1972:. Among the tested orthographies, Chinese and French orthographies, followed by English and Russian, are the most opaque regarding writing (i.e. phonemes to graphemes direction) and English, followed by Dutch, is the most opaque regarding reading (i.e. graphemes to phonemes direction); Esperanto, Arabic, Finnish, Korean, Serbo-Croatian and Turkish are very shallow both to read and to write; Italian is shallow to read and very shallow to write, Breton, German, Portuguese and Spanish are shallow to read and to write.
2007:
spelling, so that it has to be said that the phonemes represent the graphemes rather than vice versa. And in much technical jargon, the primary medium of communication is the written language rather than the spoken language, so the phonemes represent the graphemes, and it is unimportant how the word is pronounced. Moreover, the sounds which literate people perceive being heard in a word are significantly influenced by the actual spelling of the word.
1263:
66:
168:
25:
350:) between the graphemes (letters) and the phonemes of the language, and each phoneme would invariably be represented by its corresponding grapheme. So the spelling of a word would unambiguously and transparently indicate its pronunciation, and conversely, a speaker knowing the pronunciation of a word would be able to infer its spelling without any doubt. That ideal situation is rare but exists in a few languages.
1850:, may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. The phoneme-to-letter correspondence, on the other hand, is often low and a sequence of sounds may have multiple ways of being spelt, often with different meanings.
1919:
spellings were acceptable for the same word) happened arbitrarily over a period without any central plan. However even
English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and several of these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate.
366:(but a more complex one) for predicting the spelling from the pronunciation and vice versa. In the second case, true irregularity is introduced, as certain words come to be spelled and pronounced according to different rules from others, and prediction of spelling from pronunciation and vice versa is no longer possible.
2044:(IPA) aim to describe pronunciation in a standard form. They are often used to solve ambiguities in the spelling of written language. They may also be used to write languages with no previous written form. Systems like IPA can be used for phonemic representation or for showing more detailed phonetic information (see
2091:, the sounds humans are capable of producing, many of which will often be grouped together as a single phoneme in any given natural language, though the groupings vary across languages. English, for example, does not distinguish between aspirated and unaspirated consonants, but other languages, like
2006:
In some
English personal names and place names, the relationship between the spelling of the name and its pronunciation is so distant that associations between phonemes and graphemes cannot be readily identified. Moreover, in many other words, the pronunciation has subsequently evolved from a fixed
1831:
do not make any distinctions in vowel length. Thus the letters like ই ('i') and ঈ ('i:') as well as উ ('u') and ঊ ('u:') have the same pronunciations as 'i' and 'u' respectively. This leads to the existence of many homophones (words with same pronunciations but different spellings and meanings) in
1918:
occurred after the orthography was established; partly because
English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels; and partly because the regularisation of the spelling (moving away from the situation in which many different
2083:
is really a group of sounds, all pronounced slightly differently depending on where they occur in a word. A perfect phonemic orthography has one letter per group of sounds (phoneme), with different letters only where the sounds distinguish words (so "bed" is spelled differently from "bet").
400:
in German), that retains predictability only if the multigraph cannot be broken down into smaller units. Some languages use diacritics to distinguish between a digraph and a sequence of individual letters, and others require knowledge of the language to distinguish them; compare
788:(minimum meaningful unit of language) are often spelt identically or similarly in spite of differences in their pronunciation. That is often for historical reasons; the morphophonemic spelling reflects a previous pronunciation from before historical
1013:
with regard to voicing and pronounced in various ways, such as both in neutral style or both in emphatic pronunciation. On the other hand, Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and
Montenegrin) spelling reflects assimilation so one writes
1822:
does not have retroflex consonants and so, the characters for retroflex consonants ( like ট ('t') and ড ('d') ) that it has inherited in its script from the ancient Brahmi script are also pronounced like their dental versions. Moreover, in both
1164:
is one that is not capable of representing all the phonemes or phonemic distinctions in a language. An example of such a deficiency in
English orthography is the lack of distinction between the voiced and voiceless "th" phonemes
1119:
has changed over the centuries from a highly phonemic to a largely morphophonemic orthography. Japanese kana are almost completely phonemic but have a few morphophonemic aspects, notably in the use of ぢ
1888:
Similarly to French, it is much easier to infer the pronunciation of a German word from its spelling than vice versa. For example, for speakers who merge /eː/ and /ɛː/, the phoneme /eː/ may be spelt
2055:
will usually be represented by the same grapheme, a purely phonetic script would demand that phonetically distinct allophones be distinguished. To take an example from
American English: the
1152:
is also mostly morphophonemic, because it does not reflect vowel reduction, consonant assimilation and final-obstruent devoicing. Also, some consonant combinations have silent consonants.
