327:
The thermal motion of ions will result in a shift of emission lines up or down, depending on whether the ion is moving toward or away from the observer. The magnitude of the shift is proportional to the velocity along the line of sight. The net effect is a characteristic broadening of spectral lines,
596:
of the laser line. The electron density can be determined from the intensity of the scattered light, but a careful absolute calibration is required. Although
Thomson scattering is dominated by scattering from electrons, since the electrons interact with the ions, in some circumstances information on
502:
Photodetachment combines
Langmuir probe measurements with an incident laser beam. The incident laser beam is optimised, spatially, spectrally, and pulse energy, to detach an electron bound to a negative ion. Langmuir probe measurements are conducted to measure the electron density in two situations,
258:
Proton radiography uses a proton beam from a single source to interact with the magnetic field and/or the electric field in the plasma and the intensity profile of the beam is measured on a screen after the interaction. The magnetic and electric fields in the plasma deflect the beam's trajectory and
153:
Conventional
Langmuir probe theory assumes collisionless movement of charge carriers in the space charge sheath around the probe. Further it is assumed that the sheath boundary is well-defined and that beyond this boundary the plasma is completely undisturbed by the presence of the probe. This means
271:
of the boundary sheath are utilized for
Langmuir probe measurements but they are usually neglected for modelling of RF discharges due to their very inconvenient mathematical treatment. The Self Excited Electron Plasma Resonance Spectroscopy (SEERS) utilizes exactly these nonlinear effects and known
235:
Energy analyzers that use an electric field as the discriminator are also known as retarding field analyzers. It usually consists of a set of grids biased at different potentials to set up an electric field to repel particles lower than the desired amount of energy away from the detector. Analyzers
231:
An energy analyzer is a probe used to measure the energy distribution of the particles in a plasma. The charged particles are typically separated by their velocities from the electric and/or magnetic fields in the energy analyzer, and then discriminated by only allowing particles with the selected
457:
Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) is a spectroscopic technique employed for the investigation of plasma properties by observing the fluorescence emitted when the plasma is stimulated by laser radiation. This method allows for the measurement of plasma parameters such as ion flow, ion temperature,
409:
By shining through the plasma a laser with a wavelength, tuned to a certain transition of one of the species present in the plasma, the absorption profile of that transition could be obtained. This profile provides information not only for the plasma parameters, that could be obtained from the
431:
occurs. During charge exchange, electrons from the neutral beam atoms are transferred to the highly energetic plasma ions, leading to the formation of hydrogenic ions. These newly formed ions promptly emit line radiation, which is subsequently analyzed to obtain information about the plasma,
486:
atomic densities, such as those of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. However, achieving such precision necessitates appropriate calibration methods, which can be accomplished through titration or a more modern approach involving a comparison with a noble gases.
243:. Particles travel through a magnetic field in the probe and require a specific velocity in order to reach the detector. These were first developed in the 1960s, and are typically built to measure ions. (The size of the device is on the order the particle's
272:
resonance effects in RF discharges. The nonlinear elements, in particular the sheaths, provide harmonics in the discharge current and excite the plasma and the sheath at their series resonance characterized by the so-called geometric resonance frequency.
223:, the magnetic field is proportional to the currents that produce it, so the measured magnetic field gives information about the currents flowing in the plasma. Both currents and magnetic fields are important in understanding fundamental plasma physics.
685:
Everson, E. T.; Pribyl, P.; Constantin, C. G.; Zylstra, A.; Schaeffer, D.; Kugland, N. L.; Niemann, C. (2009). "Design, construction, and calibration of a three-axis, high-frequency magnetic probe (B-dot probe) as a diagnostic for exploding plasmas".
567:
of a beam passing through a plasma with a magnetic field in the direction of the beam. This effect can be used as a diagnostic of the magnetic field, although the information is mixed with the density profile and is usually an integral value only.
