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Pauli matrices

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11150: 10454: 11145:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\operatorname {tr} \left(\sigma _{\alpha }\right)&=2\delta _{0\alpha }\\\operatorname {tr} \left(\sigma _{\alpha }\sigma _{\beta }\right)&=2\delta _{\alpha \beta }\\\operatorname {tr} \left(\sigma _{\alpha }\sigma _{\beta }\sigma _{\gamma }\right)&=2\sum _{(\alpha \beta \gamma )}\delta _{\alpha \beta }\delta _{0\gamma }-4\delta _{0\alpha }\delta _{0\beta }\delta _{0\gamma }+2i\varepsilon _{0\alpha \beta \gamma }\\\operatorname {tr} \left(\sigma _{\alpha }\sigma _{\beta }\sigma _{\gamma }\sigma _{\mu }\right)&=2\left(\delta _{\alpha \beta }\delta _{\gamma \mu }-\delta _{\alpha \gamma }\delta _{\beta \mu }+\delta _{\alpha \mu }\delta _{\beta \gamma }\right)+4\left(\delta _{\alpha \gamma }\delta _{0\beta }\delta _{0\mu }+\delta _{\beta \mu }\delta _{0\alpha }\delta _{0\gamma }\right)-8\delta _{0\alpha }\delta _{0\beta }\delta _{0\gamma }\delta _{0\mu }+2i\sum _{(\alpha \beta \gamma \mu )}\varepsilon _{0\alpha \beta \gamma }\delta _{0\mu }\end{aligned}}} 4205: 12206: 13229: 3676: 3337: 10431: 11565: 15868: 20662: 12739: 2955: 10071: 4200:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}&=(a_{k}\,{\hat {x}}_{k})\cdot (\sigma _{\ell }\,{\hat {x}}_{\ell })=a_{k}\,\sigma _{\ell }\,{\hat {x}}_{k}\cdot {\hat {x}}_{\ell }\\&=a_{k}\,\sigma _{\ell }\,\delta _{k\ell }=a_{k}\,\sigma _{k}\\&=a_{1}{\begin{pmatrix}0&1\\1&0\end{pmatrix}}+a_{2}{\begin{pmatrix}0&-i\\i&0\end{pmatrix}}+a_{3}{\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\0&-1\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}a_{3}&a_{1}-ia_{2}\\a_{1}+ia_{2}&-a_{3}\end{pmatrix}},\end{aligned}}} 15556: 12201:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}e^{ia\left({\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right)}&=\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {i^{k}\left^{k}}{k!}}\\&=\sum _{p=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{p}(a{\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }})^{2p}}{(2p)!}}+i\sum _{q=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{q}(a{\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }})^{2q+1}}{(2q+1)!}}\\&=I\sum _{p=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{p}a^{2p}}{(2p)!}}+i({\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }})\sum _{q=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{q}a^{2q+1}}{(2q+1)!}}\\\end{aligned}}} 13224:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}e^{ia\left({\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right)}e^{ib\left({\hat {m}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right)}&=I\left(\cos a\cos b-{\hat {n}}\cdot {\hat {m}}\sin a\sin b\right)+i\left({\hat {n}}\sin a\cos b+{\hat {m}}\sin b\cos a-{\hat {n}}\times {\hat {m}}~\sin a\sin b\right)\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\\&=I\cos {c}+i\left({\hat {k}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right)\sin c\\&=e^{ic\left({\hat {k}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right)},\end{aligned}}} 14300: 6942: 3332:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\psi _{x+}&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\begin{bmatrix}1\\1\end{bmatrix}},&\psi _{x-}&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\begin{bmatrix}1\\-1\end{bmatrix}},\\\psi _{y+}&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\begin{bmatrix}1\\i\end{bmatrix}},&\psi _{y-}&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\begin{bmatrix}1\\-i\end{bmatrix}},\\\psi _{z+}&={\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix}},&\psi _{z-}&={\begin{bmatrix}0\\1\end{bmatrix}}.\end{aligned}}} 10426:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\operatorname {tr} \left(\sigma _{j}\right)&=0\\\operatorname {tr} \left(\sigma _{j}\sigma _{k}\right)&=2\delta _{jk}\\\operatorname {tr} \left(\sigma _{j}\sigma _{k}\sigma _{\ell }\right)&=2i\varepsilon _{jk\ell }\\\operatorname {tr} \left(\sigma _{j}\sigma _{k}\sigma _{\ell }\sigma _{m}\right)&=2\left(\delta _{jk}\delta _{\ell m}-\delta _{j\ell }\delta _{km}+\delta _{jm}\delta _{k\ell }\right)\end{aligned}}} 15089: 357: 9577: 33: 15863:{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\left(\mathbf {1} +{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right)={\begin{pmatrix}\cos ^{2}\left({\frac {\,\theta \,}{2}}\right)&e^{-i\,\phi }\sin \left({\frac {\,\theta \,}{2}}\right)\cos \left({\frac {\,\theta \,}{2}}\right)\\e^{+i\,\phi }\sin \left({\frac {\,\theta \,}{2}}\right)\cos \left({\frac {\,\theta \,}{2}}\right)&\sin ^{2}\left({\frac {\,\theta \,}{2}}\right)\end{pmatrix}}} 14709: 9081: 13932: 6575: 14887: 9816: 17248: 2914: 116: 13761: 9279: 14468: 14522: 8799: 14295:{\displaystyle R_{n}(-a)~{\vec {\sigma }}~R_{n}(a)=e^{i{\frac {a}{2}}\left({\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right)}~{\vec {\sigma }}~e^{-i{\frac {a}{2}}\left({\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right)}={\vec {\sigma }}\cos(a)+{\hat {n}}\times {\vec {\sigma }}~\sin(a)+{\hat {n}}~{\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}~(1-\cos(a))~.} 17057: 6937:{\displaystyle \psi _{+}={\frac {1}{{\sqrt {2\left|{\vec {a}}\right|\ (a_{3}+\left|{\vec {a}}\right|)\ }}\ }}{\begin{bmatrix}a_{3}+\left|{\vec {a}}\right|\\a_{1}+ia_{2}\end{bmatrix}};\qquad \psi _{-}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2|{\vec {a}}|(a_{3}+|{\vec {a}}|)}}}{\begin{bmatrix}ia_{2}-a_{1}\\a_{3}+|{\vec {a}}|\end{bmatrix}}~.