: 10010: 10005: 10000: 9990: 9985: 9980: 9975: 9970: 9965: 9959: 9957: 9953: 9952: 9950: 9949: 9944: 9939: 9934: 9929: 9924: 9919: 9914: 9909: 9904: 9899: 9894: 9889: 9884: 9867: 9858: 9848: 9846: 9839: 9835: 9834: 9831: 9830: 9828: 9827: 9822: 9817: 9812: 9807: 9802: 9797: 9792: 9787: 9782: 9777: 9772: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9741: 9739: 9733: 9732: 9730: 9729: 9724: 9719: 9706: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9672: 9667: 9662: 9657: 9652: 9647: 9642: 9637: 9632: 9627: 9622: 9616: 9614: 9608: 9607: 9605: 9604: 9603: 9602: 9597: 9592: 9587: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9562: 9557: 9552: 9547: 9545:Mind-blindness 9542: 9537: 9532: 9527: 9522: 9521: 9520: 9515: 9510: 9505: 9500: 9489: 9487: 9476: 9475: 9473: 9472: 9467: 9462: 9457: 9452: 9447: 9442: 9437: 9432: 9419: 9414: 9408: 9406: 9400: 9399: 9397: 9396: 9391: 9390: 9389: 9379: 9378: 9377: 9367: 9366: 9365: 9360: 9355: 9345: 9340: 9339: 9338: 9328: 9327: 9326: 9321: 9310: 9308: 9302: 9301: 9299: 9298: 9297: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9276: 9271: 9266: 9257: 9256: 9255: 9250: 9240: 9238:theory of mind 9231: 9222: 9221: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9200: 9195: 9190: 9185: 9184: 9183: 9178: 9173: 9168: 9163: 9149: 9144: 9143: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9121: 9119: 9105: 9101: 9100: 9098: 9097: 9092: 9091: 9090: 9085: 9080: 9071: 9061: 9060: 9059: 9049: 9044: 9039: 9034: 9033: 9032: 9022: 9017: 9012: 9007: 9005:Baldwin effect 9002: 9001: 9000: 8995: 8990: 8980: 8974: 8972: 8964: 8963: 8961: 8960: 8955: 8954: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8923: 8922: 8921: 8910: 8907: 8906: 8899: 8898: 8891: 8884: 8876: 8867: 8866: 8864: 8863: 8853: 8842: 8839: 8838: 8836: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8814: 8813: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8783: 8782: 8781: 8776: 8771: 8761: 8756: 8751: 8745: 8743: 8739: 8738: 8736: 8735: 8730: 8729: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8717: 8716: 8706: 8701: 8696: 8691: 8686: 8676: 8670: 8668: 8664: 8663: 8661: 8660: 8655: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8630: 8625: 8620: 8615: 8614: 8613: 8604:Charles Darwin 8601: 8600: 8599: 8587: 8582: 8576: 8574: 8568: 8567: 8565: 8564: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8544: 8542:Non-ecological 8539: 8534: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8514: 8509: 8503: 8501: 8495: 8494: 8492: 8491: 8482: 8473: 8459: 8457: 8451: 8450: 8448: 8447: 8442: 8441: 8440: 8435: 8430: 8425: 8420: 8410: 8405: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8375: 8370: 8365: 8360: 8359: 8358: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8332: 8331: 8326: 8315: 8313: 8306: 8305: 8303: 8302: 8301: 8300: 8295: 8293:nervous system 8290: 8285: 8280: 8272: 8271: 8270: 8265: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8245: 8235: 8230: 8225: 8219: 8217: 8210: 8209: 8207: 8206: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8186: 8185: 8184: 8174: 8173: 8172: 8167: 8166: 8165: 8160: 8150: 8145: 8140: 8135: 8130: 8129: 8128: 8123: 8113: 8103: 8098: 8097: 8096: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8070: 8069: 8059: 8054: 8053: 8052: 8042: 8036: 8034: 8027: 8026: 8024: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7992: 7990: 7986: 7985: 7983: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7967: 7966: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7924: 7923: 7918: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7897: 7896: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7865: 7863: 7855: 7854: 7852: 7851: 7850: 7849: 7839: 7834: 7833: 7832: 7827: 7817: 7816: 7815: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7793:Origin of life 7790: 7785: 7780: 7778:Microevolution 7775: 7773:Macroevolution 7770: 7765: 7760: 7759: 7758: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7711:Common descent 7708: 7707: 7706: 7696: 7691: 7689:Baldwin effect 7686: 7685: 7684: 7679: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7653: 7651: 7645: 7644: 7642: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7615: 7612: 7611: 7604: 7603: 7596: 7589: 7581: 7572: 7571: 7569: 7568: 7557: 7554: 7553: 7551: 7550: 7545: 7539: 7537: 7533: 7532: 7530: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7517:Plant genetics 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7457:Genome editing 7454: 7449: 7444: 7438: 7436: 7435:Related topics 7432: 7431: 7429: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7392: 7390: 7383: 7382: 7380: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7357:Immunogenetics 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7333: 7331: 7327: 7326: 7324: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7272: 7270: 