1882:
decennia however, it became clear that the central nervous system plays an important role in the onset of fatigue during prolonged exercise (Klass et al., 2008), certainly when ambient temperature is increased ... 5-HT, DA, and NA have all been implicated in the control of thermoregulation and are thought to mediate thermoregulatory responses, certainly since their neurons innervate the hypothalamus (Roelands & Meeusen, 2010). ... This indicates that subjects did not feel they were producing more power and consequently more heat. The authors concluded that the "safety switch" or the mechanisms existing in the body to prevent harmful effects are overridden by the drug administration (Roelands et al., 2008b). Taken together, these data indicate strong ergogenic effects of an increased DA concentration in the brain, without any change in the perception of effort. ... The combined effects of DA and NA on performance in the heat were studied by our research group on a number of occasions. ... the administration of bupropion (DA/NA reuptake inhibitor) significantly improved performance. Coinciding with this ergogenic effect, the authors observed core temperatures that were much higher compared with the placebo situation. Interestingly, this occurred without any change in the subjective feelings of thermal sensation or perceived exertion. Similar to the methylphenidate study (Roelands et al., 2008b), bupropion may dampen or override inhibitory signals arising from the central nervous system to cease exercise because of hyperthermia, and enable an individual to continue maintaining a high power output
2577:
addition, we examined the evidence for publication bias. Forty-eight studies (total of 1,409 participants) were included in the analyses. We found evidence for small but significant stimulant enhancement effects on inhibitory control and short-term episodic memory. Small effects on working memory reached significance, based on one of our two analytical approaches. Effects on delayed episodic memory were medium in size. However, because the effects on long-term and working memory were qualified by evidence for publication bias, we conclude that the effect of amphetamine and methylphenidate on the examined facets of healthy cognition is probably modest overall. In some situations, a small advantage may be valuable, although it is also possible that healthy users resort to stimulants to enhance their energy and motivation more than their cognition. ... Earlier research has failed to distinguish whether stimulants' effects are small or whether they are nonexistent (Ilieva et al., 2013; Smith & Farah, 2011). The present findings supported generally small effects of amphetamine and methylphenidate on executive function and memory. Specifically, in a set of experiments limited to high-quality designs, we found significant enhancement of several cognitive abilities. ...
1462:
dextroamphetamine versus placebo. Most of the information to answer this question has been obtained in the past decade through studies of fatigue rather than an attempt to systematically investigate the effect of ADHD drugs on exercise. ... In 2008, Roelands and colleagues studied the effect of reboxetine, a pure NE reuptake inhibitor, similar to atomoxetine, in 9 healthy, well-trained cyclists. They too exercised in both temperate and warm environments. They showed decreased power output and exercise performance at both 18 and 30 degrees centigrade. Their conclusion was that DA reuptake inhibition was the cause of the increased exercise performance seen with drugs that affect both DA and NE (MPH, amphetamine, and bupropion).
3827:
824:
Studies have shown that the most common gendered risk factors include being an adolescent female dissatisfied with their body weight or an adolescent male who perceives larger body sizes as the ideal. Having a negative body image or a history of depression can also be a significant risk factor. These are further exacerbated by parental pressures surrounding appearance, media influence, and peer pressure.
390:: one of the most popular nutritional supplements, it contributes to 400 million dollars in sales globally every year. It is a nonessential amino acid that helps to improve an athlete's performance during short-term, high intensity exercises such as weightlifting. Supplementation of creatine increases skeletal muscle creatine levels, this boosts performance by increasing the rate at which
598:, the most commonly used substance by athletes, can be used for cardiovascular improvements though has significant detrimental effects. Ethanol was formerly banned by WADA during performance for athletes performing in aeronautics, archery, automobile, karate, motorcycling and powerboating, but was taken off the ban list in 2017. It is detected by
2580:
The results of this meta-analysis cannot address the important issues of individual differences in stimulant effects or the role of motivational enhancement in helping perform academic or occupational tasks. However, they do confirm the reality of cognitive enhancing effects for normal healthy adults
827:
Studies show that adolescent males who engage with fitness magazines are twice as likely to use performance-enhancing substances. Adolescents who partake in competitive sports are at a particularly high risk, with those involved in gridiron football, basketball, wrestling, baseball, and gymnastics at
1461:
In 1980, Chandler and Blair showed significant increases in knee extension strength, acceleration, anaerobic capacity, time to exhaustion during exercise, pre-exercise and maximum heart rates, and time to exhaustion during maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) testing after administration of 15 mg of
1881:
Physical fatigue has classically been attributed to peripheral factors within the muscle (Fitts, 1996), the depletion of muscle glycogen (Bergstrom & Hultman, 1967) or increased cardiovascular, metabolic, and thermoregulatory strain (Abbiss & Laursen, 2005; Meeusen et al., 2006b). In recent
1683:
Aside from accounting for the reduced performance of mentally fatigued participants, this model rationalizes the reduced RPE and hence improved cycling time trial performance of athletes using a glucose mouthwash (Chambers et al., 2009) and the greater power output during a RPE matched cycling time
474:
Actoprotectors or synthetic adaptogens are compounds that enhance an organism's resilience to physical stress without increasing heat output. Actoprotectors are distinct from other doping compounds in that they increase physical and psychological resilience via non-exhaustive action. Actoprotectors
793:
In the 20th century, testosterone was isolated and characterized by scientists. In 1941, the first record of synthesized testosterone use occurred when a horse was given testosterone which successfully improved its race performance. Sports trainers soon after began advocating for testosterone use.
1087:
Cognitive enhancement can be defined as the use of drugs and/or other means with the aim to improve the cognitive functions of healthy subjects in particular memory, attention, creativity and intelligence in the absence of any medical indication. ... The first aim of this paper was to review
1521:
Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or "clock," activity. For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft advances the start of responding
2576:
The present meta-analysis was conducted to estimate the magnitude of the effects of methylphenidate and amphetamine on cognitive functions central to academic and occupational functioning, including inhibitory control, working memory, short-term episodic memory, and delayed episodic memory. In
823:
Adolescents are the most vulnerable group when it comes to taking performance-enhancing substances. This is in part due to the significance placed on physical appearance by this age group as well as feelings of invincibility combined with a lack of knowledge surrounding long-term consequences.
357:
Ergogenic aids, or athletic performance-enhancing substances, include a number of drugs with various effects on physical performance. Drugs such as amphetamine and methylphenidate increase power output at constant levels of perceived exertion and delay the onset of fatigue, among other
754:
had consumed a diet consisting of dried figs which was a significant factor in winning the 200-yard stade race. Ancient Greek athletes at the time also incorporated stimulants such as wine and brandy into their training routines. Stimulants derived from plants (e.g.,
439:. Despite its small window for detection, two primary methods of testing have been developed for hGH, one being an isoform test which detects changes in growth hormone structure in the blood, and the markers test, which detects changes in serum protein ratios.