426:
In extremely high-temperature plasmas, such as those found in magnetic fusion experiments, light elements become fully ionized and do not emit line radiation. However, when a beam of neutral atoms is fired into the plasma, a process known as
74:
becomes identical to the plasma potential. This goal is attained by a ceramic shield, which screens off an adjustable part of the electron current from the probe collector due to the much smaller gyro–radius of the electrons. The
128:
and his co-workers in the 1920s, and has since been further developed in order to extend its applicability to more general conditions than those presumed by
Langmuir. Langmuir probe measurements are based on the estimation of
79:
is proportional to the difference of ball-pen probe(plasma potential) and
Langmuir probe (floating potential) potential. Thus, the electron temperature can be obtained directly with high temporal resolution without additional
275:
SEERS provides the spatially and reciprocally averaged electron plasma density and the effective electron collision rate. The electron collision rate reflects stochastic (pressure) heating and ohmic heating of the electrons.
141:
consisting of two metallic electrodes that are both immersed in the plasma under study. Two cases are of interest: (a) The surface areas of the two electrodes differ by several orders of magnitude. This is known as the
185:
If the magnetic field in the plasma is not stationary, either because the plasma as a whole is transient or because the fields are periodic (radio-frequency heating), the rate of change of the magnetic field with time
481:
is excited through the absorption of two photons, and subsequent fluorescence resulting from the radiative decay of the excited level is observed. TALIF is capable of providing precise measurements of absolute
830:
A. M. Ilyin (2003). "New class of electrostatic energy analyzers with a cylindrical face-field". Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A. 500 (1–3): 62–67. Bibcode:2003NIMPA.500...62I.
605:
Fusion plasmas using D-T fuel produce 3.5 MeV alpha particles and 14.1 MeV neutrons. By measuring the neutron flux, plasma properties such as ion temperature and fusion power can be determined.
418:
A beam of neutral atoms is fired into a plasma. Some atoms are excited by collisions within the plasma and emit radiation. This can be used to probe density fluctuations in a turbulent plasma.
737:
Pitts, R. A.; Chavan, R.; Davies, S. J.; Erents, S. K.; Kaveney, G.; Matthews, G. F.; Neill, G.; Vince, J. E.; Duran, I. (2003). "Retarding field energy analyzer for the JET plasma boundary".
352:
Irrespectively of the presence of macroscopic electric fields, any single atom is affected by microscopic electric fields due to the neighboring charged plasma particles. This results in the
634:
Adámek, J.; Stöckel, J.; Hron, M.; Ryszawy, J.; Tichý, M.; Schrittwieser, R.; Ionită, C.; Balan, P.; Martines, E. (2004). "A novel approach to direct measurement of the plasma potential".
494:
to distinguish the
Gaussian contribution of temperature broadening against the natural broadening of the two-photon excitation profile and the spectral broadening of the laser itself.
158:
caused by the difference between the potential of the probe and the plasma potential at the place where the probe is located is limited to the volume inside the probe sheath boundary.
315:
If the plasma (or one ionic component of the plasma) is flowing in the direction of the line of sight to the observer, emission lines will be seen at a different frequency due to the
1335:"Niemi, K., V. Schulz-Von Der Gathen, and H. F. Döbele. "Absolute calibration of atomic density measurements by laser-induced fluorescence spectroscopy with two-photon excitation"
177:
with regard to the boundary condition at the probe surface and requiring that, at large distances from the probe, the solution approaches that expected in an undisturbed plasma.
469:
in an argon plasma. Various LIF techniques have since been developed, including the one-photon LIF technique and the two-photon absorption laser-induced fluorescence (TALIF).
435:
One example of this is the Fast-Ion
Deuterium-Alpha (FIDA) method employed in tokamaks. In this technique, charge exchange occurs between the neutral beam atoms and the fast
378:
381:
is used, the temperature (and, to a lesser degree, density) of plasmas can often be inferred by taking ratios of the emission intensities of various atomic spectral lines.
213:
465:
are utilized to carry out these measurements. The pioneering application of LIF in plasma physics occurred in 1975 when researchers used it to measure the ion velocity
531:
The optical diagnostics above measure line radiation from atoms. Alternatively, the effects of free charges on electromagnetic radiation can be used as a diagnostic.