7269:Key components 7266: 7265: 7263: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7231: 7228: 7227: 7220: 7219: 7212: 7205: 7197: 7188: 7187: 7185: 7184: 7171: 7168: 7167: 7165: 7164: 7163: 7162: 7154: 7153: 7152: 7144: 7143: 7142: 7137: 7129: 7128: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7109: 7108: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7073: 7072: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7028: 7026: 7018: 7017: 7015: 7014: 7013: 7012: 7002: 7001: 7000: 6993:Southeast Asia 6990: 6989: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6968: 6967: 6966: 6956: 6955: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6919: 6918: 6917: 6907: 6906: 6905: 6895: 6894: 6893: 6883: 6882: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6864:Central Africa 6861: 6856: 6845: 6843: 6835: 6834: 6832: 6831: 6826: 6825: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6789: 6788: 6787: 6782: 6781: 6780: 6770: 6760: 6759: 6758: 6747: 6745: 6741: 6740: 6737:Human genetics 6733: 6732: 6725: 6718: 6710: 6701: 6700: 6698: 6697: 6691: 6688: 6687: 6685: 6684: 6679: 6677:Phylogeography 6674: 6669: 6667:Microevolution 6664: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6629: 6627: 6626:Related topics 6623: 6622: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6603: 6601: 6597: 6596: 6594: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6581:Founder effect 6578: 6573: 6567: 6565: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6555: 6550: 6544: 6542: 6537: 6534: 6533: 6531: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6509: 6507: 6501: 6500: 6498: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6460:Price equation 6457: 6452: 6450:Neutral theory 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6421: 6419: 6415: 6414: 6407: 6406: 6399: 6392: 6384: 6378: 6377: 6363: 6349: 6344: 6338: 6329: 6324: 6316: 6315:External links 6313: 6311: 6310: 6247: 6217:10.1.1.135.974 6184: 6141: 6080: 6061:(3): 732–759. 6044: 5987: 5950:(2): 945–959. 5930: 5901:(2): 255–265. 5881: 5830: 5788: 5747: 5685: 5634: 5607:(7): 422–433. 5584: 5578:978-0231033923 5577: 5557: 5508: 5469:(2): 467–481. 5449: 5398: 5349: 5314: 5265: 5202: 5183:(4): 530–533. 5167: 5100: 5065: 5038:(1): 283–328. 5021: 4972: 4935:(6): 1341–56. 4915: 4868:(2): 607–619. 4848: 4813:(3): 212–219. 4794: 4783:(4): 687–691. 4763: 4736:(3): 733–742. 4716: 4669:(4): 975–996. 4649: 4646:. CreateSpace. 4634: 4605:(2): 909–919. 4585: 4578: 4556: 4549: 4531: 4502:(4): 783–785. 4482: 4467: 4460: 4438: 4383: 4362:(5): 637–647. 4342: 4269: 4220: 4197:10.1086/510212 4168: 4105: 4068:(5): 452–454. 4048: 4027:10.1086/280465 4002: 3963:(1): 522–526. 3943: 3928: 3899:(8): 345–352. 3879: 3872: 3854: 3787: 3760:(9): 567–578. 3740: 3691: 3664:(11): 865–75. 3648: 3619:(8): 551–564. 3599: 3540: 3521:(6): 308–315. 3505: 3456: 3433: 3426: 3405: 3356: 3307: 3280:(7): 838–844. 3261: 3212: 3173:(3): 609–611. 3153: 3132:10.1086/677571 3126:(3): 225–252. 3105: 3098: 3077: 3070: 3043: 3025: 2995: 2977: 2970: 2949: 2942: 2916: 2909: 2880: 2873: 2841: 2834: 2816: 2762: 2751:www.nature.com 2737: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2729: 2724: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2689: 2684: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2559: 2557:Founder effect 2554: 2549: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2529: 2524: 2519: 2514: 2509: 2504: 2499: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2413:mutation rates 2396: 2393: 2342: 2308:) = 2293:) = 2265: 2262: 2229: 2226: 2199:Neutral theory 2195: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2098: 2095: 2043:Main article: 2032: 2029: 2010:migration load 1993:organisms and 1965:climate change 1926:Main article: 1903: 1900: 1896:autocorrelated 1884:sampling error 1857: 1856: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1799: 1796: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1724:Main article: 1721: 1718: 1670: 1667: 1664: 1565:Main article: 1562: 1559: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1503: 1501:Underdominance 1498: 1494: 1493: 1488: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1476: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1460: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1448: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1422: 1411: 1403: 1392: 1391: 1383: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1373: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1341: 1338: 1324: 1321: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1173:Four processes 1171: 1153:and recurrent 1130: 1127: 1121:such as human 1098:macroevolution 1094:microevolution 1055:Main article: 1052: 1049: 1033:W. D. Hamilton 963: 956: 955: 954: 946: 939: 938: 937: 936: 935: 901: 898: 791: 790: 788: 787: 780: 773: 765: 762: 761: 