398:, thereby increasing maximal power output. Potential side effects include gastrointestinal cramps, weight gain, fatigue, and diarrhea. Creatine is currently not recognized as a prohibited substance and can be purchased as a legal dietary supplement.
1088:
current trends in the misuse of smart drugs (also known as
Nootropics) presently available on the market focusing in detail on methylphenidate, trying to evaluate the potential risk in healthy individuals, especially teenagers and young adults.
415:: endogenous hormone that can help decrease fat mass while increasing lean body mass. hGH is one of the most commonly used substances among professional athletes because it has a small window for detection. It works by promoting the release of
459:
was that "The principle of an adaptogenic action needs further clarification and studies in the pre-clinical and clinical area. As such, the term is not accepted in pharmacological and clinical terminology that is commonly used in the EU."
1522:
during interval timing, whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing;... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing, while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing.
798:
with massive muscles began circulating which further perpetuated a desire among athletes to use testosterone. In 1967, the first prohibited substance list and anti-doping measures were implemented at the 1968 Olympics.
814:
to criminalize the distribution and possession of non-medical anabolic steroids. In 1999, WADA was formed to address the escalating use of substances in sports, particularly after the 1998 doping scandal in cycling.
454:
Adaptogens are plants that support health through nonspecific effects, neutralize various environmental and physical stressors while being relatively safe and free of side effects. As of 2008, the position of the
654:
which increases the delivery of oxygen to muscles. It is commonly used among endurance athletes such as cyclists. It functions by protecting red blood cells against destruction whilst simultaneously stimulating
118:
Anabolic steroids are synthetically derived from testosterone and modified to have greater anabolic effects. They work by increasing the concentration of nitrogen in the muscle which inhibits catabolic
628:
Blood doping agents increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood beyond the individual's natural capacity. They are used in endurance sports like long-distance running, cycling, and Nordic skiing.
1018:
Amphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training ...
846:
is popularly used in reference to anabolic steroids or their precursors (hence the colloquial term "steroids"); anti-doping organizations apply the term broadly. Agencies such as the WADA and
3566:
2389:
1221:
92:
supplements) are virtually never classified as performance enhancers despite their effects on performance. As is usual with categorization, there are borderline cases;
64:, are sometimes used by students to improve academic performance. Performance-enhancing substances are also used by military personnel to enhance combat performance.
3859:
1684:
trial following amphetamine ingestion (Swart, 2009). ... Dopamine stimulating drugs are known to enhance aspects of exercise performance (Roelands et al., 2008)
778:
were developing, PEDs saw an increase in use. Supplements were now exclusively being used to enhance muscular work capacity. The main stimulants being used included
281:) also promote mental and athletic performance, as cognitive enhancers and ergogenic aids respectively, by improving muscle strength and endurance while decreasing
1595:
Roelands B, de Koning J, Foster C, Hettinga F, Meeusen R (May 2013). "Neurophysiological determinants of theoretical concepts and mechanisms involved in pacing".
3287:"Relationships between body image, nutritional supplement use, and attitudes towards doping in sport among adolescent boys: implications for prevention programs"
1118:
285:
and fatigue. Stimulants are commonly used in lengthy exercises that require short bursts (e.g., tennis, team sports, etc.). Stimulants work by increasing
139:
method, orally, or through injection. Injectable forms of the steroid are the most potent and long-lasting. In general, potential side effects include:
3026:"Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is an anabolic steroid like dihydrotestosterone (DHT), the most potent natural androgen, and tetrahydrogestrinone (THG)"
1022: • Amphetamines increase dopamine/norepinephrine release and inhibit their reuptake, leading to central nervous system (CNS) stimulation
738:
in 2005 became classified as a controlled substance by WADA, however DHEA can still be obtained legally as an over-the-counter nutritional supplement.
610:
is banned at all times for an athlete by WADA, though performance-enhancing effects have yet to be studied. Cannabis and nicotine are detected through
2354:
Koncic MZ, Tomczyk M (August 2013). "New insights into dietary supplements used in sport: active substances, pharmacological and side effects".
406:, a metabolite of leucine also used as a supplement, has positive effects on lean muscle mass, possibly through a decrease in muscle catabolism.
688:
Gene doping agents are a relatively recently described class of athletic performance-enhancing substances. These drug therapies, which involve
3852:
751:
501:
Nootropics, or "cognition enhancers", are substances that are claimed to benefit overall cognition by improving memory (e.g., increasing
17:
718:
and increase endogenous testosterone. The desired effects of steroid precursors however, are often not seen as they do not bind well to
123:
binding to muscle. This ultimately prohibits the breakdown of muscle and preserves muscle mass. Examples of anabolic steroids include:
746:
While the use of PEDs has expanded in recent times, the practice of using substances to improve performance has been around since the
72:
The classifications of substances as performance-enhancing substances are not entirely clear-cut and objective. As in other types of
2396:
3845:
483:
have been used to prepare athletes and enhance performance in
Olympic competition. However, only bromantane has been placed on the
2593:
586:
which require steady hands and accurate aim, and also to overcome excessive nervousness or discomfort for more dangerous sports.
3596:"Implanted Port Catheter System Infection Caused by Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius ST71-SCCmec type III"
2539:
1414:
850:
try to prevent athletes from using these drugs by performing drug tests. When medical exemptions are granted they are called
247:
to epitestosterone glucuronide, which should be 3:1. Any ratio of 4:1 or greater is considered a positive test. The 1988
3897:
3749:
1534:
1100:
868:
3212:
Holt RI, Erotokritou-Mulligan I, Sönksen PH (August 2009). "The history of doping and growth hormone abuse in sport".
2540:"Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis"
1643:"Is it time to turn our attention toward central mechanisms for post-exertional recovery strategies and performance?"
419:, insulin-like growth factor, the release of which has anabolic effects on the body. Potential side effects include:
2085:
Momaya A, Fawal M, Estes R (April 2015). "Performance-enhancing substances in sports: a review of the literature".
1049:"Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology"
893:
878:
847:
629:
379:
337:. Some stimulants are allowed in competitive sports and are widely accessible, though may also be monitored by the
1308:
van
Amsterdam J, Opperhuizen A, Hartgens F (June 2010). "Adverse health effects of anabolic–androgenic steroids".
3831:
2806:"Erythropoietin as a performance-enhancing drug: Its mechanistic basis, detection, and potential adverse effects"
1435:
Parr JW (July 2011). "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and the athlete: new advances and understanding".
