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1634:. Broadly speaking, flowering plants can be classified as long day plants, short day plants, or day neutral plants, depending on their particular response to changes in day length. Long day plants require a certain minimum length of daylight to start flowering, so these plants flower in the spring or summer. Conversely, short day plants flower when the length of daylight falls below a certain critical level. Day neutral plants do not initiate flowering based on photoperiodism, though some may use temperature sensitivity (
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1913:. The traps consist of modified leaf blades which bear sensitive trigger hairs. When the hairs are touched by an insect or other animal, the leaf folds shut. This mechanism allows the plant to trap and digest small insects for additional nutrients. Although the trap is rapidly shut by changes in internal cell pressures, the leaf must grow slowly to reset for a second opportunity to trap insects.
1262:
1826:, are known for their "obvious sensory abilities". Nevertheless, the plant kingdom as a whole do not feel pain notwithstanding their abilities to respond to sunlight, gravity, wind, and any external stimuli such as insect bites, since they lack any nervous system. The primary reason for this is that, unlike the members of the
1410:
are signal molecules produced at specific locations, that occur in very low concentrations, and cause altered processes in target cells at other locations. Unlike animals, plants lack specific hormone-producing tissues or organs. Plant hormones are often not transported to other parts of the plant
2083:
Researchers discovered in the 1800s that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil are dissolved in water, plant
1969:
Because the biology of plants differs with animals, their symptoms and responses are quite different. In some cases, a plant can simply shed infected leaves or flowers to prevent the spread of disease, in a process called abscission. Most animals do not have this option as a means of controlling
1692:
Paradoxically, the subdiscipline of environmental physiology is on the one hand a recent field of study in plant ecology and on the other hand one of the oldest. Environmental physiology is the preferred name of the subdiscipline among plant physiologists, but it goes by a number of other names in
2053:
published what is considered the first quantitative experiment in plant physiology in 1648. He grew a willow tree for five years in a pot containing 200 pounds of oven-dry soil. The soil lost just two ounces of dry weight and van
Helmont concluded that plants get all their weight from water, not
1641:
Although a short day plant cannot flower during the long days of summer, it is not actually the period of light exposure that limits flowering. Rather, a short day plant requires a minimal length of uninterrupted darkness in each 24-hour period (a short daylength) before floral development can
375:
catch light in order to manufacture nutrients. For both of these organs to remain living, minerals that the roots acquire must be transported to the leaves, and the nutrients manufactured in the leaves must be transported to the roots. Plants have developed a number of ways to achieve this
2139:, fruit set. The production of food crops also hinges on the study of plant physiology covering such topics as optimal planting and harvesting times and post harvest storage of plant products for human consumption and the production of secondary products like drugs and cosmetics.
2142:
Crop physiology steps back and looks at a field of plants as a whole, rather than looking at each plant individually. Crop physiology looks at how plants respond to each other and how to maximize results like food production through determining things like optimal
2386:
Given that plants do not have pain receptors, nerves, or a brain, they do not feel pain as we members of the animal kingdom understand it. Uprooting a carrot or trimming a hedge is not a form of botanical torture, and you can bite into that apple without
1882:, the bending of the plant toward a source of light. Phototropism allows the plant to maximize light exposure in plants which require additional light for photosynthesis, or to minimize it in plants subjected to intense light and heat.
4659:
1253:, and are used commercially as food-coloring agents. Plant physiologists are uncertain of the function that betalains have in plants which possess them, but there is some preliminary evidence that they may have fungicidal properties.
1705:. The particular name applied to the subdiscipline is specific to the viewpoint and goals of research. Whatever name is applied, it deals with the ways in which plants respond to their environment and so overlaps with the field of
4548:
1584:) and to set circadian rhythms. It also regulates other responses including the germination of seeds, elongation of seedlings, the size, shape and number of leaves, the synthesis of chlorophyll, and the straightening of the
4635:
414:. Stress from water loss, changes in air chemistry, or crowding by other plants can lead to changes in the way a plant functions. These changes may be affected by genetic, chemical, and physical factors.
4556:
1886:
allows the roots of a plant to determine the direction of gravity and grow downwards. Tropisms generally result from an interaction between the environment and production of one or more plant hormones.
1878:
growth, in which the cells on one side of the plant elongates more than those on the other side, causing the part to bend toward the side with less growth. Among the common tropisms seen in plants is
329:
and foul-tasting or smelling chemicals. Other compounds defend plants against disease, permit survival during drought, and prepare plants for dormancy, while other compounds are used to attract
4564:
1223:. In these plants, the anthocyanin catches light that has passed through the leaf and reflects it back towards regions bearing chlorophyll, in order to maximize the use of available light
1217:
of flowers, where they may make up as much as 30% of the dry weight of the tissue. They are also responsible for the purple color seen on the underside of tropical shade plants such as
1970:
disease. Plant diseases organisms themselves also differ from those causing disease in animals because plants cannot usually spread infection through casual physical contact. Plant
2088:, the growing of plants in a water solution rather than soil, which has become a standard technique in biological research, teaching lab exercises, crop production and as a hobby.
1642:
begin. It has been determined experimentally that a short day plant (long night) does not flower if a flash of phytochrome activating light is used on the plant during the night.
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3724:
305:(plant chemistry) is included within the domain of plant physiology. To function and survive, plants produce a wide array of chemical compounds not found in other organisms.
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Despite this underlying similarity, plants produce a vast array of chemical compounds with unique properties which they use to cope with their environment.
1946:
in plants and the manner in which plants resist or cope with infection. Plant are susceptible to the same kinds of disease organisms as animals, including
4404:
4436:
1283:
Plants produce hormones and other growth regulators which act to signal a physiological response in their tissues. They also produce compounds such as
4364:
4332:
3862:
1442:. They regulate which tissues grow upwards and which grow downwards, leaf formation and stem growth, fruit development and ripening, as well as leaf
1406:, known as plant growth regulators (PGRs) or phytohormones, are chemicals that regulate a plant's growth. According to a standard animal definition,
344:, and which lead to major differences in the way that plant life behaves and responds differently from animal life. For example, plant cells have a
1487:
is important for photosynthesis in plants, few realize that plant sensitivity to light plays a role in the control of plant structural development (
4572:
1541:
light in the long wave "A" region. The UV-B receptor is one or more compounds not yet identified with certainty, though some evidence suggests
383:
Fourthly, plant physiologists study the ways that plants control or regulate internal functions. Like animals, plants produce chemicals called
242:
The field of plant physiology includes the study of all the internal activities of plants—those chemical and physical processes associated with
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4094:
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1767:
Environmental physiologists also examine plant response to biological factors. This includes not only negative interactions, such as
5153:
2049:
Bacon grew several terrestrial plants, including a rose, in water and concluded that soil was only needed to keep the plant upright.
363:, and organs within a plant. Different cells and tissues are physically and chemically specialized to perform different functions.
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3596:
391:
bloom at the appropriate time because of light-sensitive compounds that respond to the length of the night, a phenomenon known as
410:
Finally, plant physiology includes the study of plant response to environmental conditions and their variation, a field known as
1830:
whose evolutionary successes and failures are shaped by suffering, the evolution of plants are simply shaped by life and death.
1371:
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210:
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in a way that enables plants to manufacture their own nutrients rather than consuming other living things as animals do.