760: 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 734: 729: 724: 723: 722:Related topics 719: 718: 717: 716: 711: 695: 693: 688: 675: 667: 666: 662: 661: 655: 654: 642: 641: 639: 638: 631: 624: 616: 613: 612: 611: 610: 597: 580: 579: 576: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 548:Social effects 545: 540: 535: 529: 526: 525: 522: 521: 518: 517: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 397: 391: 388: 387: 384: 383: 379: 378: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 331: 326: 321: 316: 310: 309: 306: 305: 302: 301: 297: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 274:Classification 271: 266: 261: 256: 255: 254: 244: 239: 234: 232:Common descent 229: 227:Origin of life 223: 222: 219: 218: 215: 214: 210: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 113: 112: 109: 108: 105: 104: 102: 101: 96: 91: 85: 84: 79: 74: 69: 63: 60: 59: 50: 42: 41: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10295: 10284: 10281: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10270: 10268: 10258: 10253: 10248: 10247: 10244: 10231: 10230: 10224: 10220: 10218: 10217: 10211: 10207: 10205: 10204: 10194: 10192: 10191: 10187: 10186: 10183: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10165: 10163: 10160: 10158: 10157:Neo-Darwinism 10155: 10153: 10150: 10148: 10145: 10143: 10142:Functionalism 10140: 10136: 10133: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10100:Connectionism 10098: 10096: 10093: 10092: 10091: 10090:indeterminism 10087: 10084: 10082: 10079: 10078: 10076: 10072: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10054: 10051: 10049: 10046: 10044: 10041: 10039: 10036: 10034: 10031: 10029: 10026: 10024: 10021: 10019: 10016: 10014: 10011: 10009: 10006: 10004: 10001: 9999: 9996: 9995: 9994: 9991: 9989: 9986: 9984: 9981: 9979: 9976: 9974: 9971: 9969: 9966: 9964: 9961: 9960: 9958: 9954: 9948: 9945: 9943: 9940: 9938: 9935: 9933: 9930: 9928: 9925: 9923: 9920: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9879: 9875: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9862: 9859: 9857: 9853: 9850: 9849: 9847: 9843: 9840: 9836: 9826: 9823: 9821: 9818: 9816: 9813: 9811: 9810:Schizophrenia 9808: 9806: 9803: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9795:Mental health 9793: 9791: 9788: 9786: 9783: 9781: 9778: 9776: 9773: 9771: 9768: 9766: 9763: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9742: 9740: 9738: 9734: 9728: 9725: 9723: 9720: 9718: 9714: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9671: 9670:Mate guarding 9668: 9666: 9663: 9661: 9658: 9656: 9653: 9651: 9648: 9646: 9643: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9631: 9630:Age disparity 9628: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9618: 9617: 9615: 9613: 9609: 9601: 9598: 9596: 9593: 9591: 9588: 9586: 9583: 9582: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9561: 9560:Schizophrenia 9558: 9556: 9553: 9551: 9548: 9546: 9543: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9533: 9531: 9528: 9526: 9523: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9501: 9499: 9496: 9495: 9494: 9491: 9490: 9488: 9486: 9485:Mental health 9481: 9480:Human factors 9477: 9471: 9470:Socialization 9468: 9466: 9463: 9461: 9458: 9456: 9453: 9451: 9448: 9446: 9443: 9441: 9438: 9436: 9433: 9431: 9430:paternal bond 9427: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9409: 9407: 9405: 9401: 9395: 9392: 9388: 9385: 9384: 9383: 9380: 9376: 9373: 9372: 9371: 9368: 9364: 9361: 9359: 9356: 9354: 9351: 9350: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9341: 9337: 9334: 9333: 9332: 9329: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9316: 9315: 9312: 9311: 9309: 9307: 9303: 9295: 9294:Naïve physics 9292: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9281: 9280: 9277: 9275: 9272: 9270: 9267: 9265: 9261: 9260:Motor control 9258: 9254: 9251: 9249: 9246: 9245: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9235: 9232: 9230: 9226: 9223: 9219: 9218:Ophidiophobia 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9208:Arachnophobia 9206: 9205: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9189: 9186: 9182: 9179: 9177: 9174: 9172: 9169: 9167: 9164: 9162: 9159: 9158: 9157: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9135:Display rules 9133: 9131: 9128: 9127: 9126: 9123: 9122: 9120: 9118: 9113: 9109: 9106: 9102: 9096: 9093: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9066: 9065: 9062: 9058: 9055: 9054: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9037:Kin selection 9035: 9031: 9028: 9027: 9026: 9023: 9021: 9018: 9016: 9013: 9011: 9008: 9006: 9003: 8999: 8996: 8994: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8985: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8975: 8973: 8971: 8965: 8959: 8956: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8931:Adaptationism 