} 15223: 16677: 19192: 17367: 15084:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}c&={}{\tfrac {1}{2}}\,\operatorname {tr} \,M\,,{\begin{aligned}&&a_{k}&={\tfrac {1}{2}}\,\operatorname {tr} \,\sigma ^{k}\,M.\end{aligned}}\\\therefore ~~2\,M&=I\,\operatorname {tr} \,M+\sum _{k}\sigma ^{k}\,\operatorname {tr} \,\sigma ^{k}M~,\end{aligned}}} 9600: 2707: 13527: 1304: 19326: 1518: 15978: 13514: 4623: 15387: 8291: 7936: 18839: 352:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sigma _{1}=\sigma _{x}&={\begin{pmatrix}0&1\\1&0\end{pmatrix}},\\\sigma _{2}=\sigma _{y}&={\begin{pmatrix}0&-i\\i&0\end{pmatrix}},\\\sigma _{3}=\sigma _{z}&={\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\0&-1\end{pmatrix}}.\\\end{aligned}}} 12709: 9572:{\displaystyle ~~{\begin{aligned}a_{j}b_{k}\sigma _{j}\sigma _{k}&=a_{j}b_{k}\left(i\varepsilon _{jk\ell }\,\sigma _{\ell }+\delta _{jk}I\right)\\a_{j}\sigma _{j}b_{k}\sigma _{k}&=i\varepsilon _{jk\ell }\,a_{j}b_{k}\sigma _{\ell }+a_{j}b_{k}\delta _{jk}I\end{aligned}}.~} 2700: 5531: 18394: 18031: 14704:{\displaystyle {\vec {\sigma }}_{\alpha \beta }\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}_{\gamma \delta }\equiv \sum _{k=1}^{3}\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{k}\,\sigma _{\gamma \delta }^{k}=2\,\delta _{\alpha \delta }\,\delta _{\beta \gamma }-\delta _{\alpha \beta }\,\delta _{\gamma \delta }.} 14307: 12363: 15547: 9076:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left+\{\sigma _{j},\sigma _{k}\}&=(\sigma _{j}\sigma _{k}-\sigma _{k}\sigma _{j})+(\sigma _{j}\sigma _{k}+\sigma _{k}\sigma _{j})\\2i\varepsilon _{jk\ell }\,\sigma _{\ell }+2\delta _{jk}I&=2\sigma _{j}\sigma _{k}\end{aligned}}} 8664: 16488: 4822: 6419: 17695: 15094: 8484: 3473: 1630: 16174: 10056: 11547: 7246: 16291: 5856: 18521:. The Pauli matrices are some of the most important single-qubit operations. In that context, the Cartan decomposition given above is called the "Z–Y decomposition of a single-qubit gate". Choosing a different Cartan pair gives a similar "X–Y 9191: 17584: 5081: 4977: 16543: 18933: 9811:{\displaystyle ~~{\Bigl (}{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}{\Bigr )}{\Bigl (}{\vec {b}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}{\Bigr )}={\Bigl (}{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {b}}{\Bigr )}\,I+i{\Bigl (}{\vec {a}}\times {\vec {b}}{\Bigr )}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}~~} 17258: 17243:{\displaystyle \mathbf {1} \mapsto I,\quad \mathbf {i} \mapsto -\sigma _{2}\sigma _{3}=-i\,\sigma _{1},\quad \mathbf {j} \mapsto -\sigma _{3}\sigma _{1}=-i\,\sigma _{2},\quad \mathbf {k} \mapsto -\sigma _{1}\sigma _{2}=-i\,\sigma _{3}.} 17030: 2020: 5219: 2909:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left\{\sigma _{1},\sigma _{1}\right\}&=2I\\\left\{\sigma _{1},\sigma _{2}\right\}&=0\\\left\{\sigma _{2},\sigma _{3}\right\}&=0\\\left\{\sigma _{3},\sigma _{1}\right\}&=0\end{aligned}}} 14874: 13345: 4510: 15277: 18218: 7823: 7098: 4403: 17801:
in order to return to their original configuration. This is due to the two-to-one correspondence between SU(2) and SO(3) mentioned above, and the fact that, although one visualizes spin up/down as the north–south pole on the
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of SU(2). The elements of SU(2) are exponentials of linear combinations of these three generators, and multiply as indicated above in discussing the Pauli vector. Although this suffices to generate SU(2), it is not a proper
7349: 1157: 19206: 6277: 1367: 13332: 17935:, the spinors in four dimensions are 4 × 1 (or 1 × 4) matrices. Hence the Pauli matrices or the Sigma matrices operating on these spinors have to be 4 × 4 matrices. They are defined in terms of 2 × 2 Pauli matrices as 15875: 8113: 6028: 19481:"Des lois géometriques qui regissent les déplacements d' un systéme solide dans l' espace, et de la variation des coordonnées provenant de ces déplacement considérées indépendant des causes qui peuvent les produire" 18723: 13756:{\displaystyle e^{ic{\hat {k}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}}=\exp \left(i{\frac {c}{\sin c}}\left({\hat {n}}\sin a\cos b+{\hat {m}}\sin b\cos a-{\hat {n}}\times {\hat {m}}~\sin a\sin b\right)\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right).} 8784: 8175: 18732: 18283: 15452: 9979: 4465: 4682: 12535: 2457: 7815: 2218: 4695: 2106: 11319: 14892: 18496: 18304: 17941: 11405: 14463:{\textstyle R_{y}{\mathord {\left(-{\frac {\pi }{2}}\right)}}\,\sigma _{x}\,R_{y}{\mathord {\left({\frac {\pi }{2}}\right)}}={\hat {x}}\cdot \left({\hat {y}}\times {\vec {\sigma }}\right)=\sigma _{z}} 7656: 16072: 7740: 5717: 8167: 5397: 5389: 3350: 12222: 7559: 6567: 6469: 6122: 14932: 12744: 11570: 10459: 10076: 9290: 8804: 3681: 2960: 2712: 2462: 1906: 1553: 121: 14792: 8033: 5131: 1772: 381:. They also represent the interaction states of two polarization filters for horizontal/vertical polarization, 45 degree polarization (right/left), and circular polarization (right/left). 9984: 6995: 2324: 16385: 16296:
Its eigenvalues are therefore 1 or −1. It may thus be utilized as an interaction term in a Hamiltonian, splitting the energy eigenvalues of its symmetric versus antisymmetric eigenstates.
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as its Lie bracket) via functions of matrices, making the map an isomorphism of Lie algebras. This makes the Pauli matrices intertwiners from the point of view of representation theory.