1122:
402:
2057:
3185:
Prendergast HM, Bannen T, Erickson TB, Honore KR (March 2003). "The toxic torch of the modern
Olympic Games".
2423:"The pharmacology of actoprotectors: practical application for improvement of mental and physical performance"
3917:
873:
3892:
734:. These steroids have little desired effect compared to anabolic steroids, but have the same side effects.
212:
913:
3907:
811:
633:
248:
2861:"Detection of EPO doping and blood doping: the haematological module of the Athlete Biological Passport"
3912:
851:
362:
also increases power output at constant levels of perceived exertion, but only during short term use.
456:
252:
1346:
Albano GD, Amico F, Cocimano G, Liberto A, Maglietta F, Esposito M, et al. (19 January 2021).
1101:
Better
Fighting Through Chemistry? The Role of FDA Regulation in Crafting the Warrior of the Future
484:
436:
338:
244:
168:
160:
48:, can be used to improve athletic performance and build muscle, which in most cases is considered
3965:
3950:
3882:
2688:"Red blood cells in sports: effects of exercise and training on oxygen supply by red blood cells"
1024: • Amphetamines seem to enhance athletic performance in anaerobic conditions 39 40
723:
659:
3902:
3024:
Labrie F, Luu-The V, Martel C, Chernomoretz A, Calvo E, Morissette J, et al. (July 2006).
1047:
Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, et al. (January 2015).
731:
391:
3091:"Oral andro-related prohormone supplementation: do the potential risks outweigh the benefits?"
2395:. European Medicines Agency Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products. 8 May 2008. Archived from
936:"The effects of caffeine, nicotine, ethanol, and tetrahydrocannabinol on exercise performance"
3473:"A review of designer anabolic steroids in equine sports: Designer steroids in equine sports"
863:
747:
549:
395:
3955:
1535:"Office of Dietary Supplements – Dietary Supplements for Exercise and Athletic Performance"
883:
371:
255:
both deemed anabolic steroids as an illegal substance when not used for disease treatment.
240:
152:
8:
3960:
514:
290:
2747:"Erythropoietin regulation of red blood cell production: from bench to bedside and back"
1836:
1834:
3887:
3726:
3701:
3674:
3649:
3620:
3595:
3594:
Kitagawa H, Hisatsune J, Ohge H, Kutsuno S, Hara T, Masuda K, et al. (July 2021).
3512:
3408:
3381:
3357:
3340:
3313:
3286:
3154:
3137:
3071:
3003:
2940:
2907:
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2781:
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2722:
2687:
2665:
2567:
2520:
2455:
2422:
2279:
2246:
2222:
2189:
2165:
2132:
2110:
1991:
1931:
1898:
1872:
1785:
1752:
1733:
1669:
1642:
1620:
1507:
1480:
1374:
1347:
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1250:
1173:
1148:
1073:
1048:
962:
935:
667:
510:
282:
274:
228:
216:
140:
49:
41:), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans.
2983:
2499:
2482:
1768:
1064:
3924:
3731:
3679:
3625:
3611:
3547:
3504:
3453:
3449:
3436:
Freeman ER, Bloom DA, McGuire EJ (February 2001). "A brief history of testosterone".
3413:
3362:
3318:
3260:
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3194:
3167:
3159:
3118:
3110:
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2336:
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1983:
1975:
1936:
1918:
1864:
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1790:
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1568:
1512:
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1203:
1178:
1078:
1009:
967:
719:
506:
204:
200:
81:
45:
3075:
3007:
2571:
2524:
2307:"Growth hormone doping in sports: a critical review of use and detection strategies"
2114:
1995:
1876:
1737:
1624:
3721:
3713:
3669:
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3615:
3607:
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3516:
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1967:
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1402:
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1001:
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947:
888:
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670:
or stroke. Per the WADA, it is a banned substance. Urine samples can be tested via
435:. If not prescribed by a professional, it is a banned substance in competition per
180:
113:
77:
3837:
3871:
3341:"Doping in sports and its spread to at-risk populations: an international review"
837:
779:
735:
671:
607:
302:
278:
220:
184:
53:
3041:
2367:
1321:
992:
Liddle DG, Connor DJ (June 2013). "Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS".
3225:
2923:
1560:
1197:
727:
711:
651:
645:
611:
541:
518:
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428:
420:
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236:
120:
73:
2821:
2098:
1971:
1813:
1713:
1608:
1448:
1364:
1005:
3944:
3665:
3398:
3163:
3114:
3059:
2991:
2931:
2884:
2829:
2772:
2713:
2704:
2653:
2508:
2481:
Burnat P, Payen A, Le
Brumant-Payen C, Hugon M, Ceppa F (27 September 1997).
2446:
2332:
2270:
2262:
2213:
2156:
2148:
2034:
1979:
1956:"Effects of creatine supplementation on performance and training adaptations"
1922:
1914:
1776:
1753:"Caffeine: Cognitive and Physical Performance Enhancer or Psychoactive Drug?"
1721:
1659:
1497:
1276:
693:
603:
469:
286:
3303:
3090:
3025:
2967:
2860:
2805:
2626:
Breenfeldt
Andersen A, Nordsborg NB, Bonne TC, Bejder J (26 December 2022).
2010:
1955:
1697:
1104:
952:
96:, for example, is considered a performance enhancer by some but not others.
3868:
3735:
3683:
3629:
3551:
3508:
3457:
3417:
3366:
3322:
3264:
3248:
3233:
3198:
3171:
3122:
3067:
2999:
2949:
2892:
2837:
2790:
2731:
2661:
2563:
2464:
2375:
2340:
2288:
2231:
2174:
2106:
2042:
1987:
1940:
1868:
1794:
1729:
1678:
1616:
1572:
1516:
1456:
1383:
1329:
1294:
1207:
1182:
1082:
1013:
971:
795:
775:
715:
689:
650:
Erythropoietin, or EPO, is a hormone that helps increase the production of
623:
540:
Allows performance beyond the usual pain threshold. Some painkillers raise
346:
270:
208:
148:
2516:
2026:
3771:
3717:
3543:
2555:
2323:
2306:
1164:
756:
683:
663:
656:
599:
591:
545:
318:
306:
172:
136:
124:
56:. Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred to as
2581:
in general, while also indicating that these effects are modest in size.
2205:
1636:
1634:
104:
The phrase has been used to refer to several distinct classes of drugs:
52:
by organized athletic organizations. This usage is often referred to as
3499:
3050:
2625:
2131:
Saugy M, Robinson N, Saudan C, Baume N, Avois L, Mangin P (July 2006).