358:
There are two distinct types of deviation from the phonemic ideal. In the first case, the exact one-to-one correspondence may be lost (for example, some phoneme may be represented by a
2059:
sound in the words "table" and "cat" would, in a phonemic orthography, be written with the same character; however, a strictly phonetic script would make a distinction between the
2014:
to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when
1359:
Languages whose current orthographies have a high grapheme-to-phoneme and phoneme-to-grapheme correspondence (excluding exceptions due to loan words and assimilation) include:
334:, in which the depth of an orthography is the degree to which it diverges from being truly phonemic. The concept can also be applied to nonalphabetic writing systems like
481:
in these examples) and so does not have single letters available for all the phonemes used in the current language (although some orthographies use devices such as
760:, however, reflect such changes). A language may also use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items such as the Japanese
311:. Natural languages rarely have perfectly phonemic orthographies; a high degree of grapheme–phoneme correspondence can be expected in orthographies based on
550:
are both pronounced as the phoneme /u/). That is often for historical reasons (the Polish letters originally stood for different phonemes, which later
268:
1961:. There is also no indication of pitch accent, which results in homography of words like 箸 and 橋 (はし in hiragana), which are distinguished in speech.
1869:
representing the same sound, but consonant and vowel length are not always accurate and various spellings reflect etymology, not pronunciation),
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The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet. A standard for this is the
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phonologically). That affects the predictability of spelling from pronunciation but not necessarily vice versa. Another example is found in
2235:
1681:(apart from letters representing multiple sounds depending on front or back vowels, the soft and hard sign, silent letters to indicate
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that occurs in many languages (such as German, Polish and
Russian) is not normally reflected in the spelling. For example, in German,
1885:, are sometimes considered to be of intermediate depth (for example they include many morphophonemic features, as described above).
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that caused the variation in pronunciation of a given morpheme. Such spellings can assist in the recognition of words when reading.
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130:
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structure rather than the purely phonemic (see next section) although it is often also a reflection of historical pronunciation.
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568:/. Moreover, consonant clusters , 'স্ব', 'স্য' , 'শ্ব ', 'শ্ম', 'শ্য', 'ষ্ম ', 'ষ্য', also often have the same pronunciation, /
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at places. Moreover, due to sound mergers, the same phonemes are often represented by different graphemes. On the other hand,
1280:
83:
38:
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1988:. In order to maintain a phonemic orthography such a system would need periodic updating, as has been attempted by various
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Sometimes, the rules of correspondence are more complex and depend on adjacent letters, often as a result of historical
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116:
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1814:, despite having a slightly shallow orthography, has a deeper orthography than its Indo-Aryan cousins as it features
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represent the same phoneme in all varieties of
Spanish (except in Valencia), while in the Spanish of the Americas,
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Conversely, a letter or group of letters can correspond to different phonemes in different contexts. For example,
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2003:. This is most common with loanwords, but occasionally occurs in the case of established native words too.
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Spelling may otherwise represent a historical pronunciation; orthography does not necessarily keep up with
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In less formally precise terms, a language with a highly phonemic orthography may be described as having
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syllabaries (and the different treatment in
English orthography of words derived from Latin and Greek).
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1804:, where the implicit default vowel is suppressed without being explicitly marked as such. Others, like
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often adhere to or are influenced by the orthography of the source language (as with the
English words
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is often not reflected in spelling even in otherwise phonemic orthographies such as Spanish, in which
461:: this is a slightly different case where the same digraph is used for two different single phonemes.
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Phonemic orthographies are different from phonetic transcription; whereas in a phonemic orthography,
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This is often due to the use of an alphabet that was originally used for a different language (the
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rather than purely phonemic. This means that the spelling reflects to some extent the underlying
307:(the smallest units of speech that can differentiate words), or more generally to the language's
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1953:) are examples of almost perfectly shallow orthography – exceptions include the use of ぢ and づ (
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of their sounds, they no longer represent the word's phonemic structure or its pronunciation.