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Taking the dot product of any unit vector with the above formula generates the expression of any single qubit operator under any rotation. For example, it can be shown that
8699: 7159: 7124: 4853: 3581: 3545: 3509: 16189: 8359: 5754: 1123: 976: 912: 17400: 17052: 16966: 1801: 1724: 1089: 1028: 878: 694: 7151: 5285: 1058: 942: 826: 796: 768: 740: 17477: 15218:{\displaystyle 2\,M_{\alpha \beta }=\delta _{\alpha \beta }\,M_{\gamma \gamma }+\sum _{k}\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{k}\,\sigma _{\gamma \delta }^{k}\,M_{\delta \gamma }~,} 13927: 13850: 13821: 13792: 12477: 4501: 3668: 3639: 3610: 16672:{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {su}}(2)=\operatorname {span} \left\{{\frac {\,i\,\sigma _{1}\,}{2}},{\frac {\,i\,\sigma _{2}\,}{2}},{\frac {\,i\,\sigma _{3}\,}{2}}\right\}.} 9092: 4329: 4267: 19187:{\displaystyle {\hat {k}}\tan c/2=({\hat {n}}\tan a/2+{\hat {m}}\tan b/2-{\hat {m}}\times {\hat {n}}\tan a/2~\tan b/2)/(1-{\hat {m}}\cdot {\hat {n}}\tan a/2~\tan b/2)} 17485: 17362:{\displaystyle \mathbf {1} \mapsto I,\quad \mathbf {i} \mapsto i\,\sigma _{3}\,,\quad \mathbf {j} \mapsto i\,\sigma _{2}\,,\quad \mathbf {k} \mapsto i\,\sigma _{1}~.} 8519: 4985: 4881: 17896:. The analog formula to the above generalization of Euler's formula for Pauli matrices, the group element in terms of spin matrices, is tractable, but less simple. 16971: 5746: 1937: 13236: 5887: 13898: 8793:
Pauli vectors elegantly map these commutation and anticommutation relations to corresponding vector products. Adding the commutator to the anticommutator gives
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A standard result in linear algebra (a linear map that satisfies a polynomial equation written in distinct linear factors is diagonal) means this implies
4334: 9940: 7354: 1299:{\displaystyle \sigma _{j}={\begin{pmatrix}\delta _{j3}&\delta _{j1}-i\,\delta _{j2}\\\delta _{j1}+i\,\delta _{j2}&-\delta _{j3}\end{pmatrix}},} 19321:{\displaystyle \left({\begin{smallmatrix}1&0&0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&1&0&0\\0&0&0&1\end{smallmatrix}}\right)~.} 1513:{\displaystyle \sigma _{1}^{2}=\sigma _{2}^{2}=\sigma _{3}^{2}=-i\,\sigma _{1}\sigma _{2}\sigma _{3}={\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\0&1\end{pmatrix}}=I,} 7251: 20320: 15973:{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}\cos \left({\frac {\,\theta \,}{2}}\right)&e^{+i\phi }\,\sin \left({\frac {\,\theta \,}{2}}\right)\end{pmatrix}}} 6178: 13866: 13509:{\displaystyle {\hat {k}}={\frac {1}{\sin c}}\left({\hat {n}}\sin a\cos b+{\hat {m}}\sin b\cos a-{\hat {n}}\times {\hat {m}}\sin a\sin b\right).} 12384: 4618:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}\operatorname {tr} {\Bigl (}{\bigl (}{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}{\bigr )}{\vec {\sigma }}{\Bigr )}={\vec {a}}.} 8038: 15382:{\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{3}\sigma _{\alpha \beta }^{k}\,\sigma _{\gamma \delta }^{k}=2\,\delta _{\alpha \delta }\,\delta _{\beta \gamma }~.} 18671: 8286:{\displaystyle \Lambda (S)^{\mu }{}_{\nu }={\tfrac {1}{2}}\operatorname {tr} \left({\bar {\sigma }}_{\nu }S\sigma ^{\mu }S^{\dagger }\right).} 17773: 7931:{\displaystyle x_{\nu }={\tfrac {1}{2}}\operatorname {tr} {\Bigl (}{\bar {\sigma }}_{\nu }{\bigl (}x_{\mu }\sigma ^{\mu }{\bigr )}{\Bigr )}.} 18834:{\displaystyle \cdot :\mathbb {R} ^{3}\times ({\mathcal {M}}_{2}(\mathbb {C} )\otimes \mathbb {R} ^{3})\to {\mathcal {M}}_{2}(\mathbb {C} )} 8704: 18223: 4408: 14733: 12704:{\displaystyle f(a({\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}))=I{\frac {f(a)+f(-a)}{2}}+{\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}{\frac {f(a)-f(-a)}{2}}.} 4628: 2695:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left&=0\\\left&=2i\sigma _{3}\\\left&=2i\sigma _{1}\\\left&=2i\sigma _{2}\end{aligned}}} 7751: 2160: 20534: 19753: 18389:{\displaystyle {\mathsf {\alpha }}_{k}={\begin{pmatrix}0&{\mathsf {\sigma }}_{k}\\{\mathsf {\sigma }}_{k}&0\end{pmatrix}}.} 18026:{\displaystyle {\mathsf {\Sigma }}_{k}={\begin{pmatrix}{\mathsf {\sigma }}_{k}&0\\0&{\mathsf {\sigma }}_{k}\end{pmatrix}}.} 15407:
2 × 2 matrices with unit trace. This can be seen by first expressing an arbitrary Hermitian matrix as a real linear combination of
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of this representation with itself repeatedly, one may construct all higher irreducible representations. That is, the resulting
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More abstractly, without computing the determinant, which requires explicit properties of the Pauli matrices, this follows from
11556: 7605: 5526:{\displaystyle U*{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}={\vec {a}}'\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}=:(R(U)\ {\vec {a}})\cdot {\vec {\sigma }},} 16896: 16033: 7675: 19713: 19678: 19521: 19433: 12358:{\displaystyle ~~e^{ia\left({\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right)}=I\cos {a}+i({\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }})\sin {a}~~} 5662: 17737:
particle, in each of the three spatial directions. As an immediate consequence of the Cartan decomposition mentioned above,
15542:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}={\begin{pmatrix}\sin \theta \cos \phi &\sin \theta \sin \phi &\cos \theta \end{pmatrix}},} 8118: 5334: 20544: 20310: 7507: 6522: 6424: 6077: 1826: 1345:
and 0 otherwise. This expression is useful for "selecting" any one of the matrices numerically by substituting values of
17: 7987: 5086: 1729: 8659:{\textstyle \det \left(\sum _{\mu }x_{\mu }\sigma ^{\mu }\right)=\sum _{\mu }\det \left(x_{\mu }\sigma ^{\mu }\right).} 6947: 16483:{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {su}}(2)=\operatorname {span} \{\;i\,\sigma _{1}\,,\;i\,\sigma _{2}\,,\;i\,\sigma _{3}\;\}.} 4817:{\displaystyle \det {\bigl (}{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}{\bigr )}=-{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {a}}=-|{\vec {a}}|^{2}.} 2283: 19647: 19348: 18571: 13880:
It is also straightforward to likewise work out the adjoint action on the Pauli vector, namely rotation of any angle
12508: 17437: 6414:{\displaystyle \ ({\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}-|{\vec {a}}|)({\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}+|{\vec {a}}|)=0.} 17893: 2331: 20345: 18581: 18094: 18039: 17690:{\displaystyle Q_{\theta }={\boldsymbol {1}}\,\cos {\frac {\theta }{2}}+i\,\sigma _{x}\sin {\frac {\theta }{2}}.} 16503: 2114: 19892: 17932: 17869: 16508: 14474: 8479:{\displaystyle \det(A+B)=\det(A)+\det(B)+\operatorname {tr} (A)\operatorname {tr} (B)-\operatorname {tr} (AB).} 5539: 3468:{\displaystyle {\vec {\sigma }}=\sigma _{1}{\hat {x}}_{1}+\sigma _{2}{\hat {x}}_{2}+\sigma _{3}{\hat {x}}_{3},} 1625:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\det \sigma _{j}&=-1,\\\operatorname {tr} \sigma _{j}&=0,\end{aligned}}} 20718: 20713: 18084: 16180: 7943: 16169:{\displaystyle P_{jk}\left|\sigma _{j}\sigma _{k}\right\rangle =\left|\sigma _{k}\sigma _{j}\right\rangle .} 20708: 20109: 19746: 15404: 1663: 565: 19404: 16333: 11191: 10051:{\displaystyle {\frac {\vec {\sigma }}{2}}\times {\frac {\vec {\sigma }}{2}}=i{\frac {\vec {\sigma }}{2}}} 2438:
using the Clifford algebra recovers the commutation relations above, up to unimportant numerical factors.
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These commutation relations make the Pauli matrices the generators of a representation of the Lie algebra
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in turn useful when any of the matrices (but no particular one) is to be used in algebraic manipulations.