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in different sources of water. He found that plants grew much better in water with soil added than in distilled water.
1818:. Many plants are known to perceive and respond to mechanical stimuli at a cellular level, and some plants such as the
2084:
roots absorb nutrients readily, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. This observation is the basis for
1083:. It is the presence and relative abundance of chlorophyll that gives plants their green color. All land plants and
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that are sensitive to light and which serve to trigger growth or development in response to environmental signals.
661:(large) refers to the quantity needed, not the size of the nutrient particles themselves. Other nutrients, called
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as they occur in plants. This includes study at many levels of scale of size and time. At the smallest scale are
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317:, and other compounds to function. Because they cannot move, plants must also defend themselves chemically from
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665:, are required only in trace amounts for plants to remain healthy. Such micronutrients are usually absorbed as
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in plants). The scope of plant physiology as a discipline may be divided into several major areas of research.
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While plants, as living beings, can perceive and communicate physical stimuli and damage, they do not feel
387:
which are produced in one part of the plant to signal cells in another part of the plant to respond. Many
1537:
with a light-sensitive pigment. Cryptochrome is also known as the UV-A photoreceptor, because it absorbs
1430:
of cells and tissues. Hormones are vital to plant growth; affecting processes in plants from flowering to
1141:
by gathering wavelengths of light not readily absorbed by chlorophyll. The most familiar carotenoids are
5340:
4817:
4763:
3852:
3606:
404:
1645:
Plants make use of the phytochrome system to sense day length or photoperiod. This fact is utilized by
1229:
are red or yellow pigments. Like anthocyanins they are water-soluble, but unlike anthocyanins they are
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4877:
4679:
4309:
4080:
3586:
2615:
2225:
2055:
1249:), and never co-occur in plants with anthocyanins. Betalains are responsible for the deep red color of
336:
Secondly, plant physiology includes the study of biological and chemical processes of individual plant
17:
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4694:
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1213:, though not always in sufficient quantities to be noticeable. Anthocyanins are most visible in the
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spend billions of dollars each year researching plant compounds for potential medicinal benefits.
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Economically, one of the most important areas of research in environmental physiology is that of
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1979:
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380:, and the functioning of the various modes of transport is studied by plant physiologists.
89:
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8:
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is considered the Father of Plant
Physiology for the many experiments in the 1727 book,
1985:
One of the most important advances in the control of plant disease was the discovery of
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results from differential cell growth (e.g. epinasty and hiponasty), or from changes in
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length, which they take as signals to flower. This sensitivity to day length is termed
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1123:. All chlorophylls serve as the primary means plants use to intercept light to fuel
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670:
591:
are used by plants to absorb or detect light, and are extracted by humans for use in
403:
and loss of leaves in the winter are controlled in part by the production of the gas
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85:
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of water, minerals, and nutrients. At the largest scale are the processes of plant
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1986:
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109:
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unified the pieces of plant physiology and put them together as a discipline. His
1469:, though there are many other substances that serve to regulate plant physiology.
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The organic constituents of higher plants: their chemistry and interrelationships
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1623:
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604:
595:. Other plant products may be used for the manufacture of commercially important
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2502:
http://www.illustratedgarden.org/mobot/rarebooks/title.asp?relation=QK711H341727
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Kimler, L. M. (1975). "Betanin, the red beet pigment, as an antifungal agent".
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1998:
1994:
1939:
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1906:
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Environmental physiologists examine plant response to physical factors such as
1631:
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1450:
1238:
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1033:. Plant pigments include a variety of different kinds of molecules, including
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2860:
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published one of the first plant physiology experiments in 1627 in the book,
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is a short-day plant, requiring two months of long nights prior to blooming.
340:. Plant cells have a number of features that distinguish them from cells of
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2401:"Anesthetics and plants: no pain, no brain, and therefore no consciousness"
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2002:
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gardeners to control and even induce flowering out of season, such as the
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1860:, is called a tropism. A response to a nondirectional stimulus, such as
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1439:
1419:
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93:
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1898:
1883:
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1609:
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1504:
1443:
1331: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1038:
996:
961:
823:
569:
476: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
330:
170: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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others. The light that is absorbed may be used by the plant to power
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nutrients essential to plants. Uses within plants are generalized.
603:. Perhaps the most celebrated compounds from plants are those with
451:
348:
which maintains the shape of plant cells. Plant cells also contain
145:
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584:. Only the details of their individual molecular structures vary.
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267:
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97:
52:
Plant physiologists study fundamental processes of plants, such as
5184:
2648:
1137:. They function as accessory pigments in plants, helping to fuel
5246:
3002:
2997:
2914:
2904:
2131:, and other consumable parts of plants. Topics studied include:
1943:
1921:
1871:
1853:
1839:
1776:
1745:
1706:
1646:
1569:
1534:
1500:
1491:). The use of light to control structural development is called
1407:
1030:
1016:
797:
620:
612:
600:
588:
576:, etc.—are the same as for all other life forms: animals, fungi,
422:
368:
359:
Thirdly, plant physiology deals with interactions between cells,
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287:
113:
69:
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that absorbs red and blue wavelengths of light while reflecting
371:
function to anchor the plant and acquire minerals in the soil.
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2006:
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30:
2399:
Draguhn, Andreas; Mallatt, Jon M.; Robinson, David G. (2021).
2001:. Application of the mixture served to inhibit the growth of
1029:
Among the most important molecules for plant function are the
325:
and competition from other plants. They do this by producing
3679:
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1975:
1955:
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1811:
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1529:. The first two of these, phytochrome and cryptochrome, are
1484:
1454:
1276:
1214:
1210:
1080:
1066:
1054:
906:
653:, in large quantities to survive. Some nutrients are termed
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400:
353:
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101:
38:
2606:
Lincoln Taiz, Eduardo Zeiger, Ian Max Møller, Angus Murphy:
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2009:
1989:
in the nineteenth century. The mixture is the first known
1848:
Plants may respond both to directional and non-directional
1795:
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Enzymatic cofactor in the metabolism of nitrogen compounds
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893:
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control. Major subdisciplines of plant physiology include
243:
4660:
An
Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants
2452:. Cambridge, Massachusetts : MIT Press. p. 160.
3450:
3012:
2659:
1627:
1626:
use the pigment phytochrome to sense seasonal changes in
1565:
1065:, while the reflected wavelengths of light determine the
673:
acquire some of their micronutrients from captured prey.
666:
592:
2243:
1261:
1576:. Many flowering plants use it to regulate the time of
1186:
1153:(a yellow pigment found in fruits and vegetables), and
2398:
2613:
2123:, plant physiology is an important topic relating to
1411:
and production is not limited to specific locations.
943:
Involved in the synthesis of enzymes and chlorophyll
2154:
1693:
the applied sciences. It is roughly synonymous with
1560:
The most studied of the photoreceptors in plants is
1495:, and is dependent upon the presence of specialized
1901:), which may occur rapidly. A familiar example is
1553:, as its name suggests, is a chemical precursor of
1533:, complex molecular structures formed by joining a
792:Cofactor in protein synthesis, water balance, etc.
5215:
2514:
2316:Plant Growth and Development: A Molecular Approach
2297:Botanical Society of America, Abstracts of Papers
1852:. A response to a directional stimulus, such as
16:For the scientific journal of the same name, see
5327:
4636:Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage
4573:Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis
1833:
1418:that in small amounts promote and influence the
297:Five key areas of study within plant physiology.