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Sometimes, conversely, a single letter may represent a sequence of more than one phoneme (as
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2191:"OTEANN: Estimating the Transparency of Orthographies with an Artificial Neural Network"
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is highly non-phonemic. The irregularity of English spelling arises partly because the
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In an ideal phonemic orthography, there would be a complete one-to-one correspondence (
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Sometimes the pronunciation of a word changes to match its spelling; this is called a
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in which pronunciation is affected by adjacent sounds in neighboring words (written
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structure of the words, not only their pronunciation. Hence different forms of a
558:, whose phoneme /i/ can be written in six different ways: ι, η, υ, ει, οι and υι.
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instead of a single letter), but the "regularity" is retained: there is still an
2195:
Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Computational Typology and Multilingual NLP
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orthography, however, is more strictly phonemic: for example, the imperative of
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2019:
1957:) and the use of は, を, and へ to represent the sounds わ, お, and え, as relics of
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1401:(apart from palatalization or long and "over-long" phoneme length distinction)
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1057:, thus corresponding to other morphologically related forms such as the verb
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Some examples of morphophonemic features in orthography are described below.
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respectively). With some loanwords, though, regularity is retained either by
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Orthography in which the graphemes correspond to the phonemes of the language
1808:, do not have a high grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence for vowel lengths.
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Many otherwise phonemic orthographies are slightly defective, see the page
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In Bengali, the letters, 'শ', 'ষ', and ' স, correspond to the same sound /
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Sometimes, different letters correspond to the same phoneme (for instance
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and morphology rather than their present-day pronunciation. For example,
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writing systems, but they differ in how complete this correspondence is.
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Most orthographies do not reflect the changes in pronunciation known as
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Pronunciation and spelling do not always correspond in a predictable way
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879:
2238:. Standardised Spelling. The English Spelling Society. Archived from
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1938:
1927:
1665:(phonemic for vowels but mostly morphophonemic for consonants except
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2079:). In other words, the sound that most English speakers think of as
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833:. This is because the and sounds are forms of the same underlying
196:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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and spellings become out of date, as has happened to English and
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nativizing the pronunciation to match the spelling (as with the
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can represent the sequence /ks/ in English and other languages).
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A phoneme may be represented by a sequence of letters, called a
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Pronunciation and spelling still correspond in a predictable way
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were once pronounced (the latter is still pronounced in some
2075:"t" in "cat" (not all these allophones exist in all English
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721:, so spelt because of an imagined connection with the words
303:(written symbols) correspond consistently to the language's
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Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a
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Spelling may represent the pronunciation of a different
386:, rather than by a single letter (as in the case of the
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is counted, though slight inconsistencies may be found)
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Many English words retain spellings that reflect their
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but pronounced in accordance with the normal rules of
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Alphabetic orthographies often have features that are
1968:
to rank 17 orthographies according to their level of
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Similarly the English past tense morpheme is written
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319:, for example, is alphabetic but highly nonphonemic.
255:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
1287:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1228:
1202:
90:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2251:
2168:. Cambridge University Press. p. 103, 146.
729:), or distant etymology (as in the English word
269:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
2040:Methods for phonetic transcription such as the
1252:
1109:, as it would be if German spelling were used.
614:in the spoken language. For example, both the
485:to increase the number of available letters).
1975:
1744:if an Arabic-style pronunciation is followed)
341:
1245:(voiceless) respectively, with both written
1079:
1071:
502:(as with the rules for the pronunciation of
2087:A narrow phonetic transcription represents
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1155:
866:regardless of whether it is pronounced as
803:regardless of whether it is pronounced as
771:
2202:
2029:
2018:switched from the Arabic alphabet to the
1732:and various vowel allophones, as well as
1462:and various palatal and vowel allophones)
1347:Learn how and when to remove this message
1193:, respectively), occurring in words like
230:Learn how and when to remove this message
212:Learn how and when to remove this message
150:Learn how and when to remove this message
1148:merger of formally different morae. The
737:was added under the influence of Latin).
