401:
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891:. The mice were phenotypically screened for alterations in the different behavioral domains in order to find the number of putative mutants (see table for details). Putative mutants are then tested for heritability in order to help determine the inheritance pattern as well as map out the mutations. Once they have been mapped out, cloned, and identified, it can be determined whether a mutation represents a new gene or not.
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information describing an organism's phenotypes, under the influences of genetic and environmental factors". Another team of researchers characterize "the human phenome a multidimensional search space with several neurobiological levels, spanning the proteome, cellular systems (e.g., signaling pathways), neural systems and cognitive and behavioural phenotypes."
338:
Some usages of the term suggest that the phenome of a given organism is best understood as a kind of matrix of data representing physical manifestation of phenotype. For example, discussions led by A. Varki among those who had used the term up to 2003 suggested the following definition: "The body of
334:
Although phenome has been in use for many years, the distinction between the use of phenome and phenotype is problematic. A proposed definition for both terms as the "physical totality of all traits of an organism or of one of its subsystems" was put forth by Mahner and Kary in 1997, who argue that
272:
are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure.
657:
modifications. These modifications can be influenced by environmental factors such as diet, stress, and exposure to toxins, and can have a significant impact on an individual's phenotype. Some phenotypes may be the result of changes in gene expression due to these factors, rather than changes in
552:
described a phenotype that included all effects that a gene has on its surroundings, including other organisms, as an extended phenotype, arguing that "An animal's behavior tends to maximize the survival of the genes 'for' that behavior, whether or not those genes happen to be in the body of the
438:. It is the living organism as a whole that contributes (or not) to the next generation, so natural selection affects the genetic structure of a population indirectly via the contribution of phenotypes. Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection.
733:
that affect the phenotype of an organism. Analyzing the phenotypes of mutant genes can also aid in determining gene function. Most genetic screens have used microorganisms, in which genes can be easily deleted. For instance, nearly all genes have been deleted in
625:
can increase melanin production, hence the environment plays a role in this phenotype as well. For most complex phenotypes the precise genetic mechanism remains unknown. For instance, it is largely unclear how genes determine the shape of bones or the human ear.
634:
is expressed at high levels, the organism may produce more of that enzyme and exhibit a particular trait as a result. On the other hand, if the gene is expressed at low levels, the organism may produce less of the enzyme and exhibit a different trait.
693:. Phenomics is an important field of study because it can be used to figure out which genomic variants affect phenotypes which then can be used to explain things like health, disease, and evolutionary fitness. Phenomics forms a large part of the
604:
An organism's phenotype is determined by the sum of its genetic material along with the influence of its environment. This is mediated by a range of biological mechanisms: either the direct activities of gene products or their downstream
171:) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called
2314:
Rahman H, Ramanathan V, Jagadeeshselvam N, Ramasamy S, Rajendran S, Ramachandran M, et al. (2015-01-01). "Phenomics: Technologies and
Applications in Plant and Agriculture". In Barh D, Khan MS, Davies E (eds.).
326:
for the sum total of extragenic, non-autoreproductive portions of the cell, whether cytoplasmic or nuclear. The phenome would be the material basis of the phenotype, just as the genome is the material basis of the
1465:
629:
Gene expression plays a crucial role in determining the phenotypes of organisms. The level of gene expression can affect the phenotype of an organism. For example, if a gene that codes for a particular
1520:
Loeffler M, Bratke T, Paulus U, Li YQ, Potten CS (May 1997). "Clonality and life cycles of intestinal crypts explained by a state dependent stochastic model of epithelial stem cell organization".
1702:
Denny, Joshua C.; Ritchie, Marylyn D.; Basford, Melissa A.; Pulley, Jill M.; Bastarache, Lisa; Brown-Gentry, Kristin; Wang, Deede; Masys, Dan R.; Roden, Dan M.; Crawford, Dana C. (2010-05-01).
1168:
An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment.
457:
Genotypes often have much flexibility in the modification and expression of phenotypes; in many organisms these phenotypes are very different under varying environmental conditions. The plant
592:
Other biologists broadly agree that the extended phenotype concept is relevant, but consider that its role is largely explanatory, rather than assisting in the design of experimental tests.