108:. Plant physiology interacts with the fields of
2473:Kingsley Rowland Stern; Shelley Jansky (1991).
2318:. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 498–509.
2279:
1237:. This class of pigments is found only in the
1087:possess two forms of this pigment: chlorophyll
669:dissolved in water taken from the soil, though
1756:, as well as the cycling of nutrients such as
1157:(the red pigment responsible for the color of
5200:
4088:
3924:
2675:
411:
4549:Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale
3781:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
2080:was the plant physiology bible of its time.
930:Activity of some enzymes and photosystem II
901:Chlorophyll formation and nitrogen fixation
552:of which plants are constructed—principally
2512:
2368:
1664:
779:Cellulose, starch, other organic compounds
762:Cellulose, starch, other organic compounds
5207:
5193:
4095:
4081:
3931:
3917:
2682:
2668:
2588:Frank B. Salisbury; Cleon W. Ross (1992).
2364:
2362:
2360:
2307:
2255:Frank B. Salisbury; Cleon W. Ross (1992).
1783:, but also positive interactions, such as
1740:relations (which can be measured with the
1161:). Carotenoids have been shown to act as
1075:is the primary pigment in plants; it is a
352:, a chemical compound that interacts with
5154:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
4344:of Nicolaus of Damascus c. 1st century BC
2424:
1874:in plants are the result of differential
1510:Plants use four kinds of photoreceptors:
1391:Learn how and when to remove this message
1256:
972:Nitrogen fixation, reduction of nitrates
536:Learn how and when to remove this message
417:
230:Learn how and when to remove this message
4413:Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes
3725:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
2448:Adrian Charles Slack; Jane Gate (1980).
2091:
2030:
2005:that threatened to seriously damage the
1920:
1668:
1603:
1260:
1007:
995:
718:Nucleic acids, proteins, hormones, etc.
421:
292:
43:
2568:
2549:
2357:
630:
5328:
4557:Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation
2313:
2294:
1580:based on the length of day and night (
1449:The most important plant hormones are
1185:that appear red to blue, according to
5188:
4102:
4076:
3912:
2663:
2135:requirements, fruit drop, nutrition,
1802:do simply because of the lack of any
1472:
1193:of higher plants, providing color in
805:Membrane synthesis and stabilization
116:(interactions with the environment),
3938:
1549:as candidates. Protochlorophyllide
1329:adding citations to reliable sources
1300:
1233:-derived compounds synthesized from
888:Photosystem II and stomata function
474:adding citations to reliable sources
445:
333:or herbivores to spread ripe seeds.
168:adding citations to reliable sources
139:
5214:
2058:published experiments on growth of
1564:. It is sensitive to light in the
33:concerned with the functioning, or
13:
4612:Experiments on Plant Hybridization
4565:Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen
2543:
2096:
1958:, as well as physical invasion by
838:Nucleic acids, phospholipids, ATP
818:Element essential for chlorophyll
14:
5352:
4644:Variation and Evolution in Plants
3730:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
1682:is regulated by blue to UV light.
1599:
1290:
5167:
5166:
4268:
3978:
3893:
3892:
2647:
2635:
2623:
2608:Fundamentals of Plant Physiology
2477:. WCB/McGraw-Hill. p. 309.
2185:
2171:
2157:
2026:
1916:
1305:
1069:the pigment appears to the eye.
864:– necessary in small quantities
687:– necessary in large quantities
450:
144:
5099:History of evolutionary thought
5069:History of agricultural science
2506:
2491:
1736:. Of particular importance are
1316:needs additional citations for
1019:their dark purple pigmentation.
461:needs additional citations for
155:needs additional citations for
5124:History of molecular evolution
4992:Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper
4541:Die Metamorphose der Pflantzen
4290:Natural History Museum, London
2466:
2441:
2392:
2332:
2288:
2273:
1503:capable of absorbing specific
1279:causes abnormal growth (right)
1175:(literally "flower blue") are
1:
4381:Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus
4005:Physiological plant disorders
4000:Plant perception (physiology)
2554:. New York: Springer-Verlag.
2521:. Iowa State Press. pp.
2369:Petruzzello, Melissa (2016).
2236:
1834:Tropisms and nastic movements
1814:, and, by extension, lack of
1752:, exchange of gases with the
956:Enzymes for lignin synthesis
112:(structure of plants), plant
48:A germination rate experiment
5119:History of molecular biology
5054:History of plant systematics
4890:Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure
4596:Vergleichende Untersuchungen
4421:Prodromus Theatrici Botanici
3771:History of plant systematics
3358:Thorns, spines, and prickles
2284:. Cordus Press. p. 183.
1897:within plant tissues (e.g.,
1483:While most people know that
1145:(an orange pigment found in
7:
4818:Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
4533:Experiments Upon Vegetables
2571:Physiological plant ecology
2552:Plant physiological ecology
2150:
1905:(response to touch) in the
1133:are red, orange, or yellow
1103:, and other photosynthetic
1049:selectively absorb certain
1000:Space-filling model of the
991:
128:, genetics, biophysics and
10:
5357:
4878:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
4680:Alternation of generations
4461:De Sexu Plantarum Epistola
4368:of Albertus Magnus c. 1256
4310:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
3587:Alternation of generations
2689:
2573:(4th ed.). Springer.
2475:Introductory Plant Biology
2417:10.1007/s00709-020-01550-9
2314:Fosket, Donald E. (1994).
2226:Plant secondary metabolism
2100:
2019:
2015:
1931:
1837:
1685:
1615:
1476:
1294:
1022:
746:, other organic compounds
676:The following tables list
634:
439:
309:requires a large array of
18:Plant Physiology (journal)
15:
5299:
5245:
5222:
5162:
5059:Systems of plant taxonomy
5031:
4718:
4695:Phylogenetic nomenclature
4670:
4517:Systema Naturae, 10th ed.
4336:of Theophrastus c. 300 BC
4318:
4277:
4266:
4110:
4029:
4013:
3987:
3976:
3947:
3888:
3836:
3800:
3737:Cultivated plant taxonomy
3700:Biological classification
3690:
3563:
3479:
3375:
3325:
3050:
2980:
2923:
2885:
2859:
2795:
2715:
2697:
1978:or are carried by animal
5089:History of biotechnology
4920:Matthias Jakob Schleiden
4604:On the Origin of Species
4588:Die Vegetabilische Zelle
3597:Evolutionary development
2411:(2). Springer: 239–248.
2280:Trevor Robinson (1963).
1993:and is a combination of
1868:, is a nastic movement.
1665:Environmental physiology
854:Constituent of proteins
412:environmental physiology
5129:History of paleontology
5079:History of biochemistry
4824:Rudolf Jakob Camerarius
4620:Die Vegetation der Erde
4392:of Hieronymus Bock 1539
4352:of Dioscorides c. 60 AD
4295:Orto botanico di Padova
4185:Molecular phylogenetics
4052:Evolutionary physiology
3970:Physiology of dinosaurs
3248:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
2375:Encyclopedia Britannica
2051:Jan Baptist van Helmont
2036:Jan Baptist van Helmont
1165:and to promote healthy
429:being collected from a
135:
23:Subdiscipline of botany
5074:History of agriculture
4914:Joakim Frederik Schouw
4896:Alexander von Humboldt
4700:Spontaneous generation
4652:Ontogeny and Phylogeny
4429:Pinax theatri botanici
4037:Comparative physiology
3863:by author abbreviation
3787:Plant taxonomy systems
3705:Botanical nomenclature
2592:. Brooks/Cole Pub Co.