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2 × 2 matrices can be expressed in terms of the identity matrix and the Pauli matrices also leads to the
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is a 3-component, complex vector. It is straightforward to show, using the properties listed above, that
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Consequently, the composite rotation parameters in this group element (a closed form of the respective
8299: 7241:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}=a(\sin \vartheta \cos \varphi ,\sin \vartheta \sin \varphi ,\cos \vartheta )} 5625: 2251: 610: 462: 16286:{\displaystyle P_{jk}={\frac {1}{2}}\,\left({\vec {\sigma }}_{j}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}_{k}+1\right)~.} 6033: 5851:{\displaystyle R(U)_{ij}={\frac {1}{2}}\operatorname {tr} \left(\sigma _{i}U\sigma _{j}U^{-1}\right).} 5591: 4272: 4217: 3673:
The Pauli vector provides a mapping mechanism from a vector basis to a Pauli matrix basis as follows:
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Explicitly, in the convention of "right-space matrices into elements of left-space matrices", it is
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Alternatively, the isomorphism can be achieved by a map using the Pauli matrices in reversed order,
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and allow raising and lowering using the Minkowski metric tensor. The relation can then be written
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This 4-vector also has a completeness relation. It is convenient to define a second Pauli 4-vector
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These anti-commutation relations make the Pauli matrices the generators of a representation of the
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An alternative notation that is commonly used for the Pauli matrices is to write the vector index
9186:{\displaystyle ~~\sigma _{j}\sigma _{k}=\delta _{jk}I+i\varepsilon _{jk\ell }\,\sigma _{\ell }~.~} 1784: 1707: 1064: 1003: 853: 677: 20584: 20513: 20395: 20255: 19852: 19739: 7129: 5258: 5224: 1036: 920: 804: 774: 746: 718: 17579:{\displaystyle P={\vec {x}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}=x\,\sigma _{x}+y\,\sigma _{y}+z\,\sigma _{z}.} 17453: 13903: 13826: 13797: 13768: 12404: 5076:{\displaystyle \det(U*{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }})=\det({\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}),} 4972:{\displaystyle U*{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}:=U\,{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\,U^{-1},} 4477: 3644: 3615: 3586: 20454: 20037: 19842: 15440: 14881: 12526: 4308: 4246: 402: 40: 17054:
to this set is given by the following map (notice the reversed signs for the Pauli matrices):
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In the last line, the first sum is the cosine, while the second sum is the sine; so, finally,
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This cross-product can be used to prove the orientation-preserving property of the map above.
20400: 20137: 19987: 19982: 19817: 19792: 19787: 19513: 19461: 17025:{\displaystyle \left\{\;\mathbf {1} ,\,\mathbf {i} ,\,\mathbf {j} ,\,\mathbf {k} \;\right\}.} 16880: 15400: 8492: 2015:{\displaystyle (\mathbb {R} ^{3},\times )\cong {\mathfrak {su}}(2)\cong {\mathfrak {so}}(3).} 378: 18587: 7940:
Similarly to the Pauli 3-vector case, we can find a matrix group that acts as isometries on
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The following traces can be derived using the commutation and anticommutation relations.
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implies that the rotation is orientation preserving. This allows the definition of a map
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the rotation angles of the rotation group. That is, the Gibbs formula linked amounts to
14869:{\displaystyle \operatorname {tr} \left(\sigma ^{j}\,\sigma ^{k}\right)=2\,\delta _{jk}} 5869: 20666: 20620: 20610: 20564: 20559: 20488: 20424: 20290: 20027: 20022: 19957: 19947: 19812: 19667: 19635: 19601: 19575: 19379: 18622: 18561: 13883: 12388: 11552: 11225: 9196: 5314: 5290: 4858: 1924: 1912: 1129: 982: 832: 430: 424: 17446:, Pauli matrices are useful in the context of the Cayley-Klein parameters. The matrix 6172:
This follows immediately from tracelessness and explicitly computing the determinant.
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anti-Hermitian matrices with trace 0. Direct calculation, as above, shows that the
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in the superscript, and the matrix indices as subscripts, so that the element in row
5214:{\displaystyle U*{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}={\vec {a}}'\cdot {\vec {\sigma }},} 4208: 1539: 1356: 366: 82: 19605: 19383: 18566: 18213:{\displaystyle \ \Sigma _{k\ell }\equiv \epsilon _{jk\ell }{\mathsf {\Sigma }}_{j}.} 9895:, which is also the definition for the product of two vectors in geometric algebra. 7093:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}=\left|{\vec {a}}\right|(\epsilon ,0,-(1-\epsilon ^{2}/2))} 4398:{\displaystyle {\text{Mat}}_{2\times 2}(\mathbb {C} )\otimes (\mathbb {R} ^{3})^{*}} 20672: 20640: 20569: 20508: 20503: 20483: 20419: 20325: 20295: 20280: 20260: 20199: 20152: 20127: 20117: 20088: 20007: 20002: 19977: 19907: 19887: 19797: 19777: 19701: 19593: 19555: 19476: 19471: 19371: 18910:. Note that, by virtue of the standard normalization of that group's generators as 18598: 18556: 18518: 7662: 2245: 604: 420: 385: 90: 78: 20265: 8296:
In fact, the determinant property follows abstractly from trace properties of the
7453:{\displaystyle \psi _{-}=(-\sin(\vartheta /2)\exp(-i\varphi ),\cos(\vartheta /2))} 20370: 20305: 20285: 20270: 20250: 20234: 20132: 20063: 20053: 20012: 19897: 19867: 19417: 18592: 17700:
Similar expressions follow for general Pauli vector rotations as detailed above.
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in quantum mechanics, so the Pauli matrices span the space of observables of the
44: 19216: 16908: 13870: 7344:{\displaystyle \psi _{+}=(\cos(\vartheta /2),\sin(\vartheta /2)\exp(i\varphi ))} 20630: 20574: 20554: 20539: 20498: 20375: 20335: 20300: 20224: 20163: 20142: 20073: 20058: 19992: 19937: 19927: 19922: 19832: 18726: 18544: 18409: 18286: 17721: 16313: 16024: 15392: 14723: 2030: 1775: 1317: 498: 438: 374: 370: 362: 86: 71: 36: 6272:{\displaystyle \ ({\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }})^{2}-|{\vec {a}}|^{2}=0\ ,} 20692: 20635: 20493: 20434: 20365: 20355: 20350: 20275: 20204: 20078: 20068: 19997: 19917: 19902: 19837: 19723: 19705: 19688: 19657: 19563: 19559: 17885: 17877: 17817: 4299: 2441:
A few explicit commutators and anti-commutators are given below as examples:
1667: 442: 19443: 13327:{\displaystyle \cos c=\cos a\cos b-{\hat {n}}\cdot {\hat {m}}\sin a\sin b~,} 20518: 20475: 20380: 20093: 20032: 19942: 19822: 19597: 19421: 18668:
The Pauli vector is a formal device. It may be thought of as an element of
18576: 18514: 17880:
for higher spin systems in three spatial dimensions, for arbitrarily large
15396: 8557:
the cross-terms vanish. It then follows, now showing summation explicitly,
6060: 2946: 1151:
All three of the Pauli matrices can be compacted into a single expression:
705: 409: 17479:
of a point in space is defined in terms of the above Pauli vector matrix,
8108:{\displaystyle \ \mathrm {SL} (2,\mathbb {C} )\cong \mathrm {Spin} (1,3).} 20360: 20330: 20098: 19932: 19802: 19457: 18842: 18088: 17904: 16943: 16731: 16365: 16328: 16320: 12392: 9583: 6023:{\displaystyle =2i\,({\vec {a}}\times {\vec {b}})\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}.} 5307:
as a rotation of three-dimensional space. In fact, it turns out that the
2931: 1643: 1535: 667: 502: 406: 60: 19346: 18718:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {M}}_{2}(\mathbb {C} )\otimes \mathbb {R} ^{3}} 16791:
are a realization (and, in fact, the lowest-dimensional realization) of
20411: 19872: 19375: 18148:
are also antisymmetric. Hence there are only six independent matrices.