335:
although scientists tend to intuitively use these and related terms in a manner that does not impede research, the terms are not well defined and usage of the terms is not consistent.
700:
Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs.
1039:
physical structure of the first RNA molecule that possessed ribozyme activity promoting replication while avoiding destruction would have been the first phenotype, and the
662:
methods utilizing gene expressions measured from RNA sequencing found that they can contain enough signal to separate individuals in the context of phenotype prediction.
1031:
is the hypothesized pre-cellular stage in the evolutionary history of life on earth, in which self-replicating RNA molecules proliferated prior to the evolution of
479:
where the plants grow prostrate with narrow leaves and compact inflorescences. These habitats alternate along the coast of Sweden and the habitat that the seeds of
1823:
711:. Once the phenomic database has acquired enough data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to the individual.
589:
affect the copulatory decisions of peahens, again, the phenotype is being extended. Genes are, in
Dawkins's view, selected by their phenotypic effects.
264:. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by
609:
Phenotypes are determined by an interaction of genes and the environment, but the mechanism for each gene and phenotype is different. For instance, an
93:
for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).
535:, a property that might convey, among organisms living in high-temperature environments, a selective advantage on variants enriched in GC content.
496:, which may vary (randomly) between left and right eyes in a single individual as much as they do between different genotypes overall, or between
248:
Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the
649:
The patchy colors of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.
653:
Changes in the levels of gene expression can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as environmental conditions, genetic variations, and
2742:
1426:
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include cognitive, personality, and behavioral patterns. Some behavioral phenotypes may characterize psychiatric disorders or syndromes.
1610:"From the genome to the phenome and back: linking genes with human brain function and structure using genetically informed neuroimaging"
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176:
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The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its
1996:
1914:
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the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
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is sometimes used to refer to a collection of traits, while the simultaneous study of such a collection is referred to as
3228:
3073:
2801:
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Varki A, Wills C, Perlmutter D, Woodruff D, Gage F, Moore J, et al. (October 1998). "Great Ape
Phenome Project?".
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Furbank, Robert T.; Tester, Mark (December 2011). "Phenomics--technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck".
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Cassidy SB, Morris CA (2002-01-01). "Behavioral phenotypes in genetic syndromes: genetic clues to human behavior".
3287:
1932:"Extended phenotype redux. How far can the reach of genes extend in manipulating the environment of an organism?"
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179:; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown.
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Gene expression is regulated at various levels and thus each level can affect certain phenotypes, including
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The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:
345:
In 2009, a research team demonstrated the feasibility of identifying genotype–phenotype associations using
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Furbank RT, Tester M (December 2011). "Phenomics – technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck".
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3083:
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38:
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Although a phenotype is the ensemble of observable characteristics displayed by an organism, the word
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Behaviors and their consequences are also phenotypes, since behaviors are observable characteristics.
2910:
2738:"Wilhelm Johannsen's Genotype-Phenotype Distinction" by E. Peirson at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia
749:
346:
269:
2689:"Population biology of the first replicators: on the origin of the genotype, phenotype and organism"
1704:"PheWAS: demonstrating the feasibility of a phenome-wide scan to discover gene-disease associations"
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31:
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that do not change the corresponding amino acid sequence of a gene may change the frequency of
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genotype (G) + environment (E) + genotype & environment interactions (GE) → phenotype (P)
156:
2637:"Large-scale mutagenesis and phenotypic screens for the nervous system and behavior in mice"
280:
ABO blood groups determined through a
Punnett square and displaying phenotypes and genotypes
163:, and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the
3156:
2999:
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Botany online: Evolution: The Modern
Synthesis - Phenotypic and Genetic Variation; Ecotypes
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694:
459:
152:
2441:
Amsterdam A, Burgess S, Golling G, Chen W, Sun Z, Townsend K, et al. (October 1999).
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1019:, showing how phenotyping in animals can inform medical diagnostics and possibly therapy.
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Large-scale mutagenesis and phenotypic screens for the nervous system and behavior in mice
763:. In one screen, the role of mutations in mice were studied in areas such as learning and
8:
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Plant biologists have started to explore the phenome in the study of plant physiology.