1267:
783:
705:
577:
480:
322:
232:
192:
156:
132:
128:
61:
2644:
2627:
1859:
1842:
1348:"Adverse Effects of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids: A Literature Review"
1028: • Increased muscle strength and delayed muscle fatigue
3489:
3472:
1631:
803:
764:
760:
557:
535:
496:
449:
432:
359:
298:
264:
224:
196:
188:
176:
3106:
2876:
27:
Substance used to improve any form of activity performance in humans
2859:
Schumacher YO, Saugy M, Pottgiesser T, Robinson N (November 2012).
1397:
Levy JL, Cabrera J, Thomas S, Brennan FH (2008). "Ergogenic Aids".
771:
636:
is the only indirect testing method for detection of blood doping.
587:
573:
561:
476:
424:
386:
375:
341:(WADA), such as caffeine. Others are banned as per the WADA (e.g.,
314:
310:
294:
269:
Stimulants improve focus and alertness. Low (therapeutic) doses of
93:
85:
2858:
2531:
1481:"Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and timing deficits"
1479:
Parker KL, Lamichhane D, Caetano MS, Narayanan NS (October 2013).
2966:
Delbeke FT, Van Eenoo P, Van Thuyne W, Desmet N (December 2002).
2628:"Contemporary blood doping—Performance, mechanism, and detection"
1641:
Rattray B, Argus C, Martin K, Northey J, Driller M (March 2015).
782:, caffeine, and mixtures created by the athletic trainers (e.g.,
662:
to produce more red blood cells. Potential side effects include:
632:(rhEPO) is one of the most widely known drugs in this class. The
595:
583:
342:
330:
89:
2965:
2480:
1478:
1307:
3826:
3211:
3184:
3023:
2804:
Salamin O, Kuuranne T, Saugy M, Leuenberger N (15 March 2018).
2803:
1594:
787:
334:
326:
164:
80:
performance enhancers are universally classified as such (like
3530:
Eidelsberg J (June 1946). "Testosterone pellet implantation".
1750:
934:
Pesta DH, Angadi SS, Burtscher M, Roberts CK (December 2013).
1751:
Cappelletti S, Daria P, Sani G, Aromatario M (January 2015).
1046:
553:
416:
3593:
3564:
2908:"Genetics and the Elite Athlete: Our Understanding in 2020"
1032: • Increased alertness and attention to task
933:
666:
and an increase in blood viscosity which could result in a
144:
3382:"Physiology and Pathophysiology in Ultra-Marathon Running"
2015:
International
Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
1345:
1196:
Ganesan K, Rahman S, Zito PM (2024). "Anabolic
Steroids".
3030:
The
Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
2972:
The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
1640:
60:. Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly called
3797:
3291:
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
2632:
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports
2190:"Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1): a growth hormone"
2130:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2074:
1847:
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports
1474:
1472:
1470:
1396:
710:
Also known as anabolic steroid precursors, they promote
203:. Potential side effects specifically in males include:
2058:"What Do Athletes Need to Know About Creatine? | USADA"
1222:"Performance Enhancing Anabolic Steroid Abuse in Women"
2745:
Bhoopalan SV, Huang LJ, Weiss MJ (18 September 2020).
2011:"Side effects of creatine supplementation in athletes"
1840:
810:. In 1988, the United States Congress established the
714:. Once in the body, these precursors are converted to
2594:""No need for laboratory to test for alcohol" – WADA"
2247:"The Use and Abuse of Human Growth Hormone in Sports"
2071:
1467:
914:"Effects of Performance-Enhancing Drugs | USADA"
3532:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
3338:
1843:"Neurophysiological effects of exercise in the heat"
1558:
3867:
3435:
2744:
696:, are not known to currently be in use as of 2020.
239:, and thickening of vocal cords (voice deepening).
3379:
2905:
1698:"Considerations in the Use of Stimulants in Sport"
582:Sedatives and anxiolytics are used in sports like
223:. Potential side specifically in females include:
3135:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2008:
1896:
1195:
548:. Painkillers used by athletes range from common
3942:
2084:
1590:
1588:
309:. Potential side effects include: hypertension,
3650:"Performance-Enhancing Drug Use in Adolescence"
2537:
1897:Butts J, Jacobs B, Silvis M (23 October 2017).
1567:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
3567:"What is the history of anabolic steroid use?"
3339:Baron DA, Martin DM, Abol Magd S (June 2007).
3284:
3249:"Doping in sports in ancient and recent times"
2612:
1841:Roelands B, De Pauw K, Meeusen R (June 2015).
1430:
1428:
1426:
3853:
3699:
3136:Brown GA, Vukovich M, King DS (August 2006).
2390:"Reflection Paper on the Adaptogenic Concept"
2353:
1695:
1585:
1248:
1042:
1040:
3470:
2347:
991:
987:
985:
983:
981:
567:
3142:Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
1423:
929:
927:
925:
923:
135:. Anabolic steroids can be taken through a
3860:
3846:
3647:
3529:
2906:John R, Dhillon MS, Dhillon S (May 2020).
2538:Ilieva IP, Hook CJ, Farah MJ (June 2015).
2244:
2055:
2009:Francaux M, Poortmans JR (December 2006).
1037:
674:, and blood samples via indirect markers.
505:capacity or updating) or other aspects of
3725:
3673:
3619:
3498:
3488:
3407:
3397:
3356:
3312:
3302:
3153:
3049:
2939:
2780:
2762:
2721:
2703:
2685:
2643:
2498:
2454:
2420:
2322:
2278:
2221:
2164:
1930:
1858:
1784:
1668:
1658:
1506:
1496:
1373:
1363:
1284:
1266:
1172:
1072:
978:
961:
951:
3471:Waller CC, McLeod MD (12 October 2016).
1559:Farzam K, Faizy RM, Saadabadi A (2022),
1030: • Increased acceleration
1026: • Improved reaction time
920:
358:athletic-performance-enhancing effects;
3088:
2304:
1953:
1249:Reardon CL, Creado S (14 August 2014).
14:
3943:
3750:"Performance-Enhancing Drug Resources"
3654:American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine
3095:Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology
3019:
3017:
2961:
2959:
2681:
2679:
2476:
2474:
2300:
2298:
2133:"Human growth hormone doping in sport"
2126:
2124:
1892:
1890:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1341:
1339:
1310:Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology
1146:
1103:(Report). 8 March 2004. Archived from
3841:
3695:
3693:
3643:
3641:
3639:
3589:
3587:
3431:
3429:
3427:
3334:
3332:
3280:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3246:
3138:"Testosterone prohormone supplements"
2187:
1485:Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience
1244:
1242:
289:levels and agonistic activity at the
243:are tested to determine the ratio of
2810:Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology
1434:
1142:
1140:
1020:Physiologic and performance effects
107:
3014:
2956:
2676:
2471:
2295:
2245:Siebert DM, Rao AL (October 2018).