146:
method. (b) The surface areas are very small in comparison with the dimensions of the vessel containing the plasma and approximately equal to each other. This is the
401:
Active spectroscopic methods stimulate the plasma atoms in some way and observe the result (emission of radiation, absorption of the stimulating light or others).
490:
TALIF also offers insight into the temperature of species within the plasma, apart from atomic densities. However, this requires the use of lasers with a high
503:
one without the incident laser and one with the incident laser. The increase in the electron density with the incident laser gives the negative ion density.
259:
the deflection causes modulation in the intensity profile. From the intensity profile, one can measure the integrated magnetic field and/or electric field.
63:
303:
methods simply observe the radiation emitted by the plasma. They can be collected by diagnostics such as the filterscope, which is used in various
219:, whereby a changing magnetic field induces an electric field. The induced voltage can be measured and recorded with common instruments. Also, by
523:. With an appropriate choice of beam species and velocity and of geometry, this effect can be used to determine the magnetic field in the plasma.
393:. This leads to broadening or splitting of spectral lines. Analyzing these lines can, therefore, yield the magnetic field strength in the plasma.
515:
will act in opposite directions on the nucleus and the electrons, just as an electric field does. In the frame of reference of the atom, there
788:
Stenzel, R. L.; Williams, R.; Agüero, R.; Kitazaki, K.; Ling, A.; McDonald, T.; Spitzer, J. (1982). "Novel directional ion energy analyzer".
250:
The energy of neutral particles can also be measured by an energy analyzer, but they first have to be ionized by an electron impact ionizer.
1103:
994:
279:
The model for the plasma bulk is based on 2d-fluid model (zero and first order moments of
Boltzmann equation) and the full set of the
1207:
1056:
1039:
1004:
1026:. Springer Series on Atomic, Optical, and Plasma Physics. Vol. 56. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
70:
balances the electron saturation current to the same magnitude as that of the ion saturation current. In this case, its
1388:
1426:
1407:
1102:
Jansen van Vuuren, A.; Geiger, B.; Jacobsen, A. S.; Cavedon, M.; Dux, R.; Köhnlein, H.; ASDEX Upgrade Team (2019).
519:
an electric field, even if there is none in the laboratory frame. Consequently, certain lines will be split by the
466:
1450:
161:
The general theoretical description of a Langmuir probe measurement requires the simultaneous solution of the
614:
239:
In contrast, energy analyzers that employ the use of a magnetic field as a discriminator are very similar to
216:
1445:
124:, are the oldest and most often used procedures for low-temperature plasmas. The method was developed by
1380:
452:
1288:"Laser-induced resonance fluorescence as a diagnostic technique in non-thermal equilibrium plasmas"
477:
TALIF is a modification of the laser-induced fluorescence technique. In this approach, the upper
1287:
189:
19:
are a pool of methods, instruments, and experimental techniques used to measure properties of a
1334:
547:
condition. In a sufficiently thick and dense plasma, the intensity of the emission will follow
280:
130:
439:
ions present in the plasma. This method exploits the substantial Doppler shift exhibited by
410:
emission profile, but also for the line-integrated number density of the absorbing species.
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854:
797:
746:
695:
643:
564:
371:
365:
76:
931:"Doppler coherence imaging of divertor and SOL flows in ASDEX upgrade and Wendelstein 7-X"
8:
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540:
491:
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light emitted by the energetic atoms in order to determine the density of the fast ions.
174:
946:
858:
801:
750:
699:
647:
580:, the phase shift will be proportional to the plasma density integrated along the path.
215:, read "B-dot") can be measured locally with a loop or coil of wire. Such coils exploit
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1141:
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is applied for measurements of ion (or electron) flows from plasma boundaries and for
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with cylindrical or conical face-field can be more effective in such measurements.
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32:
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59:
20:
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In magnetized plasmas, electrons will gyrate around magnetic field lines and emit
999:. Cambridge Monographs on Plasma Physics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
890:
Colchin, R. J.; Hillis, D. L.; Maingi, R.; Klepper, C. C.; Brooks, N. H. (2003).