215:
and what that hereditary material produces. The distinction resembles that proposed by
70:
2543:
Nislow C, Wong LH, Lee AH, Giaever G (September 2016). "Functional genomics using the
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1461:"The Isolation of Biochemically Deficient Mutants of Bacteria by Means of Penicillin"
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Exploring relationships among phenotype, genotype and environment at different levels
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204:
66:
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2300:
2257:
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Houle D, Govindaraju DR, Omholt S (December 2010). "Phenomics: the next challenge".
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Baba T, Ara T, Hasegawa M, Takai Y, Okumura Y, Baba M, et al. (January 2006).
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have also been used in animals, e.g. to study lesser understood phenotypes such as
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659:
508:
388:
229:
144:
61:
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of the first self-replicating RNA molecule would have been the original genotype.
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teeth are—which it uses to modify its environment. Similarly, when a bird feeds a
3222:
3126:
2936:
2324:
2095:
1896:
1780:
1763:
1571:
1567:"Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack"
1183:
1102:
752:. Among other discoveries, such studies have revealed lists of essential genes .
562:
549:
311:
216:
180:
164:
1979:
Pakay, Julian; Duivenvoorden, Hendrika; Shafee, Thomas; Clarke, Kaitlin (2023).
89:, for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent
77:
2751:
2652:
2392:"Improved drug therapy: triangulating phenomics with genomics and metabolomics"
1466:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1052:
888:
724:
720:
570:
303:
86:
2408:
2130:"What exactly are genomes, genotypes and phenotypes? And what about phenomes?"
2037:
503:
The concept of phenotype can be extended to variations below the level of the
288:, which would lead to the false statement that a "mutation has no phenotype".
3276:
3190:
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2783:
1727:
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472:
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49:
2019:
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1965:
1789:
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1543:
1506:
1386:
1351:
1307:
1242:
1127:"Phenotype adjective – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes"
708:
265:
224:
2727:
2582:
Kim DU, Hayles J, Kim D, Wood V, Park HO, Won M, et al. (June 2010).
2560:
2206:
2163:
1947:
1551:
233:(1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles.
2951:
2931:
2705:
2688:
1764:"Machine learning for predicting phenotype from genotype and environment"
1207:
654:
622:
1487:
600:
383:
372:, a concept of exploring the relationship ultimately among pan-phenome,
3195:
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2511:
2313:
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1585:
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1321:
1289:
1234:
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558:
520:
488:
373:
369:
220:
198:
2584:"Analysis of a genome-wide set of gene deletions in the fission yeast
2284:
1131:
Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com
553:
particular animal performing it." For instance, an organism such as a
322:. The term was first used by Davis in 1949, "We here propose the name
3146:
3114:
2881:
2603:
1404:. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No.138. London: Mac Keith Press.
1077:
1028:
1016:
1004:
772:
689:
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493:
431:
285:
194:
190:
136:
119:
44:
2241:
3109:
3078:
1281:
1221:
Churchill FB (1974). "William
Johannsen and the genotype concept".
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730:
610:
516:
377:
350:
328:
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253:
249:
212:
168:
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98:
82:
56:
1988:
887:, or N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea, which is a potent mutagen that causes
577:, it is unwittingly extending its phenotype; and when genes in an
2841:
2496:
K-12 in-frame, single-gene knockout mutants: the Keio collection"
2020:
Oellrich, A.; Sanger Mouse
Genetics Project; Smedley, D. (2014).
1057:
683:
671:
618:
586:
566:
532:
528:
512:
497:
464:
319:
261:
242:
53:
143: 'mark, type') is the set of observable characteristics or
27:
Composite of the organism's observable characteristics or traits
2821:
1608:
Siebner HR, Callicott JH, Sommer T, Mattay VS (November 2009).
1186:(May 1978). "Replicator selection and the extended phenotype".
764:
645:
631:
578:
574:
554:
2271:
Freimer N, Sabatti C (May 2003). "The human phenome project".
2022:"Linking tissues to phenotypes using gene expression profiles"
1978:
714:
2733:
Europhenome: Access to raw and annotated mouse phenotype data
2722:
468:
159:
processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its
2176:
1607:
471:, where the plants are bushy with broad leaves and expanded
360:
3119:
2443:"A large-scale insertional mutagenesis screen in zebrafish"
2440:
613:
phenotype may be caused by a mutation in the gene encoding
504:
476:
211:
in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's
90:
2385:
883:
This experiment involved the progeny of mice treated with
2390:, Gonzalez FJ, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V (September 2014).