2497:Hales, Stephen. 1727.
2371:"Do Plants Feel Pain?"
2259:. Brooks/Cole Pub Co.
2039:
1929:
1683:
1613:
1531:photoreceptor proteins
1446:and even plant death.
1280:
1257:Signals and regulators
1020:
1005:
437:
418:Biochemistry of plants
298:
49:
29:is a subdiscipline of
5149:Philosophy of biology
4986:William Gilson Farlow
4884:Carl Ludwig Willdenow
4469:Éléments de botanique
4456:of John Ray 1686–1704
4373:Herbarum Vivae Icones
4300:Orto botanico di Pisa
3870:Botanical expeditions
2101:Further information:
2092:Economic applications
2034:
2020:Further information:
1924:
1672:
1659:Euphorbia pulcherrima
1607:
1499:, which are chemical
1264:
1119:possess chlorophyll
1011:
999:
635:Further information:
425:
296:
47:
5134:History of phycology
4962:Nathanael Pringsheim
4860:José Celestino Mutis
4740:Pedanius Dioscorides
4525:Familles des Plantes
4501:Philosophia Botanica
4397:De plantis libri XVI
4057:Molecular physiology
3602:Evolutionary history
3592:Double fertilization
3444:Cellular respiration
2569:Larcher, W. (2001).
2550:Lambers, H. (1998).
2513:Duane Isely (1994).
2078:Lehrbuch der Botanik
1744:) and the stress of
1679:Arabidopsis thaliana
1524:protochlorophyllide
1325:improve this article
1272:Arabidopsis thaliana
1220:Tradescantia zebrina
1189:. They occur in all
1107:contain chlorophyll
917:Crosslinking pectin
641:Plants require some
631:Constituent elements
470:improve this article
301:First, the study of
164:improve this article
90:environmental stress
5114:History of medicine
5104:History of genetics
5010:G. Ledyard Stebbins
4690:Center of diversity
4305:Rothamsted Research
4170:Genetic engineering
4140:Comparative anatomy
2821:Non-vascular plants
1974:tend to spread via
1522:photoreceptor, and
1414:Plant hormones are
1047:biological pigments
865:
688:
657:, where the prefix
376:transport, such as
5341:Branches of botany
5229:Differential cell
5144:Natural philosophy
5139:History of science
5109:History of geology
5094:History of ecology
5084:History of biology
5004:Barbara McClintock
4968:Wilhelm Hofmeister
4836:Bernard de Jussieu
4477:Vegetable Staticks
4453:Historia Plantarum
4405:Stirpium Historiae
4400:of Caesalpino 1583
4357:Naturalis Historia
4327:Historia Plantarum
4285:Jardin des Plantes
4200:Numerical taxonomy
3326:Surface structures
3121:Flower development
2499:Vegetable Staticks
2450:Carnivorous Plants
2231:Branches of botany
2193:Environment portal
2070:Vegetable Staticks
2040:
1930:
1798:as members of the
1684:
1614:
1493:photomorphogenesis
1479:Photomorphogenesis
1473:Photomorphogenesis
1340:"Plant physiology"
1281:
1063:chemical reactions
1025:Biological pigment
1021:
1006:
860:
683:
671:carnivorous plants
607:activity, such as
485:"Plant physiology"
438:
299:
278:(the study of the
179:"Plant physiology"
82:photomorphogenesis
50:
5323:
5322:
5303:(non-directional)
5182:
5181:
4812:Marcello Malpighi
4509:Species Plantarum
4445:Anatomy of Plants
4437:Anatome Plantarum
4349:De Materia Medica
4104:History of botany
4070:
4069:
4047:Electrophysiology
3965:Insect physiology
3906:
3905:
3545:Herbaceous plants
3371:
3370:
2532:978-0-8138-2498-7
2484:978-0-697-09948-8
2459:978-0-262-19186-9
2022:History of botany
1911:carnivorous plant
1401:
1400:
1393:
1375:
989:
988:
858:
857:
550:chemical elements
546:
545:
538:
520:
240:
239:
232:
214:
130:molecular biology
92:physiology, seed
86:circadian rhythms
5348:
5336:Plant physiology
5301:Nastic movements
5209:
5202:
5195:
5186:
5185:
5170:
5169:
5039:Botanical garden
5022:Arthur Cronquist
4980:Eugenius Warming
4974:Julius von Sachs
4944:August Grisebach
4932:George Engelmann
4842:Carolus Linnaeus
4782:Cristóbal Acosta
4776:Andrea Cesalpino
4493:Genera Plantarum
4365:De Vegetabilibus
4333:Causes of Plants
4272:
4255:Plant physiology
4245:Plant morphology
4097:
4090:
4083:
4074:
4073:
3995:Plant physiology
3982:
3960:Human physiology
3933:
3926:
3919:
3910:
3909:
3896:
3895:
3875:Individual trees
3550:Secondary growth
3521:Succulent plants
3509:Prostrate shrubs
3392:Apical dominance
3377:Plant physiology
3338:Epicuticular wax
2883:
2882:
2876:
2867:Plant morphology
2684:
2677:
2670:
2661:
2660:
2652:
2651:
2640:
2639:
2628:
2627:
2619:
2610:. Sinauer, 2018.
2603:
2590:Plant physiology
2584:
2565:
2537:
2536:
2520:
2510:
2504:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2428:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2383:
2381:
2366:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2351:
2342:. Archived from
2336:
2330:
2329:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2257:Plant physiology
2252:
2221:Plant morphology
2206:Hyperaccumulator
2195:
2190:
2189:
2181:
2176:
2175:
2174:
2167:
2162:
2161:
2145:planting density
2074:Julius von Sachs
1987:Bordeaux mixture
1891:Nastic movements
1697:, crop ecology,
1624:flowering plants
1574:visible spectrum
1396:
1389:
1385:
1382:
1376:
1374:
1333:
1309:
1301:
1091:and chlorophyll
866:
859:
689:
682:
541:
534:
530:
527:
521:
519:
478:
454:
446:
389:flowering plants
250:interactions of
235:
228:
224:
221:
215:
213:
172:
148:
140:
110:plant morphology
74:nastic movements
27:Plant physiology
5356:
5355:
5351:
5350:
5349:
5347:
5346:
5345:
5326:
5325:
5324:
5319:
5295:
5241:
5237:turgor pressure
5218:
5216:Plant movements
5213:
5183:
5178:
5158:
5027:
4998:Nikolai Vavilov
4926:Alexander Braun
4794:Joachim Jungius
4770:Rembert Dodoens
4758:Valerius Cordus
4752:Hieronymus Bock
4734:Pliny the Elder
4720:
4714:
4672:
4666:
4485:Systema Naturae
4314:
4273:
4264:
4250:Plant pathology
4195:Natural history
4150:Economic botany
4112:
4106:
4101:
4071:
4066:
4062:Neurophysiology
4025:
4021:Cell physiology
4009:
3983:
3974:
3955:Fish physiology
3943:
3937:
3907:
3902:
3884:
3853:Botanical terms
3846:
3832:
3796:
3742:Citrus taxonomy
3720:Author citation
3686:
3580:
3559:
3481:
3475:
3471:Turgor pressure
3379:
3367:
3321:
3136:Floral symmetry
3054:
3046:
2976:
2965:Vascular bundle
2960:Vascular tissue
2919:
2879:
2870:
2869:
2855:
2826:Vascular plants
2791:
2787:Plant pathology
2711:
2693:
2688:
2658:
2646:
2634:
2622:
2614:
2600:
2581:
2562:
2546:
2544:Further reading
2541:
2540:
2533:
2511:
2507:
2496:
2492:
2485:
2471:
2467:
2460:
2446:
2442:
2397:
2393:
2379:
2377:
2367:
2358:
2349:
2347:
2340:"plantphys.net"
2338:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2312:
2308:
2293:
2289:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2253:
2244:
2239:
2191:
2184:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2163:
2156:
2153:
2109:
2099:
2097:Food production
2094:
2054:soil. In 1699,
2047:Sylva Sylvarum.