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Heidbrink, W. W.; Luo, Y.; Muscatello, C. M.; Zhu, Y.; Burrell, K. H. (2008).
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300:
1208:"Laser induced fluorescence in Ar and He plasmas with a tunable diode laser"
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The presence of a magnetic field splits the atomic energy levels due to the
374:
emitted by atoms in a plasma depends on the plasma temperature and density.
1192:
1088:
723:
520:
483:
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341:
81:
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because the discriminator intercepts the path of the gyrating particle.)
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for the magnetic field. The sheath model is based additionally on the
588:
Scattering of laser light from the electrons in a plasma is known as
462:
436:
1160:
891:
592:. The electron temperature can be determined very reliably from the
356:
of spectral lines that can be used to determine the plasma density.
472:
1161:"Fast-ion Dα measurements of the fast-ion distribution (invited)"
304:
134:
24:
31:), their spatial profiles and dynamics, which enable to derive
684:
787:
421:
1104:"An edge fast-ion D-alpha system installed at ASDEX Upgrade"
263:
Self Excited Electron Plasma Resonance Spectroscopy (SEERS)
889:
1054:
633:
458:
magnetic field strength, and plasma density. Typically,
736:
526:
66:
in the Institute of Plasma Physics AS CR in 2004. The
192:
1249:"Plasma Ion Diagnostics Using Resonant Fluorescence"
332:, from which the ion temperature can be determined.
1285:
344:can be used to determine the local electric field.
432:including ion density, temperature, and velocity.
207:
1416:
62:in magnetized plasmas. The probe was invented by
1437:
543:. The frequency of the emission is given by the
473:Two-photon absorption laser-induced fluorescence
340:The splitting of some emission lines due to the
58:is novel technique used to measure directly the
840:
551:, and only depend on the electron temperature.
534:
511:If an atom is moving in a magnetic field, the
843:"Ion Energy Analyzer for Plasma Measurements"
446:
413:
1246:
1397:
1205:
597:the ion temperature can also be extracted.
1374:
928:
422:Charge exchange recombination spectroscopy
404:
120:Measurements with electric probes, called
1286:Amorim, J; Baravian, G; Jolly, J (2000).
1223:
1158:
1127:
1057:"A new fast-ion Dα diagnostic for DIII-D"
954:
866:
180:
38:
1417:Zhukov, M.F.; Ovsyannikov, A.A. (2000).
841:Eubank, H. P.; Wilkerson, T. D. (1963).
506:
576:If a plasma is placed in one arm of an
359:
294:
1438:
600:
396:
1421:. Cambridge Int. Science Publishing.
1400:Langmuir Probe in Theory and Practice
1342:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
1332:
1292:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
1247:Stern, R. A.; Johnson, J. A. (1975).
1019:
992:
977:
583:
322:
253:
27:, distribution function over energy (
1206:Boivin, R. F.; Scime, E. E. (2003).
935:Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion
232:energy range to reach the detector.
1023:Introduction to Plasma Spectroscopy
980:Spectral line broadening by plasmas
554:
527:Optical effects from free electrons
347:
13:
1368:
831:doi:10.1016/S0168-9002(03)00334-6.
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226:
14:
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996:Principles of Plasma Spectroscopy
571:
109:
43:
1377:Principles of Plasma Diagnostics
1212:Review of Scientific Instruments
1165:Review of Scientific Instruments
1108:Review of Scientific Instruments
1061:Review of Scientific Instruments
929:Gradic, D.; et al. (2018).
896:Review of Scientific Instruments
847:Review of Scientific Instruments
790:Review of Scientific Instruments
739:Review of Scientific Instruments
688:Review of Scientific Instruments
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636:Czechoslovak Journal of Physics
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1:
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615:Laser schlieren deflectometry
23:, such as plasma components'
1020:Kunze, Hans-Joachim (2009).
7:
1350:10.1088/0022-3727/34/15/312
1265:10.1103/PhysRevLett.34.1548
982:. New York: Academic Press.