1689:and voiced versus voiceless consonants)
799:The English plural morpheme is written
2252:
2188:
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1934:have mostly phonemic orthographies.
1861:(mainly phonemic with the exception
1285:adding citations to reliable sources
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595:in English can represent /ð/ (as in
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354:Deviations from phonemic orthography
259:. For the distinction between ,
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88:adding citations to reliable sources
59:
18:
1381:, apart from ى and assimilation of
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1136:, their pronunciation in standard
1085:("advice", "advise") in which the
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330:. Another terminology is that of
34:This article has multiple issues.
2125:English-language spelling reform
1765:can be represented by graphemes
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1224:
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1181:
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166:
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23:
2108:International Phonetic Alphabet
2042:International Phonetic Alphabet
1853:Orthographies such as those of
1751:Defective script § Latin script
1272:needs additional citations for
1144:sound change combined with the
251:International Phonetic Alphabet
75:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
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2182:
2157:
2046:Narrow vs. broad transcription
644:from the one being considered.
332:deep and shallow orthographies
1:
2164:Hualde, José Ignacio (2005).
2150:
1954:
1053:even though it is pronounced
1049:"bath" is spelt with a final
2189:Marjou, Xavier (June 2021).
1508:(if the apostrophe denoting
1253:Comparison between languages
1001:"optimist" are written with
841:, the addition of the vowel
7:
2213:10.18653/v1/2021.sigtyp-1.1
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1800:and several others feature
1422:(apart from schwa deletion)
845:reflected in the spelling:
192:the claims made and adding
10:
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2145:Orthographic transcription
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1976:Realignment of orthography
633:varieties), but after the
603:), as well as /th/ (as in
342:Ideal phonemic orthography
275:
1966:artificial neural network
1043:final-obstruent devoicing
713:(as in the English words
1532:(apart from palatalized
670:word шофёр, from French
282:Pronunciation respelling
276:Not to be confused with
1156:Defective orthographies
878:(with some exceptions:
772:Morphophonemic features
709:Spelling may reflect a
686:nativizing the spelling
676:Russian vowel reduction
247:phonetic transcriptions
2236:"Pronunciation 1"
2071:"t" in "stop" and the
2036:Phonetic transcription
2030:Phonetic transcription
2001:spelling pronunciation
1992:and proposed by other
1964:Xavier Marjou uses an
1296:"Phonemic orthography"
1080:
1072:
680:spelling pronunciation
295:(system for writing a
278:Spelling pronunciation
244:This article contains
99:"Phonemic orthography"
2166:The Sounds of Spanish
1982:pronunciations change
1959:historical kana usage
1924:constructed languages
1881:), as well as Korean
1842:and its heavy use of
1669:written phonetically)
1162:defective orthography
1093:in both positions.)
1061:(bathe) in which the
901:include the spelling
740:Spelling may reflect
2120:Alphabetic principle
2063:"t" in "table", the
1782:Indo-Aryan languages
1679:Mongolian (Cyrillic)
1484:; written in either
1281:improve this article
903:⟨sign⟩
733:in which the silent
289:phonemic orthography
84:improve this article
1990:language regulators
1912:English orthography
1150:Russian orthography
1009:, but are commonly
317:English orthography
2140:Orthographic depth
1994:spelling reformers
1970:Orthographic depth
1877:(written with the
1247:⟨th⟩
1101:"does" is spelled
659:, from French and
393:in French and the
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1916:Great Vowel Shift
1832:these languages.