2029:
2024:
2018:
1942:, the study of
1936:
1919:
1895:turgor pressure
1846:
1844:Nastic movement
1838:Main articles:
1836:
1690:
1667:
1620:
1602:
1481:
1475:
1428:differentiation
1397:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1334:
1332:
1322:
1310:
1299:
1293:
1259:
1135:tetraterpenoids
1027:
994:
969:
914:
851:
835:
831:
775:
759:
735:
731:
715:
711:
639:
637:Plant nutrition
633:
605:pharmacological
542:
531:
525:
522:
479:
477:
467:
455:
444:
420:
378:vascular tissue
282:of plants) and
236:
225:
219:
216:
173:
171:
161:
149:
138:
62:plant nutrition
24:
21:
12:
11:
5:
5354:
5344:
5343:
5338:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5317:
5312:
5306:
5304:
5297:
5296:
5294:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5252:
5250:
5243:
5242:
5240:
5239:
5233:
5226:
5224:
5220:
5219:
5212:
5211:
5204:
5197:
5189:
5180:
5179:
5177:
5176:
5163:
5160:
5159:
5157:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5051:
5049:Plant taxonomy
5046:
5041:
5035:
5033:
5029:
5028:
5026:
5025:
5019:
5013:
5007:
5001:
4995:
4989:
4983:
4977:
4971:
4965:
4959:
4953:
4947:
4941:
4935:
4929:
4923:
4917:
4911:
4908:Thomas Nuttall
4905:
4899:
4893:
4887:
4881:
4875:
4869:
4866:Félix de Azara
4863:
4857:
4854:Jan Ingenhousz
4851:
4848:Michel Adanson
4845:
4839:
4833:
4827:
4821:
4815:
4809:
4803:
4797:
4791:
4788:Gaspard Bauhin
4785:
4779:
4773:
4767:
4764:William Turner
4761:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4737:
4731:
4724:
4722:
4716:
4715:
4713:
4712:
4710:Ultrastructure
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4676:
4674:
4668:
4667:
4665:
4664:
4656:
4648:
4640:
4632:
4624:
4616:
4608:
4600:
4592:
4584:
4583:
4582:
4569:
4561:
4553:
4545:
4537:
4529:
4521:
4513:
4505:
4497:
4489:
4481:
4473:
4465:
4457:
4449:
4441:
4433:
4425:
4417:
4409:
4401:
4393:
4385:
4377:
4369:
4361:
4353:
4345:
4337:
4322:
4320:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4281:
4279:
4275:
4274:
4267:
4265:
4263:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4240:Plant genetics
4237:
4232:
4227:
4225:Phytogeography
4222:
4220:Phytochemistry
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4116:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4100:
4099:
4092:
4085:
4077:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4033:
4031:
4030:Related topics
4027:
4026:
4024:
4023:
4017:
4015:
4011:
4010:
4008:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3991:
3989:
3985:
3984:
3977:
3975:
3973:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3951:
3949:
3945:
3944:
3936:
3935:
3928:
3921:
3913:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3900:
3889:
3886:
3885:
3883:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3866:
3865:
3855:
3849:
3847:
3845:
3844:
3843:Related topics
3841:
3837:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3804:
3802:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3792:Taxonomic rank
3789:
3784:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3744:
3734:
3733:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3710:Botanical name
3702:
3696:
3694:
3692:Plant taxonomy
3688:
3687:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3682:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3668:Megasporangium
3665:
3664:
3663:
3656:Microsporangia
3648:
3647:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3610:
3609:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3573:
3567:
3561:
3560:
3558:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3541:
3540:
3539:
3538:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3511:
3501:
3496:
3494:Cushion plants
3485:
3483:
3477:
3476:
3474:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3441:
3431:
3429:Plant hormones
3426:
3421:
3420:
3419:
3412:Photosynthesis
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3383:
3381:
3373:
3372:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3329:
3327:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3250:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3224:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3193:
3192:
3191:
3190:
3185:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3145:
3144:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3131:Floral formula
3128:
3126:Floral diagram
3123:
3118:
3108:
3107:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3089:
3079:
3069:
3064:
3058:
3056:
3055:(incl. Flower)
3048:
3047:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3031:
3030:
3025:
3015:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2974:
2969:
2968:
2967:
2957:
2955:Storage organs
2952:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2935:
2929:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2891:
2889:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2841:Spermatophytes
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2811:Archaeplastida
2808:
2802:
2800:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2765:Phytogeography
2762:
2760:Phytochemistry
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2721:
2719:
2717:Subdisciplines
2713:
2712:
2710:
2709:
2704:
2698:
2695:
2694:
2687:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2664:
2657:
2656:
2644:
2632:
2612:
2611:
2604:
2598:
2585:
2579:
2566:
2560:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2531:
2505:
2490:
2483:
2465:
2458:
2440:
2391:
2356:
2331:
2324:
2306:
2287:
2272:
2265:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2211:Phytochemistry
2208:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2182:
2179:Ecology portal
2168:
2165:Biology portal
2152:
2149:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2028:
2025:
2017:
2014:
1995:copper sulfate
1940:phytopathology
1934:Phytopathology
1932:Main article:
1928:on crop leaves
1926:Powdery mildew
1918:
1915:
1907:Venus fly trap
1835:
1832:
1828:animal kingdom
1804:pain receptors
1800:animal kingdom
1686:Main article:
1666:
1663:
1632:photoperiodism
1618:Photoperiodism
1616:Main article:
1601:
1600:Photoperiodism
1598:
1582:photoperiodism
1572:region of the
1497:photoreceptors
1477:Main article:
1474:
1471:
1451:abscissic acid
1404:Plant hormones
1399:
1398:
1313:
1311:
1304:
1295:Main article:
1292:
1291:Plant hormones
1289:
1275:responding to
1258:
1255:
1239:Caryophyllales
1139:photosynthesis
1125:photosynthesis
1023:Main article:
993:
990:
987:
986:
983:
980:
974:
973:
970:
967:
964:
958:
957:
954:
951:
945:
944:
941:
938:
932:
931:
928:
925:
919:
918:
915:
912:
909:
903:
902:
899:
896:
890:
889:
886:
883:
877:
876:
873:
872:Form of uptake
870:
862:Micronutrients
856:
855:
852:
849:
846:
840:
839:
836:
833:
829:
826:
820:
819:
816:
813:
807:
806:
803:
800:
794:
793:
790:
787:
781:
780:
777:
773:
770:
764:
763:
760:
757:
754:
748:
747:
737:
733:
729:
726:
720:
719:
716:
713:
709:
706:
700:
699:
696:
695:Form of uptake
693:
685:Macronutrients
663:micronutrients
655:macronutrients
632:
629:
625:Drug companies
609:salicylic acid
544:
543:
458:
456:
449:
442:Phytochemistry
440:Main article:
419:
416:
407:by the plant.