608:
535:Electron cyclotron emission
379:collisional radiative model
377:If a sufficiently complete
267:Nonlinear effects like the
10:
1467:
1381:Cambridge University Press
1304:10.1088/0022-3727/33/9/201
453:Laser-induced fluorescence
450:
447:Laser-induced fluorescence
414:Beam emission spectroscopy
363:
208:{\displaystyle {\dot {B}}}
113:
91:
47:
1375:Hutchinson, I.H. (2005).
1159:Heidbrink, W. W. (2010).
1129:21.11116/0000-0004-CCFD-A
1032:10.1007/978-3-642-02233-3
563:will rotate the plane of
283:equations leading to the
1402:. Universal Publishers.
956:10.1088/1361-6587/aac4d2
1253:Physical Review Letters
993:Griem, Hans R. (1997).
978:Griem, Hans R. (1974).
694:(11): 113505–113505–8.
405:Absorption spectroscopy
1398:Shun'ko, E.V. (2009).
209:
181:Magnetic (B-dot) probe
39:Invasive probe methods
1451:Measuring instruments
507:Motional Stark effect
467:distribution function
210:
165:, the collision-free
137:characteristics of a
1333:Niemi, Kari (2001).
366:Spectral line ratios
360:Spectral line ratios
295:Passive spectroscopy
190:
77:electron temperature
947:2018PPCF...60h4007G
859:1963RScI...34...12E
802:1982RScI...53.1027S
751:2003RScI...74.4644P
700:2009RScI...80k3505E
648:2004CzJPS..54C..95A
601:Neutron diagnostics
545:cyclotron resonance
541:cyclotron radiation
492:spectral resolution
397:Active spectroscopy
175:continuity equation
1446:Plasma diagnostics
1419:Plasma Diagnostics
656:10.1007/BF03166386
594:Doppler broadening
590:Thomson scattering
584:Thomson scattering
370:The brightness of
330:Doppler broadening
323:Doppler broadening
285:Helmholtz equation
269:I-V characteristic
254:Proton radiography
241:mass spectrometers
205:
167:Boltzmann equation
72:floating potential
17:Plasma diagnostics
1259:(25): 1548–1551.
1225:10.1063/1.1606095
1218:(10): 4352–4360.
1177:10.1063/1.3478739
1120:10.1063/1.5121588
1073:10.1063/1.2956828
1041:978-3-642-02232-6
1006:978-0-521-61941-7
908:10.1063/1.1537038
892:"The Filterscope"
868:10.1063/1.1718108
810:10.1063/1.1137103
759:10.1063/1.1619554
745:(11): 4644–4657.
708:10.1063/1.3246785
202:
104:mass spectrometry
98:The conventional
33:plasma parameters
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555:Faraday rotation
354:Stark broadening
348:Stark broadening
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126:Irving Langmuir
122:Langmuir probes
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1298:(9): R51–R65.
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1171:(10): 10D727.
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116:Langmuir probe
114:Main article:
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110:Langmuir probe
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68:ball-pen probe
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941:(8): 084007.
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479:energy level
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441:Balmer-alpha
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100:Faraday cup
94:Faraday cup
88:Faraday cup
64:Jiří Adámek
29:temperature
1440:Categories
621:References
463:dye lasers
281:Maxwellian
245:gyroradius
173:, and the
1358:250805163
1320:250866136
1312:0022-3727
1273:0031-9007
1234:0034-6748
1185:0034-6748
1146:209844219
1138:0034-6748
1081:0034-6748
965:125817653
916:0034-6748
877:0034-6748
818:0034-6748
767:0034-6748
716:0034-6748
664:0011-4626
437:deuterium
328:known as
307:devices.
200:˙
154:that the
1193:21033920
1089:19044502
775:31524396
724:19947729
672:54869196
609:See also
299:Passive
150:method.
943:Bibcode
855:Bibcode
798:Bibcode
747:Bibcode
696:Bibcode
644:Bibcode
460:tunable
305:tokamak
139:circuit
135:voltage
133:versus
131:current
25:density
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