8929: 8928: 8927: 8924: 8920: 8917: 8916: 8915: 8912: 8911: 8908: 8904: 8897: 8892: 8890: 8885: 8883: 8878: 8877: 8874: 8862: 8858: 8854: 8852: 8844: 8843: 8840: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8812: 8809: 8808: 8807: 8806:Phylogenetics 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8784: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8766: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8746: 8744: 8740: 8734: 8731: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8715: 8712: 8711: 8710: 8709:Structuralism 8707: 8705: 8702: 8700: 8697: 8695: 8692: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8684:Catastrophism 8682: 8681: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8672: 8671: 8669: 8665: 8659: 8656: 8654: 8651: 8649: 8646: 8644: 8643:Neo-Darwinism 8641: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8612: 8611: 8607: 8606: 8605: 8602: 8598: 8597: 8593: 8592: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8577: 8575: 8573: 8569: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8557:Reinforcement 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8513: 8510: 8508: 8505: 8504: 8502: 8500: 8496: 8490: 8489:Catastrophism 8486: 8483: 8481: 8480:Macromutation 8477: 8476:Micromutation 8474: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8461: 8460: 8458: 8456: 8452: 8446: 8443: 8439: 8436: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8415: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8383:Immune system 8381: 8379: 8376: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8357: 8354: 8353: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8321: 8320: 8317: 8316: 8314: 8312: 8307: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8275: 8273: 8269: 8266: 8264: 8261: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8244: 8243:symbiogenesis 8241: 8240: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8220: 8218: 8216: 8211: 8205: 8202: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8190: 8187: 8183: 8180: 8179: 8178: 8175: 8171: 8168: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8155: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8134: 8131: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8118: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8108: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8095: 8092: 8091: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8068: 8065: 8064: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8051: 8048: 8047: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8037: 8035: 8033: 8028: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7993: 7991: 7987: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7950: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7913: 7912: 7911:Kin selection 7909: 7907: 7906:Genetic drift 7904: 7902: 7899: 7895: 7892: 7891: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7866: 7864: 7862: 7856: 7848: 7845: 7844: 7843: 7840: 7838: 7835: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7822: 7821: 7818: 7814: 7811: 7810: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7757: 7754: 7753: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7705: 7702: 7701: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7674: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7654: 7652: 7650: 7646: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7616: 7613: 7609: 7602: 7597: 7595: 7590: 7588: 7583: 7582: 7579: 7567: 7559: 7558: 7555: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7540: 7538: 7534: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7439: 7437: 7433: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7384: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7334: 7332: 7328: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7273: 7271: 7267: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7232: 7229: 7225: 7218: 7213: 7211: 7206: 7204: 7199: 7198: 7195: 7183: 7182: 7173: 7172: 7169: 7161: 7158: 7157: 7155: 7151: 7148: 7147: 7145: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7132: 7130: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7112: 7110: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7032: 7030: 7029: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7011: 7008: 7007: 7006: 7003: 6999: 6996: 6995: 6994: 6991: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6973: 6972: 6969: 6965: 6962: 6961: 6960: 6957: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6937:British Isles 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6924: 6923: 6920: 6916: 6913: 6912: 6911: 6908: 6904: 6901: 6900: 6899: 6896: 6892: 6889: 6888: 6887: 6884: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6859:West Africa‎‎ 6857: 6855: 6852: 6851: 6850: 6847: 6846: 6844: 6840: 6836: 6830: 