1701:
1032:
884:
744:, but also in several eukaryotic model organisms such as
257:
2069:
Nussinov, Ruth; Tsai, Chung-Jung; Jang, Hyunbum (2019).
1393:
411:, the melanic form, illustrating discontinuous variation
2634:
2227:
1519:
1146:
729:
Large-scale genetic screens can identify the genes or
585:
behavior to increase pollination, or when genes in a
523:). These base pairs have a higher thermal stability (
368:
Inspired by the evolution from genotype to genome to
2542:
2489:
2635:Vitaterna MH, Pinto LH, Takahashi JS (April 2006).
1022:
241:"Phenome" redirects here. For the speech unit, see
30:For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see
426:Phenotypic variation (due to underlying heritable
3274:
2781:
2581:
2068:
507:that affect an organism's fitness. For example,
1418:
1399:
1003:These experiments showed that mutations in the
449:A more nuanced version of the relationship is:
175:. A well-documented example of polymorphism is
2270:
2071:"Protein ensembles link genotype to phenotype"
771:, vision, responses to stress and response to
445:genotype (G) + environment (E) → phenotype (P)
2767:
2682:
2680:
2347:
1658:
1601:
1564:
1372:
483:land in, determine the phenotype that grows.
1868:"Phenotypic and Genetic Variation; Ecotypes"
1859:
268:) and are thus part of the phenotype; human
1428:Behavioural Phenotypes in Clinical Practice
1424:
1314:
1266:"The genotype conception of heredity. 1911"
715:Large-scale phenotyping and genetic screens
2774:
2760:
2677:
2127:
1923:
1804:
703:Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards
467:in Sweden. One habitat is rocky, sea-side
396:, the standard light-colored peppered moth
2704:
2660:
2611:
2519:
2466:
2417:
2407:
2319:. New Delhi: Springer. pp. 385–411.
2153:
2104:
2094:
2045:
1955:
1865:
1779:
1735:
1635:
1584:
1496:
1486:
1341:
1297:
1263:
1220:
855:Video-image-based tracking of locomotion
841:Video-image-based scoring of exploration
538:
2381:
2379:
1824:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1810:
1458:
1007:gene affected vision and can even cause
665:
644:
599:
399:
382:
359:
302:is the set of all traits expressed by a
275:
183:in 1978 and then again in his 1982 book
76:
43:
1895:
1182:
595:
557:modifies its environment by building a
415:
219:(1834–1914), who distinguished between
14:
3275:
3264:Index of evolutionary biology articles
2686:
2317:PlantOmics: The Omics of Plant Science
1929:
1565:Varki A, Altheide TK (December 2005).
1320:
821:Video-image-based scoring of freezing
85:and phenotype is illustrated, using a
2755:
2376:
1761:
1757:
1755:
1270:International Journal of Epidemiology
642:and post-transcriptional regulation.
1513:
1178:
1176:
430:) is a fundamental prerequisite for
126: 'to appear, show' and
1837:10.1146/annurev.es.01.110170.000245
1762:Guo, Tingting; Li, Xianran (2023).
906:Putative mutant lines with progeny
193:and other built structures such as
167:of an organism's genetic code (its
155:(physical form and structure), its
24:
3074:Evolutionary developmental biology
1981:Threshold Concepts in Biochemistry
1752:
1628:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.09.009
1200:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1978.tb01823.x
658:genotype. An experiment involving
500:raised in different environments.
486:An example of random variation in
463:is found growing in two different
25:
3299:
2716:
1223:Journal of the History of Biology
1173:
151:. The term covers the organism's
3031:Evolution of sexual reproduction
1768:Current Opinion in Biotechnology
1400:O'Brien G, Yule W, eds. (1995).