2121:
1960:Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry
1887:
1801:
1399:The Sports Medicine Resource Manual
1336:
1149:"Pharmacology of anabolic steroids"
24:
3898:Ergogenic use of anabolic steroids
3700:Dandoy C, Gereige RS (June 2012).
3690:
3636:
3584:
3565:National Institute on Drug Abuse.
3523:
3424:
3380:Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT (2018).
3373:
3329:
3271:
3155:10.1249/01.mss.0000228928.69512.2e
2421:Oliynyk S, Oh S (September 2012).
2137:British Journal of Sports Medicine
1696:Reardon CL, Factor RM (May 2016).
1255:Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation
1239:
869:Ergogenic use of anabolic steroids
767:to overcome injuries and fatigue.
750:. In the Olympic Games of 668 BC,
722:. Examples of prohormones include
293:. Examples of stimulants include:
84:), whereas other substances (like
25:
3977:
3819:
3798:"U.S. Anti-Doping Agency – USADA"
3214:Growth Hormone & IGF Research
2544:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
1769:10.2174/1570159X13666141210215655
1137:
1119:"Caffeine and Sports Performance"
1065:10.2174/1570159X13666141210221750
831:
802:In the 1980s, the main PEDs were
639:
617:
463:
352:
3825:
3648:White ND, Noeun J (March 2017).
3612:10.2169/internalmedicine.5579-20
3571:National Institute on Drug Abuse
3450:10.1097/00005392-200102000-00004
3285:Yager Z, O'Dea JA (March 2014).
2686:Mairbäurl H (12 November 2013).
2439:10.4062/biomolther.2012.20.5.446
1702:Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.)
1407:10.1016/B978-141603197-0.10048-5
1121:. Vanderbilt.edu. Archived from
894:Steroid use in American football
879:List of drugs used by militaries
848:United States Anti-Doping Agency
630:Recombinant human erythropoietin
380:Beta-Hydroxy-Beta-methylbutyrate
31:Performance-enhancing substances
3930:Performance-enhancing substance
3802:U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA)
3790:
3764:
3742:
3558:
3464:
3240:
3205:
3187:Veterinary and Human Toxicology
3178:
3129:
3082:
2899:
2852:
2797:
2738:
2586:
2483:"Bromontan, a new doping agent"
2427:Biomolecules & Therapeutics
2414:
2382:
2238:
2181:
2049:
2002:
1947:
1744:
1689:
1552:
1527:
1390:
1301:
1153:British Journal of Pharmacology
818:
2912:Indian Journal of Orthopaedics
2764:10.12688/f1000research.26648.1
1214:
1189:
1111:
1093:
906:
699:
677:
544:, increasing oxygen supply to
529:
13:
1:
3918:Masculinizing hormone therapy
3702:"Performance-enhancing drugs"
2984:10.1016/s0960-0760(02)00274-1
2500:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)63310-7
899:
874:List of doping cases in sport
732:dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
524:
490:
443:
258:
67:
3712:(6): 265–271, quiz 271–272.
3089:Broeder CE (February 2003).
2056:Perishable (10 March 2021).
1954:Kreider RB (February 2003).
786:tablets made of cocaine and
770:In the late 19th century as
7:
3908:Transgender hormone therapy
3042:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.03.006
2368:10.2174/1389450111314090016
1322:10.1016/j.yrtph.2010.02.001
857:
844:performance-enhancing drugs
634:Athlete Biological Passport
560:) to powerful prescription
365:
35:performance-enhancing drugs
18:Performance enhancing drugs
10:
3982:
3913:Feminizing hormone therapy
3226:10.1016/j.ghir.2009.04.009
2924:10.1007/s43465-020-00056-z
2757:: F1000 Faculty Rev–1153.
1437:Clinics in Sports Medicine
940:Nutrition & Metabolism
852:therapeutic use exemptions
835:
741:
703:
681:
643:
621:
571:
533:
494:
467:
447:
403:β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate
369:
262:
111:
3878:
3477:Drug Testing and Analysis
2865:Drug Testing and Analysis
2822:10.1016/j.mce.2017.01.033
2305:Baumann GP (April 2012).
2099:10.1007/s40279-015-0308-9
1757:Current Neuropharmacology
1714:10.1007/s40279-015-0456-y
1609:10.1007/s40279-013-0030-4
1449:10.1016/j.csm.2011.03.007
1365:10.3390/healthcare9010097
1202:. StatPearls Publishing.
1053:Current Neuropharmacology
1006:10.1016/j.pop.2013.02.009
763:, etc.) were used by the
568:Sedatives and anxiolytics
457:European Medicines Agency
161:high-density lipoproteins
44:Many substances, such as
3776:World Anti-Doping Agency
3666:10.1177/1559827616680593
3399:10.3389/fphys.2018.00634
2705:10.3389/fphys.2013.00332
2263:10.1177/1941738118782688
2188:Laron Z (October 2001).
2149:10.1136/bjsm.2006.027573
1915:10.1177/1941738117737248
1899:"Creatine Use in Sports"
1818:World Anti-Doping Agency
1660:10.3389/fphys.2015.00079
1498:10.3389/fnint.2013.00075
1251:"Drug abuse in athletes"
485:World Anti-Doping Agency
394:can be replenished from
339:World Anti-Doping Agency
245:testosterone glucuronide
99:
3883:Bodybuilding supplement
3386:Frontiers in Physiology
3304:10.1186/1550-2783-11-13
2968:"Prohormones and sport"
2692:Frontiers in Physiology
1972:10.1023/A:1022465203458
1647:Frontiers in Physiology
1147:Kicman AT (June 2008).
953:10.1186/1743-7075-10-71
3903:Growth hormone therapy
3438:The Journal of Urology
2598:www.insidethegames.biz
392:adenosine triphosphate
2027:10.1123/ijspp.1.4.311
1814:"The Prohibited List"
864:Cosmetic pharmacology
748:Ancient Olympic Games
594:are common examples.
396:adenosine diphosphate
205:male pattern baldness
3893:Clitoris enlargement
3834:at Wikimedia Commons
3718:10.1542/pir.33-6-265
3706:Pediatrics in Review
3544:10.1210/jcem-6-6-423
2556:10.1162/jocn_a_00776
2402:on 20 September 2018
2356:Current Drug Targets
2324:10.1210/er.2011-1035
2143:(Suppl 1): i35–i39.