6827: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6794: 6793: 6790: 6786: 6783: 6779: 6776: 6775: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6765: 6764: 6761: 6757: 6754: 6753: 6752: 6749: 6748: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6731: 6726: 6724: 6719: 6717: 6712: 6711: 6708: 6696: 6693: 6692: 6689: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6630: 6628: 6624: 6618: 6617:Sewall Wright 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6604: 6602: 6598: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6564: 6563:Genetic drift 6560: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6545: 6543: 6535: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6510: 6508: 6506: 6502: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6422: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6405: 6400: 6398: 6393: 6391: 6386: 6385: 6382: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6364: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6306: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6251: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6196: 6188: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6145: 6137: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6094:PLOS Genetics 6091: 6084: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6048: 6040: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5991: 5983: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5885: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5834: 5826: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5799: 5792: 5784: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5751: 5743: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5696: 5689: 5681: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5638: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5591: 5589: 5580: 5574: 5570: 5569: 5561: 5553: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5512: 5504: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5412:PLOS Genetics 5409: 5402: 5394: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5353: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5318: 5310: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5269: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5206: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5171: 5163: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5104: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5081:(5): 476–82. 5080: 5076: 5069: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5025: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4976: 4968: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4919: 4911: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4852: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4801: 4799: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4767: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4720: 4712: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4653: 4645: 4638: 4630: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4589: 4581: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4560: 4552: 4546: 4542: 4535: 4527: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4486: 4478: 4471: 4463: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4442: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4390: 4388: 4379: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4346: 4338: 4332: 4324: 4320: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4273: 4265: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4224: 4216: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4172: 4164: 4158: 4150: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4125:(2): 937–48. 4124: 4120: 4116: 4109: 4101: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4021:(708): 5–19. 4020: 4016: 4012: 4006: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3939: 3932: 3924: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3883: 3875: 3873:9781932846126 3869: 3865: 3858: 3850: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3791: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3744: 3736: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3705:Cell Research 3702: 3695: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3652: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3603: 3595: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3544: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3501: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3460: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3437: 3429: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3409: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3352: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3311: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3265: 3257: 3253: 