1343:10.1034/j.1601-183X.2002.10201.x
1023:Evolutionary origin of phenotype
621:formation. However, exposure to
2628:
2575:
2536:
2483:
2434:
2341:
2307:
2264:
2221:
2170:
2121:
2062:
2013:
1972:
1889:
1695:
1652:
1558:
1452:
1188:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Tierpsychologie
1108:List of omics topics in biology
2802:Genotype–phenotype distinction
2134:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1523:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1366:
1257:
1214:
1068:Genotype–phenotype distinction
355:phenome-wide association study
227:(the body). More recently, in
209:genotype–phenotype distinction
189:suggested that one can regard
13:
1:
3059:Regulation of gene expression
2547:yeast deletion collections".
2362:10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005
2199:10.1126/science.282.5387.239d
2128:Mahner M, Kary M (May 1997).
1905:. Oxford University. p.
1720:10.1093/bioinformatics/btq126
1673:10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005
1326:"'My mouse has no phenotype'"
1113:
236:
3229:Endless Forms Most Beautiful
3009:Evolution of genetic systems
2817:Gene–environment correlation
2812:Gene–environment interaction
2549:Cold Spring Harbor Protocols
2325:10.1007/978-81-322-2172-2_13
2096:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006648
1781:10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102853
561:; this can be considered an
7:
3208:Christiane NĂĽsslein-Volhard
2687:Michod RE (February 1983).
1431:. London: Mac Keith Press.
1264:Johannsen W (August 2014).
1154:"Genotype versus phenotype"
1046:
755:More recently, large-scale
177:Labrador Retriever coloring
10:
3304:
3084:Hedgehog signaling pathway
2961:Developmental architecture
2653:10.1016/j.tins.2006.02.006
2075:PLOS Computational Biology
718:
669:
542:
419:
353:. They called this method
252:is a phenotype, including
240:
201:as "extended phenotypes".
129:
112:
81:Here the relation between
52:of individuals within the
39:Phenotype (disambiguation)
36:
29:
3261:
3240:
3169:
3097:
3051:
3044:
3008:
2960:
2924:
2911:Transgressive segregation
2857:
2794:
2586:Schizosaccharomyces pombe
2500:Molecular Systems Biology
2409:10.1186/s40246-014-0016-9
1459:Davis BD (January 1949).
1330:Genes, Brain and Behavior
1035:and proteins. The folded
948:Psychostimulant response
852:Hyperlocomotion behavior
849:Psychostimulant response
617:which is a key enzyme in
347:electronic health records
2728:Human Phenotype Ontology
2545:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1816:"The Units of Selection"
1017:human familial blindness
877:L. Pinto and colleagues
670:Not to be confused with
32:Introduction to genetics
3089:Notch signaling pathway
3064:Gene regulatory network
2947:Dual inheritance theory
2641:Trends in Neurosciences
2447:Genes & Development
2350:Trends in Plant Science
2230:Nature Reviews Genetics
2038:10.1093/database/bau017
1930:Hunter P (March 2009).
1661:Trends in Plant Science
1425:O'Brien G, ed. (2002).
1158:Understanding Evolution
829:Preliminary Assessment
803:Wheel running behavior
563:expression of its genes
492:flies is the number of
422:Ecophenotypic variation
3288:Polymorphism (biology)
3137:cis-regulatory element
3045:Control of development
2925:Non-genetic influences
2891:evolutionary landscape
2723:Mouse Phenome Database
2459:10.1101/gad.13.20.2713
2155:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0335
1902:The Extended Phenotype
1544:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0340
1375:Advances in Pediatrics
650:
606:
545:The Extended Phenotype
539:The extended phenotype
412:
397:
380:was proposed in 2023.
365:
281:
186:The Extended Phenotype
94:
74:
3248:Nature versus nurture
3152:Cell surface receptor
3069:Evo-devo gene toolkit
2968:Developmental biology
2906:Polygenic inheritance
2832:Quantitative genetics
2743:Mouse Phenome Project
2561:10.1101/pdb.top080945
2386:Monte AA, Brocker C,
1948:10.1038/embor.2009.18
1402:Behavioural Phenotype
1073:Molecular phenotyping
900:ENU Progeny screened
769:circadian rhythmicity
705:personalized medicine
666:Phenome and phenomics
648:
603:
475:; the other is among
403:
386:
363:
349:(EHRs) linked to DNA
293:Behavioral phenotypes
279:
80:
47:
3157:Transcription factor
2872:Genetic assimilation
2859:Genetic architecture
2592:Nature Biotechnology
2555:(9): pdb.top080945.