1401:. pp. 598–610.
1165:10.1038/bjp.2008.165
884:Natural bodybuilding
842:In sports, the term
411:Human Growth Hormone
372:Human growth hormone
349:, ephedrine, etc.).
291:adrenergic receptors
253:Anabolic Steroid Act
213:prostate hypertrophy
153:elevated cholesterol
3253:Medicina Nei Secoli
2206:10.1136/mp.54.5.311
2194:Molecular Pathology
1125:on 29 February 2012
1107:on 3 February 2016.
812:Anti-Drug Abuse Act
515:attentional control
275:reuptake inhibitors
249:Anti-Drug Abuse Act
3888:Breast enlargement
3778:. 14 November 2013
1853:(Suppl 1): 65–78.
1268:10.2147/SAR.S53784
720:androgen receptors
668:pulmonary embolism
552:medicines such as
511:inhibitory control
273:stimulants (e.g.,
217:testicular atrophy
177:peliosis hepatitis
141:muscle hypertrophy
3938:
3937:
3925:Penis enlargement
3830:Media related to
3752:. Drug Free Sport
3606:(14): 2337–2340.
3600:Internal Medicine
3247:Conti AA (2010).
2645:10.1111/sms.14243
2493:(9082): 963–964.
2311:Endocrine Reviews
1860:10.1111/sms.12350
1416:978-1-4160-3197-0
808:anabolic steroids
724:norandrostendione
507:cognitive control
333:, addiction, and
169:hepatic carcinoma
108:Anabolic steroids
82:anabolic steroids
46:anabolic steroids
16:(Redirected from
3973:
3862:
3855:
3848:
3839:
3838:
3829:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3808:
3794:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3783:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3746:
3740:
3739:
3729:
3697:
3688:
3687:
3677:
3645:
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3633:
3623:
3591:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3577:
3562:
3556:
3555:
3527:
3521:
3520:
3502:
3492:
3490:10.1002/dta.2112
3483:(9): 1304–1319.
3468:
3462:
3461:
3433:
3422:
3421:
3411:
3401:
3377:
3371:
3370:
3360:
3345:World Psychiatry
3336:
3327:
3326:
3316:
3306:
3282:
3269:
3268:
3259:(1–3): 181–190.
3244:
3238:
3237:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3157:
3148:(8): 1451–1461.
3133:
3127:
3126:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3053:
3021:
3012:
3011:
2978:(1–5): 245–251.
2963:
2954:
2953:
2943:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2784:
2766:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2725:
2707:
2683:
2674:
2673:
2647:
2638:(1): sms.14243.
2623:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2605:
2600:. 5 October 2017
2590:
2584:
2583:
2550:(6): 1069–1089.
2535:
2529:
2528:
2502:
2478:
2469:
2468:
2458:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2401:
2394:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2362:(9): 1079–1092.
2351:
2345:
2344:
2326:
2302:
2293:
2292:
2282:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2225:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2168:
2128:
2119:
2118:
2082:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1934:
1894:
1885:
1884:
1862:
1838:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1824:
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1799:
1798:
1788:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1693:
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1686:
1672:
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1638:
1629:
1628:
1592:
1583:
1582:
1581:
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1550:
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1545:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1510:
1500:
1476:
1465:
1464:
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1394:
1388:
1387:
1377:
1367:
1343:
1334:
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1298:
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1270:
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1237:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1218:
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1193:
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1186:
1176:
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1135:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1076:
1044:
1035:
1034:
989:
976:
975:
965:
955:
931:
918:
917:
910:
889:Neuroenhancement
780:alcoholic drinks
765:Roman Gladiators
590:, nicotine, and
550:over-the-counter
487:'s banned list.
279:releasing agents
181:septic arthritis
114:Anabolic steroid
33:, also known as
21:
3981:
3980:
3976:
3975:
3974:
3972:
3971:
3970:
3941:
3940:
3939:
3934:
3874:
3872:body alteration
3869:Pharmacological
3866:
3822:
3817:
3816:
3806:
3804:
3796:
3795:
3791:
3781:
3779:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3755:
3753:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3698:
3691:
3646:
3637:
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3575:
3573:
3563:
3559:
3528:
3524:
3469:
3465:
3434:
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3378:
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3337:
3330:
3283:
3272:
3245:
3241:
3210:
3206:
3183:
3179:
3134:
3130:
3107:10.1139/h03-009
3087:
3083:
3022:
3015:
2964:
2957:
2904:
2900:
2877:10.1002/dta.406
2871:(11): 846–853.
2857:
2853:
2802:
2798:
2743:
2739:
2684:
2677:
2624:
2613:
2603:
2601:
2592:
2591:
2587:
2579:
2578:
2536:
2532:
2479:
2472:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2392:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2352:
2348:
2303:
2296:
2243:
2239:
2186:
2182:
2129:
2122:
2087:Sports Medicine
2083:
2072:
2062:
2060:
2054:
2050:
2007:
2003:
1952:
1948:
1895:
1888:
1839:
1832:
1822:
1820:
1812:
1811:
1802:
1749:
1745:
1694:
1690:
1639:
1632:
1597:Sports Medicine
1593:
1586:
1577:
1575:
1557:
1553:
1543:
1541:
1533:
1532:
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1468:
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1391:
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1021:
1019:
990:
979:
932:
921:
912:
911:
907:
902:
860:
840:
838:Doping in sport
834:
821:
772:modern medicine
744:
736:Androstenedione
708:
702:
686:
680:
672:electrophoresis
652:red blood cells
648:
642:
626:
620:
580:
572:Main articles:
570:
538:
532:
527:
499:
493:
472:
466:
452:
446:
382:
370:Main articles:
368:
355:
303:methylphenidate
267:
261:
229:uterine atrophy
221:prostate cancer
116:
110:
102:
70:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3979:
3969:
3968:
3966:Ergogenic aids
3963:
3958:
3953:
3951:Drugs in sport
3936:
3935:
3933:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3921:
3920:
3915:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3879:
3876:
3875:
3865:
3864:
3857:
3850:
3842:
3836:
3835:
3832:Ergogenic aids
3821:
3820:External links
3818:
3815:
3814:
3789:
3763:
3741:
3689:
3660:(2): 122–124.
3635:
3583:
3557:
3538:(6): 423–425.
3522:
3463:
3444:(2): 371–373.
3423:
3372:
3351:(2): 118–123.
3328:
3270:
3239:
3220:(4): 320–326.
3204:
3177:
3128:
3101:(1): 102–116.
3081:
3036:(1–3): 52–58.
3013:
2955:
2918:(3): 256–263.