17813: 17717: 15550: 13233:
which specifies the generic group multiplication, where, manifestly,
5866:
The cross-product is given by the matrix commutator (up to a factor of
1817: 671: 600: 434: 19566:(2014). "A compact formula for rotations as spin matrix polynomials". 4331:
Hermitian traceless matrix-valued dual vector, that is, an element of
20645: 20219: 19349:"Imaginary numbers are not Real – the geometric algebra of spacetime" 16309: 8779:{\textstyle \sum _{\mu }x_{\mu }^{2}\det(\sigma ^{\mu })=\eta (x,x).} 2927: 11417:
case using the anticommutation relations. For convenience, the case
20579: 18278:{\displaystyle \ -i\ \Sigma _{0k}\equiv {\mathsf {\alpha }}_{k}\ ,} 17803: 17725: 16779: 9974:{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} \times \mathbf {J} =i\hbar \mathbf {J} } 4460:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}\mapsto {\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}.} 569: 19580: 14726:
Hermitian matrices means that we can express any Hermitian matrix
4677:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}\mapsto {\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}} 19731: 19462:"4. Concerning the differential and integral calculus of vectors" 17781: 17606:
may be written in terms of Pauli matrices and the unit matrix as
17423:
may be given in terms of the Pauli matrices in this formulation.
16782:
in three-dimensional space. In other words, one can say that the
14718:
The fact that the Pauli matrices, along with the identity matrix
12728:
provides a parameterization of the composition law of the group
110: 32: 15247:
As noted above, it is common to denote the 2 × 2 unit matrix by
1662:), the Pauli matrices form an orthogonal basis (in the sense of 17920: 17373: 15241: 13867:
Rotation formalisms in three dimensions § Rodrigues vector
14722:, form an orthogonal basis for the Hilbert space of all 2 × 2 7810:{\displaystyle {\bar {\sigma }}^{\mu }=(I,-{\vec {\sigma }}).} 2213:{\displaystyle \sigma _{j}\sigma _{k}+\sigma _{k}\sigma _{j},} 19468:. New Haven, CT: Tuttle, Moorehouse & Taylor. p. 67. 19347:
Gull, S. F.; Lasenby, A. N.; Doran, C. J. L. (January 1993).
18511: 16887:, meaning that there is a two-to-one group homomorphism from 16305: 12490: 2101:{\displaystyle \{\sigma _{j},\sigma _{k}\}=2\delta _{jk}\,I,} 1806: 427:
of Pauli matrices, with all coefficients being real numbers.
94: 27:
Matrices important in quantum mechanics and the study of spin
15274:
The completeness relation can alternatively be expressed as
11314:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}=a{\hat {n}},\quad |{\hat {n}}|=1,} 6030:
In fact, the existence of a norm follows from the fact that
5588:
This map is the concrete realization of the double cover of
18595:(the first Pauli matrix is an exchange matrix of order two) 18586:
For higher spin generalizations of the Pauli matrices, see
16795:
rotations in three-dimensional space. However, even though
7126:, which yields the correct eigenvectors (0,1) and (1,0) of 18491:{\displaystyle \Sigma _{\mu \nu }={\frac {i}{2}}{\bigl }.} 15439:
as above, and then imposing the positive-semidefinite and
11400:{\displaystyle ({\hat {n}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }})^{2p}=I,} 8489:
That is, the 'cross-terms' can be written as traces. When
5133:
is Hermitian and traceless. It then makes sense to define
4692:
The norm is given by the determinant (up to a minus sign)
452:
represents the observable corresponding to spin along the
17780:. In the same way, the Pauli matrices are related to the 15987: 7651:{\displaystyle x_{\mu }\mapsto x_{\mu }\sigma ^{\mu }\ ,} 708:; the entry shows the value of the row times the column. 102: 16067:{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}\otimes \mathbb {C} ^{2}} 12483:
while the determinant of the exponential itself is just
8115:
Similarly to above, this can be explicitly realized for
7735:{\displaystyle \det(x_{\mu }\sigma ^{\mu })=\eta (x,x).} 4298:
as a normed vector space and as a Lie algebra (with the
17797:
particles is that they must be rotated by an angle of 4
5712:{\displaystyle {\text{SU}}(2)\cong \mathrm {Spin} (3).} 19554: 18408:
are written in compact form in terms of commutator of
18330: 17967: 15884: 15625: 15561: 15476: 14955: 14908: 14310: 11194: 8707: 8563: 8211: 8162:{\displaystyle \ S\in \mathrm {SL} (2,\mathbb {C} )\ } 7841: 7468:
The Pauli 4-vector, used in spinor theory, is written
6852: 6681: 5384:{\displaystyle R:\mathrm {SU} (2)\to \mathrm {SO} (3)} 4096: 4054: 4002: 3953: 3301: 3250: 3194: 3131: 3063: 3000: 2352: 1470: 1179: 308: 232: 159: 19209: 18936: 18851: 18735: 18674: 18421: 18307: 18226: 18157: 18097: 18042: 17944: 17615: 17488: 17456: 17386: 17261: 17060: 17038: 16974: 16952: 16837: 16801: 16740: 16700: 16546: 16388: 16336: 16192: 16179:
This operator can also be written more explicitly as
16086: 16036: 15878: 15559: 15455: 15280: 15240:, the completeness relation follows as stated above. 15097: 15091:
which can be rewritten in terms of matrix indices as
14890: 14808: 14736: 14525: 13935: 13906: 13886: 13829: 13800: 13771: 13530: 13348: 13239: 12742: 12714: 12538: 12407: 12225: 11568: 11451: 11344: 11245: 10457: 10074: 9987: 9943: 9863: 9603: 9282: 9095: 8802: 8672: 8527: 8495: 8370: 8335: 8302: 8178: 8121: 8041: 7990: 7946: 7826: 7754: 7678: 7608: 7570: 7510: 7474: 7357: 7254: 7162: 7132: 7106: 7003: 6950: 6578: 6525: 6477: 6427: 6285: 6181: 6130: 6080: 6036: 5895: 5872: 5757: 5725: 5665: 5628: 5594: 5542: 5400: 5337: 5317: 5293: 5261: 5227: 5139: 5089: 4988: 4884: 4861: 4830: 4698: 4631: 4513: 4480: 4411: 4337: 4311: 4275: 4249: 4220: 3679: 3647: 3618: 3589: 3553: 3517: 3481: 3353: 2958: 2710: 2460: 2408: 2334: 2286: 2254: 2163: 2117: 2042: 1940: 1829: 1787: 1732: 1710: 1675: 1551: 1370: 1160: 1132: 1098: 1067: 1039: 1006: 985: 951: 923: 887: 856: 835: 807: 777: 749: 721: 680: 613: 534: 465: 119: 8788: 7554:{\displaystyle \sigma ^{\mu }=(I,{\vec {\sigma }}).