393:photoperiodism
307:Photosynthesis
303:phytochemistry
286:(the study of
284:phytopathology
276:phytochemistry
252:photosynthesis
238:
237:
152:
150:
143:
137:
134:
118:phytochemistry
78:photoperiodism
54:photosynthesis
22:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5353:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5333:
5331:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5298:
5292:
5291:Thigmotropism
5289:
5287:
5286:Thermotropism
5284:
5282:
5281:Selenotropism
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5253:
5251:
5249:(directional)
5248:
5244:
5238:
5234:
5232:
5228:
5227:
5225:
5221:
5217:
5210:
5205:
5203:
5198:
5196:
5191:
5190:
5187:
5175:
5174:
5165:
5164:
5161:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5036:
5034:
5030:
5023:
5020:
5017:
5014:
5011:
5008:
5005:
5002:
4999:
4996:
4993:
4990:
4987:
4984:
4981:
4978:
4975:
4972:
4969:
4966:
4963:
4960:
4957:
4956:Gregor Mendel
4954:
4951:
4950:Joseph Hooker
4948:
4945:
4942:
4939:
4936:
4933:
4930:
4927:
4924:
4921:
4918:
4915:
4912:
4909:
4906:
4903:
4902:Aimé Bonpland
4900:
4897:
4894:
4891:
4888:
4885:
4882:
4879:
4876:
4873:
4870:
4867:
4864:
4861:
4858:
4855:
4852:
4849:
4846:
4843:
4840:
4837:
4834:
4831:
4830:Stephen Hales
4828:
4825:
4822:
4819:
4816:
4813:
4810:
4807:
4806:Nehemiah Grew
4804:
4801:
4798:
4795:
4792:
4789:
4786:
4783:
4780:
4777:
4774:
4771:
4768:
4765:
4762:
4759:
4756:
4753:
4750:
4747:
4746:Otto Brunfels
4744:
4741:
4738:
4735:
4732:
4730:c. 371–287 BC
4729:
4726:
4725:
4723:
4717:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4677:
4675:
4669:
4662:
4661:
4657:
4654:
4653:
4649:
4646:
4645:
4641:
4638:
4637:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4628:Plantesamfund
4625:
4622:
4621:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4609:
4606:
4605:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4593:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4578:
4577:
4575:
4574:
4570:
4567:
4566:
4562:
4559:
4558:
4554:
4551:
4550:
4546:
4543:
4542:
4538:
4535:
4534:
4530:
4527:
4526:
4522:
4519:
4518:
4514:
4511:
4510:
4506:
4503:
4502:
4498:
4495:
4494:
4490:
4487:
4486:
4482:
4479:
4478:
4474:
4471:
4470:
4466:
4463:
4462:
4458:
4455:
4454:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4442:
4439:
4438:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4426:
4423:
4422:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4410:
4407:
4406:
4402:
4399:
4398:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4378:
4375:
4374:
4370:
4367:
4366:
4362:
4359:
4358:
4354:
4351:
4350:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4338:
4335:
4334:
4329:
4328:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4317:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4276:
4271:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4235:Plant ecology
4233:
4231:
4230:Plant anatomy
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4109:
4105:
4098:
4093:
4091:
4086:
4084:
4079:
4078:
4075:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4042:Ecophysiology
4040:
4038:
4035:
4034:
4032:
4028:
4022:
4019:
4018:
4016:
4012:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3992:
3990:
3986:
3981:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3952:
3950:
3946:
3941:
3934:
3929:
3927:
3922:
3920:
3915:
3914:
3911:
3899:
3891:
3890:
3887:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3864:
3861:
3860:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3848:
3842:
3839:
3838:
3835:
3829:
3828:Phytochemical
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3805:
3803:
3799:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3749:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3738:
3735:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3681:
3678:
3674:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3666:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3649:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3608:
3605:
3604:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3582:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3562:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3537:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3466:Transpiration
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3330:
3328:
3324:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3278:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3253:Inflorescence
3251:
3249:
3246:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3146:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3109:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3084:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2985:
2983:
2979:
2973:
2970:
2966:
2963:
2962:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2938:Ground tissue
2936:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2884:
2881:
2874:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2861:Plant anatomy
2858:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2794:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2782:Plant ecology
2780:
2778:
2777:Plant anatomy
2775:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2725:Archaeobotany
2723:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2680:
2678:
2673:
2671:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2620:
2617:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2599:0-534-15162-0
2595:
2591:
2586:
2582:
2580:3-540-43516-6
2576:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2561:0-387-98326-0
2557:
2553:
2548:
2547:
2534:
2528:
2524:
2519:
2518:
2517:101 Botanists
2509:
2503:
2500:
2494:
2486:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2461:
2455:
2451:
2444:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2388:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2346:on 2006-05-12
2345:
2341:
2335:
2327:
2325:0-12-262430-0
2321:
2317:
2310:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2283:
2276:
2268:
2266:0-534-15162-0
2262:
2258:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2242:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2216:Plant anatomy
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2183:
2180:
2169:
2166:
2160:
2155:
2148:
2146:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2108:
2104:
2089:
2087:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2066:Stephen Hales
2063:
2061:
2057:
2056:John Woodward
2052:
2048:
2044:
2043:Francis Bacon
2037:
2033:
2027:Early history
2023:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1935:
1927:
1923:
1917:Plant disease
1914:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1845:
1841:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1820:venus flytrap
1817:
1816:consciousness
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1742:Pressure bomb
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1695:ecophysiology
1689:
1688:Ecophysiology
1681:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1637:
1636:vernalization
1633:
1629:
1625:
1619:
1611:
1606:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1527:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1489:morphogenesis
1486:
1480:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1434:development,