2898:
2851:
2796:
2737:
2675:
2611:
2585:
2530:
2470:
2433:(5): 446–456.
2413:
2381:
2346:
2317:(2): 155–186.
2294:
2257:(5): 419–426.
2237:
2200:(5): 311–316.
2180:
2120:
2093:(4): 517–531.
2070:
2048:
2021:(4): 311–323.
2001:
1966:(1–2): 89–94.
1946:
1886:
1830:
1800:
1743:
1708:(5): 611–617.
1688:
1630:
1603:(5): 301–311.
1584:
1551:
1539:ods.od.nih.gov
1526:
1466:
1443:(3): 591–610.
1422:
1415:
1389:
1335:
1316:(1): 117–123.
1300:
1238:
1213:
1188:
1159:(3): 502–521.
1136:
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1092:
1036:
1000:(2): 487–505.
977:
919:
904:
903:
901:
898:
897:
896:
891:
886:
881:
876:
871:
866:
859:
856:
836:Main article:
833:
832:Usage in sport
830:
820:
817:
743:
740:
728:androstenediol
712:lean body mass
704:Main article:
701:
698:
682:Main article:
679:
676:
646:Erythropoietin
644:Main article:
641:
640:Erythropoietin
638:
622:Main article:
619:
618:Blood boosters
616:
612:urine analysis
569:
566:
542:blood pressure
534:Main article:
531:
528:
526:
523:
519:attention span
503:working memory
495:Main article:
492:
489:
468:Main article:
465:
464:Actoprotectors
462:
448:Main article:
445:
442:
441:
440:
421:cardiomyopathy
407:
399:
367:
364:
354:
353:Ergogenic aids
351:
263:Main article:
260:
257:
237:breast atrophy
121:glucocorticoid
112:Main article:
109:
106:
101:
98:
74:categorization
69:
66:
58:ergogenic aids
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3978:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3910:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3877:
3873:
3870:
3863:
3858:
3856:
3851:
3849:
3844:
3843:
3840:
3833:
3828:
3824:
3823:
3803:
3799:
3793:
3777:
3773:
3767:
3751:
3745:
3737:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3696:
3694:
3685:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3644:
3642:
3640:
3631:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3590:
3588:
3572:
3568:
3561:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3526:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3467:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3419:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3376:
3368:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3335:
3333:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3208:
3200:
3196:
3193:(2): 97–102.
3192:
3188:
3181:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3018:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2962:
2960:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2902:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2855:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2800:
2792:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2751:F1000Research
2748:
2741:
2733:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2682:
2680:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2599:
2595:
2589:
2582:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2534:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2492:
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2484:
2477:
2475:
2466:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2398:
2391:
2385:
2377:
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2361:
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2350:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2301:
2299:
2290:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2251:Sports Health
2248:
2241:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2184:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2127:
2125:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2059:
2052:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2005:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1903:Sports Health
1900:
1893:
1891:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1835:
1819:
1815:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1747:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1692:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1637:
1635:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1591:
1589:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1555:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1418:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1342:
1340:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1243:
1227:
1223:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1200:
1192:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1143:
1141:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1106:
1102:
1096:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1043:
1041:
1033:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
988:
986:
984:
982:
973:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
945:
941:
937:
930:
928:
926:
924:
915:
909:
905:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
861:
855:
853:
849:
845:
839:
829:
825:
816:
813:
809:
805:
800:
797:
791:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
768:
766:
762:
758:
753:
749:
739:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
707:
697:
695:
694:gene transfer
691:
685:
675:
673:
669:
665:
661:
658:
653:
647:
637:
635:
631:
625:
615:
613:
609:
605:
604:blood testing
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
579:
575:
565:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
537:
522:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
498:
488:
486:
482:
478:
471:
470:Actoprotector
461:
458:
451:
438:
434:
430:
429:renal failure
426:
422:
418:
414:
412:
408:
405:
404:
400:
397:
393:
389:
388:
384:
383:
381:
377:
373:
363:
361:
350:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
287:catecholamine
284:
283:reaction time
280:
276:
272:
266:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
241:Urine samples
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
115:
105:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
65:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
42:
40:
36:
32:
19:
3929:
3805:. Retrieved
3801:
3792:
3780:. Retrieved
3775:
3772:"Who we are"
3766:
3754:. Retrieved
3744:
3709:
3705:
3657:
3653:
3603:
3599:
3574:. Retrieved
3570:
3560:
3535:
3531:
3525:
3480:
3476:
3466:
3441:
3437:
3389:
3385:
3375:
3348:
3344:
3294:
3290:
3256:
3252:
3242:
3217:
3213:
3207:
3190:
3186:
3180:
3145:
3141:
3131:
3098:
3094:
3084:
3033:
3029:
2975:
2971:
2915:
2911:
2901:
2868:
2864:
2854:
2813:
2809:
2799:
2754:
2750:
2740:
2695:
2691:
2635:
2631:
2602:. Retrieved
2597:
2588:
2575:
2547:
2543:
2533:
2490:
2486:
2430:
2426:
2416:
2404:. Retrieved
2397:the original
2384:
2359:
2355:
2349:
2314:
2310:
2254:
2250:
2240:
2197:
2193:
2183:
2140:
2136:
2090:
2086:
2061:. Retrieved
2051:
2018:
2014:
2004:
1963:
1959:
1949:
1909:(1): 31–34.
1906:
1902:
1880:
1850:
1846:
1821:. Retrieved
1817:
1763:(1): 71–88.
1760:
1756:
1746:
1705:
1701:
1691:
1682:
1650:
1646:
1600:
1596:
1576:, retrieved
1564:
1561:"Stimulants"
1554:
1542:. Retrieved
1538:
1529:
1520:
1488:
1484:
1460:
1440:
1436:
1398:
1392:
1355:
1351:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1258:
1254:
1229:. Retrieved
1226:www.acog.org
1225:
1216:
1198:
1191:
1156:
1152:
1127:. Retrieved
1123:the original
1113:
1105:the original
1095:
1086:
1056:
1052:
1017:
997:
994:Primary Care
993:
943:
939:
908:
843:
841:
826:
822:
819:Risk factors
801:
796:bodybuilders
792:
776:pharmacology
769:
745:
716:testosterone
709:
690:viral vector
687:
649:
627:
624:Blood doping
581:
546:muscle cells
539:
500:
473:
453:
409:
401:
385:
356:
347:amphetamines
271:dopaminergic
268:
209:oligospermia
185:Wilm's tumor
159:, decreased
149:hypertension
117:
103:
71:
57:
43:
38:
34:
30:
29:
3956:Amphetamine
3500:1885/146363
3051:11336/71854
2406:2 September
1059:(1): 5–11.