1983:. La Trobe eBureau.
1009:retinal degeneration
931:Learning and memory
813:Learning and Memory
695:Human Genome Project
596:Genes and phenotypes
481:Hieracium umbellatum
460:Hieracium umbellatum
416:Phenotypic variation
73:in their phenotypes.
37:For other uses, see
3253:Morphogenetic field
3170:Influential figures
2191:1998Sci...282..239V
2146:1997JThBi.186...55M
2087:2019PLSCB..15E6648N
1536:1997JThBi.186...41L
1488:10.1073/pnas.35.1.1
1479:1949PNAS...35....1D
1041:nucleotide sequence
968:response to stress
914:General assessment
833:Open field activity
782:
213:hereditary material
3283:Classical genetics
2942:Genomic imprinting
2747:Jackson Laboratory
2706:10.1093/icb/23.1.5
2693:American Zoologist
2512:10.1038/msb4100050
1586:10.1101/gr.3737405
1235:10.1007/BF00179291
1011:in mice. The same
909:Confirmed mutants
897:Phenotypic domain
871:Fundus photography
837:elevated plus maze
786:Phenotypic Domain
778:
757:phenotypic screens
651:
607:
413:
398:
366:
282:
95:
75:
3270:
3269:
3203:Eric F. Wieschaus
3165:
3164:
2983:Pattern formation
2887:Fitness landscape
2492:"Construction of
2453:(20): 2713–2724.
2285:10.1038/ng0503-15
2185:(5387): 239–240.
1998:978-0-6484681-9-6
1916:978-0-19-288051-2
1866:von Sengbusch P.
1814:(November 1970).
1438:978-1-898683-27-8
1411:978-1-898683-06-3
1098:Race and genetics
1037:three-dimensional
1001:
1000:
903:Putative mutants
881:
880:
867:Electroretinogram
817:Fear conditioning
800:Circadian Rhythm
795:Software Package
436:natural selection
428:genetic variation
205:Wilhelm Johannsen
16:(Redirected from
3295:
3213:William McGinnis
3182:Richard Lewontin
3177:C. H. Waddington
3049:
3048:
3026:Neutral networks
2776:
2769:
2762:
2753:
2752:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2684:
2675:
2674:
2664:
2632:
2626:
2625:
2615:
2604:10.1038/nbt.1628
2579:
2573:
2572:
2540:
2534:
2533:
2523:
2506:(1): 2006.0008.
2494:Escherichia coli
2487:
2481:
2480:
2470:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2421:
2411:
2383:
2374:
2373:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2157:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2108:
2098:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2049:
2017:
2011:
2010:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1959:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1874:. Archived from
1863:
1857:
1856:
1820:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1783:
1759:
1750:
1749:
1739:
1714:(9): 1205–1210.
1699:
1693:
1692:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1639:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1588:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1517:
1511:
1510:
1500:
1490:
1456:
1450:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1345:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1301:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1180:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1164:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1137:
1123:
1083:Phenotypic trait
894:
893:
783:
777:
773:psychostimulants
660:machine learning
509:silent mutations
389:Biston betularia
266:Western blotting
230:The Selfish Gene
197:larva cases and
140:
133:
123:
116:
62:Donax variabilis
21:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3266:
3257:
3236:
3223:Sean B. Carroll
3161:
3093:
3040:
3004:
2956:
2937:Maternal effect
2920:
2853:
2790:
2780:
2719:
2714:
2685:
2678:
2633:
2629:
2580:
2576:
2541:
2537:
2488:
2484:
2439:
2435:
2384:
2377:
2356:(12): 635–644.
2346:
2342:
2335:
2312:
2308:
2273:Nature Genetics
2269:
2265:
2242:10.1038/nrg2897
2236:(12): 855–866.
2226:
2222:
2175:
2171:
2126:
2122:
2081:(6): e1006648.
2067:
2063:
2018:
2014:
1999:
1977:
1973:
1928:
1924:
1917:
1894:
1890:
1881:
1879:
1864:
1860:
1818:
1809:
1805:
1760:
1753:
1700:
1696:
1667:(12): 635–644.