1816:silent consonants
1627:and nasal vowels
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1051:⟨d⟩
526:Case 2: Irregular
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1544:Haitian Creole
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1527:
1513:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1466:Serbo-Croatian
1463:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
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1423:
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1412:
1407:
1402:
1396:
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1355:
1354:
1269:
1267:
1260:
1254:
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1157:
1154:
1111:
1110:
1089:is pronounced
1065:is pronounced
1039:
987:
887:
860:
778:morphophonemic
773:
770:
746:
745:
742:morphophonemic
738:
711:folk etymology
707:
706:
705:
688:(for example,
683:
645:
638:
608:
560:
559:
527:
524:
523:
522:
496:
479:Latin alphabet
415:
414:
371:
368:
355:
352:
343:
340:
267:⟩, see
243:
242:
241:
238:
237:
220:
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174:
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72:
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2175:0-521-54538-2
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2066:
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2047:
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2027:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2008:
2004:
2002:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1962:
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1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1917:
1913:
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1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1873:, and modern
1872:
1868:
1864:
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1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1821:
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1772:
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1756:
1752:
1743:
1739:
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1727:
1723:
1720:
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1708:
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1698:
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1578:
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1558:
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1499:
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1467:
1464:
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1400:
1397:
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1390:
1387:
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1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
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1351:
1348:
1340:
1329:
1326:
1322:
1319:
1315:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1298: –
1297:
1293:
1292:Find sources:
1286:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1270:This article
1268:
1264:
1259:
1258:
1250:
1242:
1222:
1219:(voiced) and
1216:
1196:
1190:
1176:
1163:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1138:Tokyo dialect
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1117:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1088:
1084:
1082:
1076:
1074:
1064:
1060:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1026:"Serbia" but
1025:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
997:"obtain" and
996:
992:
989:Phonological
988:
982:
980:
972:
970:
962:
960:
952:
950:
942:
940:
932:
930:
922:
920:
911:
909:
900:
896:
892:
888:
885:
881:
865:
861:
858:
857:
851:
850:
844:
836:
835:morphophoneme
832:
831:
827:
821:
820:
816:
802:
798:
797:
796:
793:
791:
790:sound changes
787:
783:
782:morphological
779:
769:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
743:
739:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
684:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
664:
662:
658:
654:
650:
647:Spellings of
646:
643:
639:
636:
632:
628:
624:
621:
617:
613:
612:sound changes
609:
606:
602:
598:
594:
593:
588:
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586:
583:
578:
572:
566:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
536:
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534:
533:
520:
519:
513:
509:
505:
501:
500:sound changes
497:
494:
493:
488:
487:
486:
484:
480:
475:
474:
470:
466:
462:
460:
456:
452:
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418:
412:
411:
406:
405:
399:
396:
392:
389:
385:
381:
380:
379:
378:
377:
367:
365:
361:
351:
349:
339:
337:
333:
329:
325:
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318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
283:
279:
270:
258:
254:
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248:
234:
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216:
213:
205:
195:
191:
187:
181:
180:
175:This article
173:
164:
163:
154:
151:
143:
132:
129:
125:
122:
118:
115:
111:
108:
104:
101: –
100:
96:
95:Find sources:
89:
85:
79:
78:
73:This article
71:
67:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
2240:the original
2229:
2194:
2184:
2165:
2159:
2105:
2086:
2050:
2039:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1979:
1963:
1936:
1921:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1887:
1866:
1862:
1852:
1844:nasal vowels
1834:
1810:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1728:(apart from
1710:
1706:
1705:(apart from
1696:
1695:(apart from
1666:
1646:
1642:
1641:(apart from
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1615:(apart from
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1593:(apart from
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1551:(apart from
1537:
1533:
1523:
1519:
1518:(apart from
1459:
1458:(apart from
1358:
1343:
1334:
1324:
1317:
1310:
1303:
1291:
1279:Please help
1274:verification
1271:
1220:
1194:
1159:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1114:
1112:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1086:
1078:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1046:
1033:
1029:
1027:
1021:
1017:
1015:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
991:assimilation
978:
977:
968:
967:
958:
957:
948:
947:
938:
937:
928:
927:
918:
916:
907:
906:
898:
894:
863:
855:
853:
848:
846:
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829:
825:
823:
818:
814:
812:
800:
794:
775:
747:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
697:
693:
689:
671:
656:
652:
626:
622:
615:
604:
600:
596:
590:
561:
556:Modern Greek
543:
539:
531:
530:
529:
521:in English).
517:
507:
503:
490:
476:
468:
464:
463:
454:
450:
449:
441:
437:
433:
432:
424:
420:
419:
416:
408:
402:
397:
390:
375:
374:
373:
357:
345:
327:
323:
321:
288:
286:
263:and ⟨
245:
226:
208:
199:
176:
146:
137:
127:
120:
113:
106:
94:
82:Please help
77:verification
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
2260:Orthography
2073:glottalized
2069:unaspirated
1980:With time,
1941:systems of
1838:, with its
1693:Azerbaijani
1482:Montenegrin
1337:August 2024
1069:. (Compare
1011:neutralized
678:; see also
625:of English
459:Manx Gaelic
413:in English.