} 6562:{\displaystyle \ {\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\ } 6464:{\displaystyle \ {\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\ } 6117:{\displaystyle \ {\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\ } 18073:matrices have the same algebraic properties as the 1901:{\displaystyle =2i\varepsilon _{jkl}\,\sigma _{l},} 19666: 19320: 19186: 18869: 18833: 18717: 18490: 18388: 18277: 18212: 18120: 18065: 18025: 17894:Rotation group SO(3) § A note on Lie algebras 17776:of the particles are represented as two-component 17689: 17578: 17471: 17394: 17361: 17242: 17046: 17024: 16960: 16859: 16823: 16762: 16722: 16671: 16482: 16356: 16285: 16168: 16066: 15972: 15862: 15541: 15381: 15236:. Since this is true for any choice of the matrix 15217: 15083: 14868: 14787:{\displaystyle M=c\,I+\sum _{k}a_{k}\,\sigma ^{k}} 14786: 14703: 14462: 14294: 13921: 13892: 13844: 13815: 13786: 13755: 13508: 13326: 13223: 12703: 12471: 12357: 12200: 11541: 11399: 11313: 11216: 11144: 10425: 10050: 9973: 9887: 9810: 9571: 9185: 9075: 8778: 8693: 8658: 8549: 8513: 8478: 8353: 8321: 8285: 8161: 8107: 8028:{\displaystyle \ \mathrm {SL} (2,\mathbb {C} )\ ,} 8027: 7976: 7930: 7809: 7734: 7650: 7591: 7553: 7493: 7452: 7343: 7240: 7145: 7118: 7092: 6989: 6936: 6561: 6511: 6463: 6413: 6271: 6164: 6116: 6051: 6022: 5881: 5850: 5748:can be recovered using the tracing process above: 5740: 5711: 5651: 5614: 5580: 5525: 5383: 5323: 5299: 5279: 5247: 5213: 5126:{\displaystyle U*{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}} 5125: 5075: 4971: 4867: 4847: 4816: 4684:, making it manifest that the map is a bijection. 4676: 4617: 4495: 4459: 4397: 4323: 4290: 4261: 4235: 4199: 3662: 3633: 3604: 3575: 3539: 3503: 3467: 3331: 2908: 2694: 2430: 2394: 2318: 2272: 2212: 2149: 2100: 2014: 1900: 1795: 1767:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {M}}_{2,2}(\mathbb {C} )} 1766: 1718: 1692: 1624: 1512: 1298: 1138: 1117: 1083: 1052: 1022: 991: 970: 936: 906: 872: 841: 820: 790: 762: 734: 688: 631: 556: 483: 373:, which takes into account the interaction of the 351: 19535: 19533: 17926: 9782: 9748: 9731: 9697: 9687: 9653: 9646: 9612: 9199:each side of the equation with components of two 7920: 7860: 7156:Alternatively, one may use spherical coordinates 6990:{\displaystyle a_{3}\to -\left|{\vec {a}}\right|} 4592: 4532: 3583:are an equivalent notation for the more familiar 392:(sometimes considered as the zeroth Pauli matrix 20690: 16005:(also known as a permutation) between two spins 12408: 11231: 9582:Finally, translating the index notation for the 8733: 8620: 8564: 8407: 8392: 8371: 7679: 5034: 4989: 4699: 2319:{\displaystyle \mathrm {Cl} _{3}(\mathbb {R} ).} 1556: 501:) also generate transformations in the sense of 18139:. By the antisymmetry of angular momentum, the 16968:, represented by the span of the basis vectors 10449:is also considered, these relationships become 6069: 4824:Then, considering the conjugation action of an 2921: 19530: 15227:summation over the repeated indices is implied 9221:(which commute with the Pauli matrices, i.e., 19747: 19428:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 19416: 18480: 18450: 7913: 7886: 6569:means it has exactly one of each eigenvalue. 4738: 4704: 4573: 4539: 4305:Another way to view the Pauli vector is as a 361:These matrices are named after the physicist 16474: 16417: 9981:Or equivalently, the Pauli vector satisfies: 8869: 8843: 2395:{\displaystyle \sigma _{jk}={\tfrac {1}{4}}} 2144: 2118: 2069: 2043: 2024: 493:The Pauli matrices (after multiplication by 19470:In fact, however, the formula goes back to 19426:Quantum Computation and Quantum Information 18121:{\displaystyle \ {\mathsf {\Sigma }}_{k}\ } 18066:{\displaystyle \ {\mathsf {\Sigma }}_{k}\ } 12525:) function is provided by application of 7599:to the vector space of Hermitian matrices, 4243:to the vector space of traceless Hermitian 2150:{\displaystyle \{\sigma _{j},\sigma _{k}\}} 20321:Fundamental (linear differential equation) 19754: 19740: 18087:is not a three-vector, but a second order 17013: 16980: 16473: 16458: 16439: 16420: 14479: 12722:A straightforward application of formula 1807:Commutation and anti-commutation relations 1649:With the inclusion of the identity matrix 1635:from which we can deduce that each matrix 19695: 19579: 19539: 19475: 18854: 18824: 18790: 18778: 18744: 18705: 18693: 18036:It follows from this definition that the 17657: 17634: 17562: 17545: 17528: 17388: 17342: 17326: 17315: 17299: 17288: 17226: 17171: 17116: 17040: 17007: 16998: 16989: 16954: 16654: 16643: 16639: 16626: 16615: 16611: 16598: 16587: 16583: 16462: 16454: 16443: 16435: 16424: 16219: 16054: 16039: 15980:with eigenvalue +1, hence it acts like a 15951: 15947: 15933: 15904: 15900: 15841: 15837: 15804: 15800: 15776: 15772: 15753: 15727: 15723: 15699: 15695: 15676: 15652: 15648: 15359: 15345: 15320: 15195: 15176: 15131: 15101: 15057: 15053: 15026: 15022: 15008: 14981: 14970: 14966: 14927: 14923: 14919: 14852: 14830: 14773: 14746: 14684: 14654: 14640: 14615: 14359: 14348: 11535: 9736: 9489: 9384: 9163: 9006: 8149: 8063: 8012: 7952: 7573: 6039: 5968: 5581:{\displaystyle R(U)\in \mathrm {SO} (3).} 4952: 4924: 4375: 4360: 4278: 4269:matrices. This map encodes structures of 4223: 3917: 3890: 3879: 3817: 3806: 3770: 3731: 2306: 2257: 2091: 1946: 1884: 1789: 1757: 1712: 1431: 1253: 1216: 682: 616: 468: 416:Hermitian matrices. This means that any 39:(1900–1958), c. 1924. Pauli received the 19505: 17833:particle, the spin operator is given by 17589:Consequently, the transformation matrix 15449:For a pure state, in polar coordinates, 8361:matrices, the following identity holds: 4504: 4469: 1811: 456:th coordinate axis in three-dimensional 388:, and together with the identity matrix 31: 20626:Matrix representation of conic sections 18651:, hence in it no pre-multiplication by 17816:vectors in the two-dimensional complex 10060: 7977:{\displaystyle \ \mathbb {R} ^{1,3}\ ;} 4625:This constitutes an inverse to the map 4214:More formally, this defines a map from 699: 14: 20691: 19664: 19634: 18501: 18196: 18104: 18049: 17948: 17903:of multiparticle systems, the general 17431: 16364:is the three-dimensional real algebra 15988:Relation with the permutation operator 14516:for the Pauli matrices can be written 12507:matrix can be found in the article on 6944:These expressions become singular for 6471:is diagonal with possible eigenvalues 4503:can be recovered from the matrix (see 1816:The Pauli matrices obey the following 528:form a basis for the real Lie algebra 19735: 19456: 17712:, each Pauli matrix is related to an 16942:is isomorphic to the real algebra of 16770:, which corresponds to the Lie group 11217:{\textstyle \sum _{(\alpha \ldots )}} 2328:The usual construction of generators 19393:– via geometry.mrao.cam.ac.uk. 18523:decomposition of a single-qubit gate 17703: 17411:gives yet another way of describing 16897:relationship between SO(3) and SU(2) 16357:{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {su}}_{2}} 16319:matrices with unit determinant; its 12214: 9840:is identified with the pseudoscalar 9592: 423:can be written in a unique way as a 101:), they are occasionally denoted by 19544:. Addison-Wesley. pp. 109–118. 