3248: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3216: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3157: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3101: 3099:9780674272262 3095: 3091: 3087: 3081: 3073: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3058: 3053: 3047: 3039: 3035: 3029: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3002: 3000: 2991: 2984: 2982: 2973: 2971:9780674272262 2967: 2963: 2959: 2953: 2945: 2943:9789024733422 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2920: 2912: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2897: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2876: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2861: 2856: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2837: 2831: 2827: 2820: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2766: 2752: 2748: 2742: 2738: 2728: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2668: 2665: 2663: 2660: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2638: 2637:Meiotic drive 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2622:Kin selection 2620: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2572:Genetic drift 2570: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2543: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2525: 2523: 2520: 2518: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2508: 2505: 2503: 2500: 2498: 2495: 2493: 2490: 2488: 2485: 2483: 2480: 2479: 2472: 2470: 2466: 2465:transcription 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2440: 2438: 2434: 2433:mutation rate 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2392: 2390: 2385: 2383: 2382:introgression 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2362:phylogenetics 2359: 2355: 2351: 2349: 2345: 2338: 2333: 2331: 2327: 2326:heterozygotes 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2261: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2241: 2239: 2235: 2225: 2223: 2222:r-strategists 2218: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2204: 2200: 2186: 2184: 2180: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2150: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2115:Recombination 2112: 2108: 2104: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2067: 2062: 2061: 2056: 2052: 2046: 2037: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1958: 1953: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1929: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1899: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1880: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1869:Sewall Wright 1866: 1861: 1860:Ronald Fisher 1843: 1839: 1834: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1797: 1794: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1780: 1777: 1772: 1768: 1760: 1759: 1758: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1731:Genetic drift 1727: 1726:Genetic drift 1720:Genetic drift 1717: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1686: 1684: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1641: 1639: 1633: 1630: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1593: 1592:mutation bias 1589: 1584: 1577: 1573: 1568: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1551:mutation load 1547: 1544: 1541:In fact, the 1539: 1537: 1532: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1502: 1499: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1491:overdominance 1489: 1486: 1485: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1465: 1462: 1461: 1449: 1446: 1445: 1442: 1440: 1428: 1427: 1423: 1421: 1417: 1416: 1412: 1409: 1408: 1404: 1401: 1400: 1396: 1395: 1393: 1388: 1380: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1370: 1359: 1349: 1339: 1336: 1335: 1332: 1329: 1320: 1306: 1302: 1295: 1292: 1286: 1283: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1240:genetic drift 1235: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1170: 1168: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1147:genetic drift 1144: 1140: 1136: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1119:polymorphisms 1116: 1112: 1107: 1105: 1104: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1058: 1048: 1046: 1043:and Japanese 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1009:Sewall Wright 1005: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 982: 977: 976:Ronald Fisher 966: 960: 950: 949:peppered moth 943: 934: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 910:biostatistics 907: 897: 895: 891: 890:genetic drift 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 858: 856: 852: 848: 847:Ronald Fisher 844: 840: 839:Sewall Wright 836: 832: 827: 825: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 786: 781: 779: 774: 772: 767: 766: 764: 763: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 732: 728: 727: 726: 725: 721: 720: 715: 712: 708: 703: 698: 694: 692: 689: 