336:syllabaries
309:diaphonemes
293:orthography
2254:Categories
2204:1912.13321
2151:References
2053:allophones
1871:Portuguese
1726:Indonesian
1663:Belarusian
1651:Î versus Â
1506:Macedonian
1379:diacritics
1307:newspapers
1038:"Serbian".
884:wikt:knelt
880:wikt:spilt
756:and other
702:Portuguese
483:diacritics
417:Examples:
384:multigraph
313:alphabetic
202:March 2021
186:improve it
110:newspapers
39:improve it
2270:Phonology
2265:Phonetics
2221:209515879
2061:aspirated
1939:syllabary
1928:Esperanto
1859:Hungarian
1703:Hungarian
1657:Ukrainian
1501:Bulgarian
1496:Slovenian
1446:Malayalam
1365:Afrikaans
1146:yotsugana
999:optimista
961:tionalism
899:signature
891:etymology
692:is spelt
672:chauffeur
649:loanwords
364:algorithm
348:bijection
301:graphemes
190:verifying
140:June 2023
45:talk page
2275:Spelling
2130:Spelling
2114:See also
2077:dialects
1951:katakana
1947:hiragana
1943:Japanese
1926:such as
1829:Assamese
1820:Assamese
1798:Maithili
1794:Gujarati
1639:Romanian
1486:Cyrillic
1474:Croatian
1431:Sanskrit
1415:Georgian
1410:Albanian
1399:Estonian
786:morpheme
766:katakana
762:hiragana
754:Sanskrit
715:hiccough
690:football
618:and the
605:goatherd
514:and the
429:Romansch
404:goatherd
395:trigraph
305:phonemes
297:language
261:/ /
257:Help:IPA
2197:: 1–9.
2097:Bengali
2022:-based
1848:elision
1825:Bengali
1812:Bengali
1806:Marathi
1790:Punjabi
1780:Modern
1673:Swahili
1549:Spanish
1492:script)
1478:Bosnian
1470:Serbian
1456:Turkish
1451:Dhivehi
1436:Kannada
1426:Italian
1405:Finnish
1394:Maltese
1389:Kurdish
1370:Amharic
1321:scholar
1142:rendaku
1113:Korean
1095:Turkish
995:obtener
828:and dog
817:and dog
811:, e.g.
698:futebol
682:) or by
668:Russian
661:Spanish
642:dialect
620:digraph
516:silent
512:Italian
467:versus
453:versus
436:versus
423:versus
410:loather
388:digraph
360:digraph
249:in the
184:Please
124:scholar
2219:
2172:
2093:Korean
2089:phones
2016:Turkey
1986:French
1932:Lojban
1883:hangul
1855:German
1836:French
1740:, and
1613:Polish
1530:Basque
1441:Telugu
1377:(with
1375:Arabic
1323:
1316:
1309:
1302:
1294:
1132:and ず
1124:and づ
1116:hangul
1032:ски/sr
1020:ија/Sr
984:/spiː/
966:, and
944:/priː/
931:judice
847:church
822:, not
750:sandhi
719:island
694:fútbol
657:fajita
653:ballet
627:knight
574:/ or /
552:merged
548:Polish
473:French
291:is an
265:
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2217:S2CID
2199:arXiv
2101:Hindi
2020:Latin
1922:Most
1875:Greek
1786:Hindi
1784:like
1773:, or
1722:Malay
1717:Oromo
1685:from
1649:(see
1591:Czech
1510:schwa
1490:Latin
1420:Hindi
1328:JSTOR
1314:books
1081:raten
1059:baden
974:/spɛ/
954:/neɪ/
934:/prɛ/
913:/saɪ/
723:cough
631:Scots
446:Welsh
253:(IPA)
131:JSTOR
117:books
2170:ISBN
2103:do.
2099:and
2065:flap
1949:and
1937:The
1930:and
1846:and
1827:and
1757:and
1724:and
1709:and
1631:and
1480:and
1300:news
1221:thin
1195:this
1179:and
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1041:The
1005:and
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976:vs.
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964:/næ/
956:vs.
951:tion
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876:/ɪd/
854:mass
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764:and
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727:isle
725:and
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