916:. May 2019.
757:Cola Nitida
700:Prohormones
684:Gene doping
678:Gene doping
664:dehydration
657:bone marrow
592:propranolol
530:Painkillers
319:weight loss
307:amphetamine
173:cholestasis
137:transdermal
125:oxandrolone
3961:Nootropics
3945:Categories
3807:3 November
3782:3 November
2604:13 October
1565:StatPearls
1352:Healthcare
1261:: 95–105.
1199:StatPearls
900:References
794:Images of
784:strychnine
706:Prohormone
692:-mediated
578:Anxiolytic
525:CNS agents
491:Nootropics
481:bromantane
444:Adaptogens
323:arrhythmia
259:Stimulants
233:amenorrhea
201:depression
193:aggression
163:, altered
157:thrombosis
133:nandrolone
129:stanozolol
76:, certain
68:Definition
62:nootropics
3297:(1): 13.
3164:0195-9131
3115:1066-7814
3060:0960-0760
2992:0960-0760
2932:0019-5413
2885:1942-7611
2830:1872-8057
2816:: 75–87.
2773:2046-1402
2714:1664-042X
2670:252898039
2654:0905-7188
2509:0140-6736
2447:1976-9148
2333:1945-7189
2271:1941-0921
2214:1366-8714
2157:0306-3674
2035:1555-0265
1980:0300-8177
1923:1941-7381
1777:1570-159X
1722:1179-2035
1358:(1): 97.
1277:1179-8467
946:(1): 71.
828:the top.
804:cortisone
562:narcotics
558:ibuprofen
556:(such as
536:Analgesic
521:, etc.).
497:Nootropic
450:Adaptogen
433:hepatitis
360:bupropion
315:headaches
299:ephedrine
265:Stimulant
251:and 1990
225:hirsutism
197:addiction
189:psychosis
78:prototype
3756:14 April
3736:22659257
3684:30202322
3630:33583884
3552:20988415
3509:27732767
3458:11176375
3418:29910741
3367:18235871
3323:24670105
3265:21560989
3234:19467612
3199:12678299
3172:16888459
3123:12671199
3076:11815469
3068:16797178
3008:46183096
3000:12650722
2950:32399143
2893:22374784
2838:28119134
2791:32983414
2732:24273518
2662:36229224
2572:15788121
2564:25591060
2525:34909949
2465:24009833
2376:23574283
2341:22368183
2289:29932857
2232:11577173
2175:16799101
2115:45124293
2107:25663250
2063:12 April
2043:19124889
1996:35050122
1988:12701815
1941:29059531
1877:22782401
1869:25943657
1823:12 April
1795:26074744
1738:27551597
1730:26712509
1679:25852568
1625:30392999
1617:23456493
1578:12 April
1573:30969718
1544:12 April
1517:24198770
1457:21658550
1384:33477800
1330:20153798
1295:25187752
1231:12 April
1208:29494025
1183:18500378
1083:26074739
1014:23668655
972:24330705
858:See also
761:Bufotein
608:Cannabis
588:Diazepam
574:Sedative
477:bemethyl
475:such as
425:diabetes
387:Creatine
376:Creatine
366:Examples
311:insomnia
295:Caffeine
94:caffeine
86:vitamins
54:"doping"
50:cheating
3727:4528343
3675:6125030
3621:8355384
3576:5 April
3517:9056906
3409:5992463
3392:: 634.
3358:2219897
3314:3986904
2941:7205921
2846:3441151
2782:7503180
2723:3824146
2698:: 332.
2517:9314900
2456:3762282
2280:6116101
2223:1187088
2166:2657499
1932:5753968
1786:4462044
1670:4362407
1508:3813949
1375:7832337
1286:4140700
1174:2439524
1129:4 March
1074:4462043
963:3878772
752:Charmis
742:History
596:Ethanol
584:archery
509:(e.g.,
343:cocaine
335:strokes
331:anxiety
327:tremors
90:protein
3734:
3724:
3682:
3672:
3628:
3618:
3550:
3515:
3507:
3456:
3416:
3406:
3365:
3355:
3321:
3311:
3263:
3232:
3197:
3170:
3162:
3121:
3113:
3074:
3066:
3058:
3006:
2998:
2990:
2948:
2938:
2930:
2891:
2883:
2844:
2836:
2828:
2789:
2779:
2771:
2730:
2720:
2712:
2668:
2660:
2652:
2570:
2562:
2523:
2515:
2507:
2487:Lancet
2463:
2453:
2445:
2374:
2339:
2331:
2287:
2277:
2269:
2230:
2220:
2212:
2173:
2163:
2155:
2113:
2105:
2041:
2033:
1994:
1986:
1978:
1939:
1929:
1921:
1875:
1867:
1793:
1783:
1775:
1736:
1728:
1720:
1677:
1667:
1653:: 79.
1623:
1615:
1571:
1515:
1505:
1491:: 75.
1455:
1413:
1382:
1372:
1328:
1293:
1283:
1275:
1206:
1181:
1171:
1081:
1071:
1012:
970:
960:
788:brandy
730:, and
600:breath
554:NSAIDs
431:, and
378:, and
219:, and
199:, and
165:libido
3513:S2CID
3072:S2CID
3004:S2CID
2842:S2CID
2666:S2CID
2568:S2CID
2521:S2CID
2400:(PDF)
2393:(PDF)
2111:S2CID
1992:S2CID
1873:S2CID
1734:S2CID
1621:S2CID
660:cells
417:IGF-1
413:(hGH)
100:Types
3809:2015
3784:2015
3758:2013
3732:PMID
3680:PMID
3626:PMID
3578:2022
3548:PMID
3505:PMID
3454:PMID
3414:PMID
3363:PMID
3319:PMID
3261:PMID
3230:PMID
3195:PMID
3168:PMID
3160:ISSN
3119:PMID
3111:ISSN
3064:PMID
3056:ISSN
2996:PMID
2988:ISSN
2946:PMID
2928:ISSN
2889:PMID
2881:ISSN
2834:PMID
2826:ISSN
2787:PMID
2769:ISSN
2728:PMID
2710:ISSN
2658:PMID
2650:ISSN
2606:2023
2560:PMID
2513:PMID
2505:ISSN
2461:PMID
2443:ISSN
2408:2018
2372:PMID
2337:PMID
2329:ISSN
2285:PMID
2267:ISSN
2228:PMID
2210:ISSN
2171:PMID
2153:ISSN
2103:PMID
2065:2022
2039:PMID
2031:ISSN
1984:PMID
1976:ISSN
1937:PMID
1919:ISSN
1865:PMID
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