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1409:
1405:
1395:
1392:
1384:
1373:
1370:
1366:
1363:
1359:
1356:
1352:
1349:
1345:
1342: –
1341:
1337:
1336:Find sources:
1330:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1314:This section
1312:
1308:
1303:
1302:
1298:
1297:Plant hormone
1288:
1286:
1278:
1274:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1222:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1177:water-soluble
1174:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1026:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1003:
998:
984:
981:
979:
976:
975:
971:
965:
963:
960:
959:
955:
952:
950:
947:
946:
942:
939:
937:
934:
933:
929:
926:
924:
921:
920:
916:
910:
908:
905:
904:
900:
897:
895:
892:
891:
887:
884:
882:
879:
878:
874:
871:
868:
867:
863:
853:
847:
845:
842:
841:
837:
827:
825:
822:
821:
817:
814:
812:
809:
808:
804:
801:
799:
796:
795:
791:
788:
786:
783:
782:
778:
771:
769:
766:
765:
761:
755:
753:
750:
749:
745:
741:
738:
727:
725:
722:
721:
717:
707:
705:
702:
701:
697:
694:
691:
690:
686:
681:
679:
674:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
638:
628:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
585:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
540:
537:
529:
518:
515:
511:
508:
504:
501:
497:
494:
490:
487: –
486:
482:
481:Find sources:
475:
471:
465:
464:
459:This section
457:
453:
448:
447:
443:
435:
432:
428:
424:
415:
413:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
379:
374:
370:
366:
362:
357:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
295:
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
254:and internal
253:
249:
245:
234:
231:
223:
212:
209:
205:
202:
198:
195:
191:
188:
184:
181: –
180:
176:
175:Find sources:
169:
165:
159:
158:
153:This section
151:
147:
142:
141:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
106:transpiration
104:function and
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
66:plant hormone
63:
59:
55:
46:
42:
40:
36:
32:
28:
19:
5276:Phototropism
5271:Heliotropism
5266:Hydrotropism
5261:Gravitropism
5256:Chemotropism
5171:
4872:Joseph Banks
4728:Theophrastus
4671:Theories and
4658:
4651:
4642:
4634:
4626:
4618:
4610:
4602:
4594:
4586:
4580:Nepenthaceae
4571:
4563:
4555:
4547:
4539:
4531:
4523:
4516:
4507:
4499:
4491:
4483:
4475:
4467:
4459:
4452:
4443:
4435:
4427:
4419:
4411:
4403:
4395:
4389:Kreütterbuch
4387:
4379:
4371:
4363:
4356:
4347:
4340:
4331:
4326:
4319:Publications
4278:Institutions
4254:
4175:Horticulture
4125:Biogeography
3994:
3823:Horticulture
3813:Floriculture
3715:Correct name
3565:Reproduction
3555:Woody plants
3480:Plant growth
3439:Gas Exchange
3424:Phytomelanin
3376:
3302:Plant embryo
3052:Reproductive
2900:Phragmoplast
2607:
2589:
2570:
2551:
2516:
2508:
2498:
2493:
2474:
2468:
2449:
2443:
2408:
2404:
2394:
2385:
2378:. Retrieved
2374:
2348:. Retrieved
2344:the original
2334:
2315:
2309:
2300:
2296:
2290:
2281:
2275:
2256:
2201:Biomechanics
2141:
2132:
2121:food science
2113:horticulture
2110:
2107:Horticulture
2082:
2077:
2069:
2064:
2046:
2041:
2003:downy mildew
1984:
1968:
1937:
1889:
1880:phototropism
1870:
1847:
1824:touch-me-not
1793:
1766:
1724:radiation),
1711:
1699:horticulture
1691:
1677:
1674:Phototropism
1658:
1644:
1640:
1621:
1559:
1550:
1525:
1516:cryptochrome
1509:
1482:
1463:gibberellins
1448:
1413:
1402:
1387:
1381:January 2024
1378:
1368:
1361:
1354:
1347:
1335:
1323:Please help
1318:verification
1315:
1282:
1270:
1225:
1218:
1173:Anthocyanins
1171:
1163:antioxidants
1129:
1120:
1112:
1108:
1092:
1088:
1071:
1043:anthocyanins
1028:
1015:gives these
861:
684:
675:
658:
640:
586:
547:
532:
526:January 2024
523:
513:
506:
499:
492:
480:
468:Please help
463:verification
460:
409:
382:
358:
335:
300:
280:biochemistry
272:reproductive
241:
226:
220:January 2024
217:
207:
200:
193:
186:
174:
162:Please help
157:verification
154:
126:cell biology
124:of plants),
122:biochemistry
51:
26:
25:
5315:Thigmonasty
5235:Changes in
5016:Eugene Odum
4742:c. 40–90 AD
4719:Influential
4685:Cell theory
4260:Pteridology
4205:Paleobotany
4180:Lichenology
4155:Ethnobotany
4120:Agriculture
4113:disciplines
3639:Pollen tube
3634:Pollinators
3624:Pollination
3619:Germination
3434:Respiration
3417:Chlorophyll
3263:Pedicellate
3197:Gametophyte
3116:Aestivation
3067:Antheridium
3062:Archegonium
2910:Plasmodesma
2887:Plant cells
2750:Paleobotany
2745:Ethnobotany
2730:Astrobotany
2437:. 32880005.
2405:Protoplasma
2119:along with
2117:agriculture
2103:Agriculture
2086:hydroponics
1903:thigmonasty
1862:temperature
1789:pollination
1769:competition
1726:temperature
1722:ultraviolet
1716:(including
1638:) instead.
1596:seedlings.
1562:phytochrome
1555:chlorophyll
1539:ultraviolet
1512:phytochrome
1505:wavelengths
1440:germination
1424:development
1285:phytochrome
1269:that stops
1241:(including
1169:in humans.
1131:Carotenoids
1111:instead of
1105:heterokonts
1085:green algae
1073:Chlorophyll
1051:wavelengths
1039:carotenoids
1013:Anthocyanin
1002:chlorophyll
611:from which
434:rubber tree
350:chlorophyll
331:pollinators
264:seasonality
260:development
94:germination
68:functions,
58:respiration
5330:Categories
5310:Nyctinasty
4576:1824–1873
4341:De Plantis
4210:Palynology
4160:Floristics
4135:Cladistics
4111:Fields and
3940:Physiology
3661:Microspore
3651:Sporangium
3629:Artificial
3317:Sporophyte
3312:Sporophyll
3307:Receptacle
3202:Gynandrium
3072:Androecium
2981:Vegetative
2851:Angiosperm
2846:Gymnosperm
2740:Dendrology
2350:2007-09-22
2237:References
2129:vegetables
2012:industry.
1964:roundworms
1899:nyctinasty
1884:Geotropism
1781:parasitism
1754:atmosphere
1750:inundation
1655:poinsettia
1651:greenhouse
1610:poinsettia
1547:riboflavin
1507:of light.
1467:cytokinins
1444:abscission
1351:newspapers
1059:reflecting
1035:porphyrins
962:Molybdenum
824:Phosphorus
645:, such as
570:phosphorus
496:newspapers
319:herbivores
190:newspapers
35:physiology
5064:Herbalism
5024:1919–1992
5018:1913–2002
5012:1906–2000
5006:1902–1992
5000:1887–1943
4994:1856–1901
4988:1844–1919
4982:1841–1924
4976:1832–1897
4970:1824–1877
4964:1823–1894
4958:1822–1884
4952:1817–1911
4946:1814–1879
4940:1810–1888
4934:1809–1884
4928:1805–1877
4922:1804–1881
4916:1789–1852
4910:1786–1859
4904:1773–1858
4898:1769–1859
4892:1767–1845
4886:1765–1812
4880:1749–1832
4874:1743–1820
4868:1742–1821
4862:1732–1808
4856:1730–1799
4850:1727–1806
4844:1707–1778
4838:1699–1777
4832:1677–1761
4826:1665–1721
4820:1656–1708
4814:1628–1694
4808:1628–1711
4802:1623–1705
4796:1587–1657
4790:1560–1624
4784:1525–1594
4778:1519–1603
4772:1517–1585
4766:1515–1568
4760:1515–1544
4754:1498–1554
4748:1464–1534
4215:Phycology
3858:Botanists
3776:Herbarium
3673:Megaspore
3571:Evolution
3514:Subshrubs
3482:and habit
3407:Nutrition
3402:Cellulose
3397:Bulk flow
3380:Materials
3343:Epidermis
3207:Gynoecium
3188:Endosperm
3183:Dispersal
3099:Staminode
3035:Sessility
3023:Cataphyll
2943:Mesophyll
2895:Cell wall
2836:Lycophyte
2816:Bryophyte
2770:Geobotany
2755:Phycology
2380:8 January
2072:; though
2060:spearmint
1991:fungicide
1972:pathogens
1858:sun light
1785:mutualism
1773:herbivory
1714:radiation
1590:hypocotyl
1578:flowering
1416:chemicals
1227:Betalains
1180:flavonoid
1117:red algae
1077:porphyrin
1004:molecule.