687: 683: 679: 676: 674: 671: 670: 669: 668: 664: 663: 660: 657: 656: 652: 648: 647: 637: 632: 630: 625: 623: 618: 617: 615: 614: 608: 598: 595: 590: 584: 583: 582: 581: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 530: 524: 523: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 481: 480:Phylogenetics 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 398: 396: 393: 392: 386: 385: 376: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 336: 332: 330: 327: 325: 324:Before Darwin 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 311: 304: 303: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 253: 250: 249: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 224: 217: 216: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 152:Genetic drift 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 114: 107: 106: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 86: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 68: 65: 64: 62: 61: 57: 53: 48: 44: 43: 40: 37: 36: 32: 31: 19: 10227: 10214: 10201: 10188: 9947:Sociobiology 9936: 9805:Neuroscience 9785:Intelligence 9331:Anthropology 9284:Color vision 9269:Multitasking 9248:Flynn effect 9243:Intelligence 9225:Folk biology 8968:Evolutionary 8818:Polymorphism 8801:Astrobiology 8749:Biogeography 8704:Saltationism 8694:Orthogenesis 8679:Alternatives 8608: 8594: 8527:Cospeciation 8522:Cladogenesis 8471:Saltationism 8428:Mating types 8351:Color vision 8336:Avian flight 8258:mitochondria 7996:Canalisation 7874:Biodiversity 7858: 7619:Introduction 7467:Genetic code 7401:the Americas 7377:Quantitative 7371: 7347:Cytogenetics 7342:Conservation 7235:Introduction 7179: 7077:Azerbaijanis 7021: 6959:Central Asia 6854:North Africa 6751:Human genome 6633:Biogeography 6607:R. A. Fisher 6485:Heritability 6418:Key concepts 6410: 6268: 6264: 6250: 6199: 6193: 6187: 6154: 6150: 6144: 6097: 6093: 6083: 6058: 6054: 6047: 6004: 6000: 5990: 5947: 5943: 5933: 5898: 5894: 5884: 5843: 5839: 5833: 5808: 5804: 5791: 5764: 5760: 5750: 5705: 5701: 5688: 5651: 5648:PLOS Biology 5647: 5637: 5604: 5600: 5567: 5560: 5525: 5521: 5511: 5466: 5462: 5452: 5415: 5411: 5401: 5366: 5362: 5352: 5330:(1): 74–84. 5327: 5323: 5317: 5282: 5278: 5268: 5219: 5215: 5205: 5180: 5176: 5170: 5117: 5113: 5103: 5078: 5074: 5068: 5035: 5031: 5024: 4989: 4985: 4975: 4932: 4928: 4918: 4865: 4861: 4851: 4810: 4806: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4766: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4719: 4666: 4662: 4652: 4643: 4637: 4602: 4598: 4588: 4565: 4559: 4540: 4534: 4499: 4495: 4485: 4476: 4470: 4447: 4441: 4406: 4402: 4359: 4355: 4345: 4331:cite journal 4286: 4282: 4272: 4237: 4233: 4223: 4191:(1): 38–46. 4188: 4184: 4171: 4157:cite journal 4122: 4118: 4108: 4065: 4061: 4051: 4018: 4014: 4005: 3960: 3956: 3946: 3937: 3931: 3896: 3892: 3882: 3863: 3857: 3804: 3800: 3790: 3757: 3753: 3743: 3708: 3704: 3694: 3661: 3657: 3651: 3616: 3612: 3602: 3557: 3553: 3543: 3518: 3514: 3508: 3473: 3469: 3459: 3450: 3446: 3436: 3417: 3408: 3373: 3369: 3359: 3324: 3320: 3310: 3277: 3273: 3264: 3229: 3225: 3215: 3170: 3166: 3156: 3123: 3119: 3089: 3080: 3056: 3046: 3037: 3028: 3011: 3007: 2989: 2961: 2952: 2925: 2919: 2895: 2859: 2825: 2819: 2782: 2779:PLOS Biology 2778: 2765: 2754:. Retrieved 2750: 2741: 2677:Polymorphism 2441: 2429:co-operation 2398: 2386: 2352: 2336: 2334: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2267: 2249:polymorphism 2242: 2231: 2219: 2208: 2197: 2189:Applications 2151: 2140: 2100: 2091:mitochondria 2087:chloroplasts 2064: 2058: 2048: 2014: 1999: 1981: 1962: 1931: 1892:Will Provine 1881: 1873:Motoo Kimura 1858: 1743: 1730: 1729: 1712:and Lynch's 1699: 1687: 1652: 1642: 1634: 1625: 1617: 1611: 1596: 1580: 1575: 1548: 1540: 1529: 1479:0<h<1 1436: 1424: 1413: 1405: 1397: 1326: 1255: 1243: 1236: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1181: 1163: 1132: 1108: 1101: 1082:T. H. Morgan 1076: 1071:orthogenesis 1060: 1045:Motoo Kimura 1025: 1006: 979: 973: 903: 859: 828: 795: 794: 672: 500:Sociobiology 485:Paleontology 333: 269:Biogeography 264:Biodiversity 182:Coextinction 172:Co-operation 147:Polymorphism 116: 72:Introduction 10086:Determinism 9998:Coevolution 9942:Primatology 9780:Gender role 9685:Orientation 9565:Screen time 9422:Affectional 9404:Development 9083:Mate choice 9010:By-products 8978:Adaptations 8941:Cognitivism 8828:Systematics 8699:Mutationism 8517:Catagenesis 8445:Snake venom 8378:Eusociality 8356:in primates 8346:Cooperation 8274:In animals 8094:butterflies 8067:Cephalopods 8057:Brachiopods 7989:Development 7963:Mate choice 7716:Convergence 7699:Coevolution 7657:Abiogenesis 7447:Epigenetics 7135:Han Chinese 7111:South Asia 6898:Middle East 6586:Coalescence 6255:Rajon, E.; 3086:Mayr, Ernst 3052:Mayr, Ernst 3034:Ford, E. 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