19512:(2nd ed.). CRC Press. p.  18914:the Pauli matrices, the parameters 17415:. The two-to-one homomorphism from 16860:{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {so}}(3)} 16843: 16840: 16824:{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {su}}(2)} 16807: 16804: 16763:{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {so}}(3)} 16746: 16743: 16723:{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {su}}(2)} 16706: 16703: 16552: 16549: 16394: 16391: 16343: 16340: 12497:A more abstract version of formula 11224:is used to denote the sum over the 9937:satisfies the commutation relation: 8550:{\displaystyle \ \sigma ^{\mu }\ ,} 6512:{\displaystyle \ \pm |{\vec {a}}|.} 6165:{\displaystyle \ \pm |{\vec {a}}|.} 2431:{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {so}}(3)} 2414: 2411: 1995: 1992: 1973: 1970: 557:{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {su}}(2)} 540: 537: 24: 19761: 18809: 18763: 18678: 18588:Spin (physics) § Higher spins 18423: 18240: 18162: 18137:Lorentz transformations on spinors 16875:are not isomorphic as Lie groups. 12122: 12007: 11873: 11758: 11646: 9898:If we define the spin operator as 9888:{\displaystyle a\cdot b+a\wedge b} 8179: 8135: 8132: 8083: 8080: 8077: 8074: 8049: 8046: 7998: 7995: 7592:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{1,3}} 7494:{\displaystyle \ \sigma ^{\mu }\ } 6279:since this can be factorised into 5693: 5690: 5687: 5684: 5633: 5630: 5599: 5596: 5562: 5559: 5368: 5365: 5348: 5345: 2292: 2289: 1736: 1693:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}_{2}} 1679: 445:. In the context of Pauli's work, 25: 20730: 19474:(1840), replete with half-angle: 19215: 18870:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}.} 18572:Generalizations of Pauli matrices 17812:they are actually represented by 16682:As SU(2) is a compact group, its 13875: 11557:Taylor series for sine and cosine 11410:which can be shown first for the 9963: 9857:then the right hand side becomes 8789:Relation to dot and cross product 8322:{\displaystyle \ \sigma ^{\mu }.} 7984:in this case the matrix group is 7463: 6997:. They can be rescued by letting 6572:Its normalized eigenvectors are 5652:{\displaystyle \mathrm {SU} (2),} 2273:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3},} 632:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3},} 484:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}.} 20660: 19642:(4th ed.). Addison-Wesley. 18617:This conforms to the convention 17787:An interesting property of spin 17630: 17438:Quaternions and spatial rotation 17332: 17305: 17278: 17263: 17187: 17132: 17077: 17062: 17009: 17000: 16991: 16982: 16867:are isomorphic as Lie algebras, 15578: 9967: 9953: 9945: 7669:convention) in its determinant: 6052:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} 5861: 5615:{\displaystyle \mathrm {SO} (3)} 4291:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} 4236:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} 3342: 576:generated by the three matrices 20528:Used in science and engineering 19628:The Feynman Lectures on Physics 19548: 19509:Geometry, Topology, and Physics 18399:The relativistic spin matrices 17884:, can be calculated using this 17330: 17303: 17276: 17185: 17130: 17075: 13522:in this case) simply amount to 11279: 6758: 4209:Einstein's summation convention 3347:The Pauli vector is defined by 377:of a particle with an external 109:) when used in connection with 19771:Explicitly constrained entries 19700:. Cambridge University Press. 19640:Introductory Quantum Mechanics 19499: 19450: 19410: 19397: 19340: 19197: 19181: 19138: 19123: 19108: 19100: 19057: 19042: 19010: 18978: 18969: 18943: 18879: 18828: 18820: 18803: 18800: 18782: 18774: 18757: 18697: 18689: 18662: 18611: 17933:relativistic quantum mechanics 17927:Relativistic quantum mechanics 17516: 17501: 17463: 17450:corresponding to the position 17336: 17309: 17282: 17267: 17191: 17136: 17081: 17066: 16909:Spinor § Three dimensions 16902: 16854: 16848: 16818: 16812: 16757: 16751: 16717: 16711: 16563: 16557: 16405: 16399: 16254: 16232: 16181:Dirac's spin exchange operator 15872:acts on the state eigenvector 15606: 15591: 15462: 14558: 14533: 14436: 14421: 14401: 14283: 14280: 14274: 14259: 14250: 14235: 14220: 14208: 14202: 14187: 14172: 14160: 14154: 14142: 14120: 14105: 14064: 14042: 14027: 13992: 13986: 13967: 13955: 13946: 13913: 13871:Spinor § Three dimensions 13836: 13807: 13778: 13739: 13698: 13683: 13650: 13617: 13563: 13548: 13474: 13459: 13426: 13393: 13355: 13294: 13279: 13201: 13186: 13134: 13119: 13072: 13031: 13016: 12983: 12950: 12904: 12889: 12834: 12819: 12784: 12769: 12689: 12680: 12671: 12665: 12653: 12638: 12620: 12611: 12602: 12596: 12581: 12578: 12572: 12557: 12548: 12542: 12453: 12450: 12444: 12429: 12420: 12411: 12335: 12329: 12314: 12305: 12269: 12254: 12185: 12170: 12140: 12130: 12103: 12097: 12082: 12073: 12058: 12049: 12025: 12015: 11969: 11954: 11934: 11927: 11912: 11900: 11891: 11881: 11842: 11833: 11819: 11812: 11797: 11785: 11776: 11766: 11699: 11684: 11610: 11595: 11529: 11514: 11479: 11464: 11376: 11369: 11354: 11345: 11298: 11291: 11281: 11270: 11252: 11209: 11200: 11101: 11086: 10649: 10637: 10038: 10015: 9995: 9796: 9774: 9759: 9723: 9708: 9679: 9664: 9638: 9623: 8977: 8931: 8925: 8879: 8770: 8758: 8749: 8736: 8694:{\displaystyle \ 2\times 2\ ,} 8470: 8461: 8449: 8443: 8434: 8428: 8416: 8410: 8401: 8395: 8386: 8374: 8240: 8189: 8182: 8153: 8139: 8099: 8087: 8067: 8053: 8016: 8002: 7872: 7801: 7795: 7777: 7762: 7726: 7714: 7705: 7682: 7619: 7545: 7539: 7524: 7447: 7444: 7430: 7418: 7406: 7397: 7383: 7371: 7338: 7335: 7326: 7317: 7303: 7291: 7277: 7268: 7235: 7181: 7169: 7119:{\displaystyle \epsilon \to 0} 7110: 7087: 7084: 7057: 7039: 7029: 7010: 6977: 6961: 6916: 6909: 6899: 6841: 6837: 6830: 6820: 6803: 6799: 6792: 6782: 6707: 6662: 6652: 6626: 6613: 6550: 6535: 6502: 6495: 6485: 6452: 6437: 6402: 6398: 6391: 6381: 6371: 6356: 6347: 6344: 6340: 6333: 6323: 6313: 6298: 6289: 6247: 6239: 6229: 6216: 6209: 6194: 6185: 6155: 6148: 6138: 6105: 