1657:
1653:
1606:
1602:
1579:(12): 1746–58.
1572:Genome Research
1563:
1559:
1518:
1514:
1457:
1453:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1423:
1419:
1412:
1398:
1394:
1371:
1367:
1319:
1315:
1276:(4): 989–1000.
1262:
1258:
1219:
1215:
1181:
1174:
1162:
1160:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1135:
1133:
1125:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1103:Systems biology
1049:
1025:
889:point mutations
740:and many other
727:
717:
707:, particularly
679:
668:
640:transcriptional
598:
550:Richard Dawkins
547:
541:
424:
418:
246:
239:
223:(heredity) and
217:August Weismann
181:Richard Dawkins
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3301:
3291:
3290:
3285:
3268:
3267:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3255:
3250:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3233:
3232:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3187:François Jacob
3184:
3179:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3123:
3122:
3112:
3107:
3101:
3099:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3055:
3053:
3046:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2980:
2970:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2918:
2916:Sequence space
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2863:
2861:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2798:
2796:
2792:
2791:
2779:
2778:
2771:
2764:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2718:
2717:External links
2715:
2713:
2712:
2676:
2647:(4): 233–240.
2627:
2598:(6): 617–623.
2574:
2535:
2482:
2433:
2396:Human Genomics
2375:
2340:
2333:
2306:
2263:
2220:
2169:
2120:
2061:
2012:
1997:
1971:
1942:(3): 212–215.
1922:
1915:
1888:
1858:
1803:
1751:
1708:Bioinformatics
1694:
1651:
1600:
1557:
1512:
1451:
1437:
1417:
1410:
1392:
1365:
1313:
1282:10.1086/279202
1256:
1213:
1172:
1145:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1053:Bioinformatics
1048:
1045:
1024:
1021:
1015:change causes
999:
998:
995:
992:
989:
986:
982:
981:
978:
975:
972:
969:
966:Neuroendocrine
962:
961:
958:
955:
952:
949:
945:
944:
941:
938:
935:
932:
928:
927:
924:
921:
918:
915:
911:
910:
907:
904:
901:
898:
879:
878:
875:
873:
864:
860:
859:
856:
853:
850:
846:
845:
842:
839:
830:
826:
825:
822:
819:
814:
810:
809:
806:
804:
801:
797:
796:
793:
790:
787:
725:Essential gene
721:Genetic screen
716:
713:
667:
664:
597:
594:
571:brood parasite
565:, just as its
543:Main article:
540:
537:
473:inflorescences
455:
454:
447:
446:
417:
414:
238:
235:
87:Punnett square
65:show diverse
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3300:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3280:
3278:
3265:
3260:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3239:
3231:
3230:
3226:
3225:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3197:
3194:
3193:
3192:
3191:Jacques Monod
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3168:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3121:
3118:
3117:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3105:Homeotic gene
3103:
3102:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3050:
3047:
3043:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2973:Morphogenesis
2971:
2969:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2850:
2847:
2843:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2807:Reaction norm
2805:
2803:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2777:
2772:
2770:
2765:
2763:
2758:
2757:
2754:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2720:
2707:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2683:
2681:
2672:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2631:
2623:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2587:
2578:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2539:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2495:
2486:
2478:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2437:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2380:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2344:
2336:
2334:9788132221715
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2310:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2173:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2124:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2065:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2016:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1994:
1990:
1989:10.26826/1017
1986:
1982:
1975:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1918:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1892:
1878:on 2009-06-18
1877:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1825:
1817:
1813:
1807:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1756:
1747:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1616:
1611:
1604:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1573:
1568:
1561:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1524:
1516:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1455:
1440:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1421:
1413:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1317:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1177:
1169:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1142:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1118:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1063:Endophenotype
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
996:
993:
990:
987:
984:
983:
979:
976:
973:
970:
967:
964:
963:
959:
956:
953:
950:
947:
946:
942:
939:
936:
933:
930:
929:
925:
922:
919:
916:
913:
912:
908:
905:
902:
899:
896:
895:
892:
890:
886:
876:
874:
872:
868:
865:
862:
861:
857:
854:
851:
848:
847:
843:
840:
838:
834:
831:
828:
827:
823:
820:
818:
815:
812:
811:
807:
805:
802:
799:
798:
794:
791:
788:
785:
784:
781:
776:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
753:
751:
750:fission yeast
747:
746:baker's yeast
743:
739:
738:
732:
726:
722:
712:
710:
706:
701:
698:
696:
692:
691:
686:
685:
677:
673:
663:
661:
656:
647:
643:
641:
636:
633:
627:
624:
620:
616:
612:
602:
593:
590:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
551:
546:
536:
534:
530:
526:
525:melting point
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
501:
499:
495:
491:
490:
484:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
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3016:Evolvability
2990:Segmentation
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2837:Heterochrony
2827:Heritability
2795:Key concepts
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1615:Neuroscience
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3218:Mike Levine
3127:Distal-less
2952:Polyphenism
2932:Epigenetics
2784:development
2699:(1): 5–14.