923:Manganese
811:Magnesium
785:Potassium
740:Cellulose
643:nutrients
615:is made,
580:and even
346:cell wall
323:pathogens
256:diffusion
248:molecular
5247:Tropisms
5173:Category
4938:Asa Gray
4800:John Ray
4736:23–79 AD
4705:Taxonomy
4673:concepts
4360:77–79 AD
4190:Mycology
4165:Forestry
4145:Cytology
4130:Bryology
3898:Category
3818:Forestry
3808:Agronomy
3801:Practice
3752:Cultivar
3747:Cultigen
3607:timeline
3499:Rosettes
3387:Aleurone
3363:Trichome
3280:Perianth
3092:Filament
2950:Meristem
2873:glossary
2735:Bryology
2435:32880005
2151:See also
2137:ripening
2133:climatic
1952:bacteria
1944:diseases
1872:Tropisms
1866:humidity
1758:nitrogen
1703:agronomy
1647:florists
1592:hook of
1586:epicotyl
1543:carotene
1501:pigments
1459:ethylene
1436:dormancy
1408:hormones
1267:mutation
1247:amaranth
1235:tyrosine
1183:pigments
1167:eyesight
1159:tomatoes
1155:lycopene
1143:carotene
1031:pigments
992:Pigments
881:Chlorine
768:Hydrogen
704:Nitrogen
651:nitrogen
617:morphine
589:Pigments
578:bacteria
566:nitrogen
562:hydrogen
405:ethylene
397:ripening
385:hormones
369:rhizoids
311:pigments
268:dormancy
98:dormancy
70:tropisms
5032:Related
4721:figures
4528:1763–64
4520:1758–59
3948:Animals
3576:Ecology
3333:Cuticle
3163:Capsule
3153:Anatomy
3104:Tapetum
3028:Petiole
3003:Rhizome
2998:Rhizoid
2925:Tissues
2915:Vacuole
2905:Plastid
2707:Outline
2702:History
2654:Society
2630:Biology
2616:Portals
2523:216–219
2426:7907021
2016:History
1980:vectors
1960:insects
1948:viruses
1854:gravity
1850:stimuli
1840:Tropism
1810:, or a
1777:disease
1746:drought
1707:ecology
1570:far-red
1535:protein
1453:(ABA),
1365:scholar
1207:flowers
1191:tissues
1147:carrots
1101:diatoms
1045:. All
1017:pansies
869:Element
844:Sulphur
798:Calcium
692:Element
678:element
621:digoxin
613:aspirin
601:biofuel
582:viruses
510:scholar
395:. The
361:tissues
342:animals
315:enzymes
288:disease
204:scholar
114:ecology
102:stomata
5231:growth
5044:Herbal
3988:Plants
3880:Plants
3783:(IAPT)
3536:Lianas
3504:Shrubs
3456:Starch
3348:Nectar
3268:Raceme
3234:Stigma
3222:Locule
3212:Carpel
3173:Pyrena
3111:Flower
3087:Anther
3082:Stamen
3077:Pollen
2799:groups
2691:Botany
2642:Plants
2596:
2577:
2558:
2529:
2481:
2456:
2433:
2423:
2387:worry.
2322:
2263:
2125:fruits
2007:French
1976:spores
1954:, and
1808:nerves
1762:carbon
1732:, and
1465:, and
1455:auxins
1438:, and
1420:growth
1367:
1360:
1353:
1346:
1338:
1243:cactus
1231:indole
1215:petals
1211:fruits
1209:, and
1195:leaves
1151:lutein
1057:while
1041:, and
978:Nickel
949:Copper
898:Fe, Fe
875:Notes
752:Carbon
744:starch
724:Oxygen
698:Notes
659:macro-
647:carbon
619:, and
597:rubber
574:sulfur
558:oxygen
554:carbon
512:
505:
498:
491:
483:
431:tapped
373:Leaves
327:toxins
270:, and
206:
199:
192:
185:
177:
39:plants
31:botany
5223:Means
4014:Cells
3942:types
3840:Lists
3757:Group
3680:Spore
3614:Flora
3531:Vines
3526:Trees
3489:Habit
3461:Sugar
3353:Stoma
3295:Sepal
3290:Petal
3285:Tepal
3273:Umbel
3258:Bract
3239:Style
3227:Ovule
3217:Ovary
3158:Berry
3148:Fruit
3141:Whorl
3008:Shoot
2806:Algae
2797:Plant
1956:fungi
1812:brain
1738:water
1718:light
1622:Many
1594:dicot
1485:light
1372:JSTOR
1358:books
1277:auxin
1251:beets
1203:roots
1199:stems
1097:Kelps
1081:green
1067:color
1055:light
907:Boron
517:JSTOR
503:books
427:Latex
401:fruit
365:Roots
354:light
338:cells
211:JSTOR
197:books
37:, of
4663:1981
4655:1977
4647:1950
4639:1898
4631:1895
4623:1872
4615:1865
4607:1859
4599:1851
4591:1851
4568:1812
4560:1804
4552:1802
4544:1790
4536:1779
4512:1753
4504:1751
4496:1737
4488:1735
4480:1727
4472:1694
4464:1694
4448:1682
4440:1675
4432:1623
4424:1620
4416:1597
4408:1583
4384:1538
4376:1530
4330:and
3762:Grex
3644:Self
3178:Seed
3040:Stem
3018:Leaf
2993:Root
2988:Bulb
2972:Wood
2933:Cork
2831:Fern
2594:ISBN
2575:ISBN
2556:ISBN
2527:ISBN
2479:ISBN
2454:ISBN
2431:PMID
2382:2023
2320:ISBN
2261:ISBN
2115:and
2105:and
2010:wine
1999:lime
1997:and
1962:and
1909:, a
1876:cell
1842:and
1796:pain
1787:and
1779:and
1760:and
1734:wind
1730:fire
1720:and
1701:and
1649:and
1608:The
1568:and
1520:UV-B
1518:, a
1432:seed
1426:and
1344:news
1245:and
936:Zinc
894:Iron
712:, NH
667:ions
649:and
593:dyes
548:The
489:news
367:and
244:life
183:news
136:Aims
100:and
3451:Sap
3168:Nut
3013:Bud
2421:PMC
2413:doi
2409:258
2111:In
1864:or
1856:or
1822:or
1748:or
1676:in
1661:).
1628:day
1588:or
1566:red
1545:or
1327:by
1149:),
1115:,
1095:.
1053:of
966:MoO
911:HBO
623:.
599:or
472:by
399:of
166:by
41:.
5332::
2525:.
2429:.
2419:.
2407:.
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