1812:Lewontin RC
1473:(1): 1–10.
1229:(1): 5–30.
858:BigBrother
405:B.betularia
199:beaver dams
173:polymorphic
3277:Categories
3196:Lac operon
3021:Robustness
3000:Modularity
2995:Metamerism
2901:Plasticity
2896:Pleiotropy
2849:Heterotopy
2032:: bau017.
1882:2009-12-29
1774:: 102853.
1622:(1): 1–6.
1163:2020-04-29
1136:2020-04-29
1114:References
1093:Physiomics
1013:amino acid
844:LimeLight
719:See also:
655:epigenetic
615:tyrosinase
583:orchid bee
573:such as a
559:beaver dam
521:GC content
489:Drosophila
477:sand dunes
420:See also:
409:carbonaria
376:, and pan-
374:pan-genome
370:pan-genome
357:(PheWAS).
237:Definition
221:germ plasm
191:bird nests
165:expression
153:morphology
105:(from
71:patterning
67:coloration
3147:Morphogen
3132:Engrailed
3115:Pax genes
3036:Tinkering
2882:Epistasis
2877:Dominance
2788:phenotype
2402:(1): 16.
2388:Nebert DW
2007:258899183
1897:Dawkins R
1798:254211407
1728:1367-4811
1681:1878-4372
1381:: 59–86.
1336:(2): 71.
1322:Crusio WE
1184:Dawkins R
1078:Phenomics
1029:RNA world
1005:rhodopsin
808:ClockLab
731:mutations
690:phenomics
676:Phonology
494:ommatidia
432:evolution
286:wild type
254:molecules
195:caddisfly
103:phenotype
3110:Hox gene
3098:Elements
3079:Homeobox
2671:16519954
2622:20473289
2569:27587784
2530:16738554
2477:10541557
2428:25181945
2370:22074787
2301:31510391
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2258:14752610
2250:21085204
2115:31220071
2056:24634472
2026:Database
1966:19255576
1899:(1982).
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1831:: 1–18.
1790:36463837
1746:20335276
1689:22074787
1646:19751805
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1387:12214780
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1352:12884976
1308:24691957
1251:38649212
1243:11610096
1088:Physiome
1047:See also
761:behavior
742:bacteria
605:effects.
517:cytosine
465:habitats
378:envirome
351:biobanks
329:genotype
316:organism
262:proteins
256:such as
250:genotype
169:genotype
161:behavior
149:organism
99:genetics
83:genotype
59:species
3241:Debates
3052:Systems
2978:Eyespot
2842:Neoteny
2745:at the
2662:3761413
2613:3962850
2521:1681482
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2207:9841385
2187:Bibcode
2179:Science
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2106:6586255
2083:Bibcode
2047:3982582
1957:2658563
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1552:9176636
1532:Bibcode
1498:1062948
1475:Bibcode
1299:4258772
1290:2455747
1058:Ecotype
985:Vision
863:Vision
737:E. coli
684:phenome
672:Phoneme
619:melanin
587:peacock
581:affect
567:incisor
533:thymine
529:adenine
527:) than
513:guanine
407:morpha
392:morpha
324:phenome
320:species
300:phenome
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765:memory
632:enzyme
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2003:S2CID
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1819:(PDF)
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