6090: 6011: 5999: 5993: 5978: 5969: 5956: 5950: 5935: 5920: 5905: 5896: 5768: 5761: 5735: 5729: 5703: 5697: 5677: 5671: 5643: 5637: 5609: 5603: 5572: 5566: 5552: 5546: 5514: 5502: 5496: 5484: 5478: 5472: 5463: 5444: 5428: 5413: 5378: 5372: 5361: 5358: 5352: 5268: 5235: 5202: 5183: 5167: 5152: 5117: 5102: 5067: 5061: 5046: 5037: 5028: 5022: 5007: 4992: 4946: 4931: 4912: 4897: 4848:{\displaystyle {\text{SU}}(2)} 4842: 4836: 4801: 4793: 4783: 4770: 4755: 4730: 4715: 4687: 4668: 4653: 4644: 4638: 4606: 4584: 4565: 4550: 4487: 4448: 4433: 4424: 4418: 4386: 4370: 4364: 4356: 3847: 3825: 3790: 3778: 3757: 3751: 3739: 3718: 3705: 3690: 3654: 3625: 3596: 3576:{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}_{3}} 3561: 3540:{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}_{2}} 3525: 3504:{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}_{1}} 3489: 3450: 3418: 3386: 3360: 2425: 2419: 2389: 2363: 2310: 2302: 2006: 2000: 1984: 1978: 1962: 1941: 1856: 1830: 1761: 1753: 551: 545: 13: 1: 20545:Fundamental (computer vision) 19673:(3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. 19615: 18085:relativistic angular momentum 17915:is defined to consist of all 12732:. One may directly solve for 12724: 12715:The group composition law of 12513: 12499: 11232:Exponential of a Pauli vector 8354:{\displaystyle \ 2\times 2\ } 1118:{\displaystyle -i\sigma _{x}} 971:{\displaystyle -i\sigma _{z}} 907:{\displaystyle -i\sigma _{y}} 568:to the special unitary group 401:), the Pauli matrices form a 18582:Euler's four-square identity 17923:products of Pauli matrices. 17403:forms a group isomorphic to 17395:{\displaystyle \mathbb {H} } 17047:{\displaystyle \mathbb {H} } 16961:{\displaystyle \mathbb {H} } 15391:The fact that any Hermitian 6070:Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 2922:Eigenvectors and eigenvalues 1796:{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } 1719:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } 1084:{\displaystyle i\sigma _{y}} 1023:{\displaystyle i\sigma _{x}} 873:{\displaystyle i\sigma _{z}} 689:{\displaystyle \mathbb {H} } 7: 20311:Duplication and elimination 20110:eigenvalues or eigenvectors 19665:Schiff, Leonard I. (1968). 19540:Goldstein, Herbert (1959). 19466:Elements of Vector Analysis 18540:Spinors in three dimensions 18528: 14475:Rodrigues' rotation formula 12373: 9826: 8521:are chosen to be different 7248:to obtain the eigenvectors 7146:{\displaystyle \sigma _{z}} 5280:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}},} 5248:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}'} 4875:on this space of matrices, 1929:Einstein summation notation 1053:{\displaystyle \sigma _{z}} 937:{\displaystyle \sigma _{y}} 821:{\displaystyle \sigma _{x}} 791:{\displaystyle \sigma _{z}} 763:{\displaystyle \sigma _{y}} 735:{\displaystyle \sigma _{x}} 89:. Usually indicated by the 10: 20735: 20244:With specific applications 19873:Discrete Fourier Transform 18729:is endowed with a mapping 18604: 17866:fundamental representation 17472:{\displaystyle {\vec {x}}} 17435: 17426: 16906: 14472: 13922:{\displaystyle {\hat {n}}} 13864: 13845:{\displaystyle {\hat {k}}} 13816:{\displaystyle {\hat {m}}} 13787:{\displaystyle {\hat {n}}} 12472:{\displaystyle \det=a^{2}} 11324:one has, for even powers, 4496:{\displaystyle {\vec {a}}} 3663:{\displaystyle {\hat {z}}} 3634:{\displaystyle {\hat {y}}} 3605:{\displaystyle {\hat {x}}} 1542:of the Pauli matrices are 20654: 20603: 20535:Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa 20527: 20473: 20409: 20243: 20162:Satisfying conditions on 20161: 20107: 20046: 19770: 19624:"The Pauli spin matrices" 19526:– via Google Books. 18898:representation holds for 18535:Algebra of physical space 17748:projective representation 17714:angular momentum operator 14798:is a complex number, and 12489:generic group element of 11228:of the included indices. 5659:and therefore shows that 4324:{\displaystyle 2\times 2} 4262:{\displaystyle 2\times 2} 2930:) Pauli matrices has two 2702:     2025:Anticommutation relations 49:Pauli exclusion principle 19706:10.1017/CBO9780511806117 19698:Essential Quantum Optics 19506:Nakahara, Mikio (2003). 19334: 18655:is necessary to land in 18151:The first three are the 18128:needs to be replaced by 17746:are the generators of a 17598:for rotations about the 16913:The real linear span of 16689: 16299: 15399:representation of 2 × 2 13336:spherical law of cosines 7564:This defines a map from 5287:and therefore interpret 1726:, and the Hilbert space 1704:Hermitian matrices over 19893:Generalized permutation 19696:Leonhardt, Ulf (2010). 17892:. They can be found in 17716:that corresponds to an 17602:-axis through an angle 16504:infinitesimal generator 16379:. In compact notation, 12511:. A general version of 8666:Since the matrices are 8514:{\displaystyle \ A,B\ } 7661:which also encodes the 666:functions identically ( 20667:Mathematics portal 19598:10.3842/SIGMA.2014.084 19322: 19188: 18871: 18835: 18719: 18492: 18390: 18279: 18214: 18122: 18067: 18027: 17691: 17580: 17473: 17396: 17363: 17244: 17048: 17026: 16962: 16861: 16825: 16764: 16724: 16673: 16484: 16358: 16287: 16170: 16068: 15974: 15864: 15543: 15383: 15301: 15219: 15085: 14870: 14788: 14705: 14596: 14512:In this notation, the 14464: 14296: 13923: 13894: 13846: 13817: 13788: 13757: 13510: 13328: 13225: 12705: 12473: 12359: 12202: 12126: 12011: 11877: 11762: 11650: 11543: 11401: 11315: 11218: 11146: 10427: 10052: 9975: 9889: 9812: 9573: 9187: 9077: 8780: 8695: 8660: 8551: 8515: 8480: 8355: 8323: 8287: 8163: 8109: 8029: 7978: 7932: 7811: 7736: 7652: 7593: 7555: 7495: 7454: 7345: 7242: 7147: 7120: 7094: 6991: 6938: 6563: 6513: 6465: 6415: 6273: 6166: 6118: 6059:is a Lie algebra (see 6053: 6024: 5883: 5852: 5742: 5713: 5653: 5616: 5582: 5527: 5385: 5325: 5301: 5281: 5249: 5215: 5127: 5077: 4973: 4869: 4849: 4818: 4678: 4619: 4497: 4461: 4399: 4325: 4292: 4263: 4237: 4201: 3664: 3635: 3606: 3577: 3541: 3505: 3469: 3333: 2910: 2696: 2432: 2396: 2320: 2274: 2214: 2151: 2102: 2029:They also satisfy the 2016: 1902: 1797: 1768: 1720: 1694: 1626: 1514: 1309:where the solution to 1300: 1140: 1119: 1085: 1054: 1024: 993: 972: 938: 908: 874: 843: 822: 792: 764: 736: 690: 633: 558: 485: 353: 52: 43:in 1945, nominated by 41:Nobel Prize in physics 19323: 19189: 18872: 18836: 18720: 18493: 18391: 18280: 18220:The remaining three, 18215: 18123: 18068: 18028: 17692: 17581: 17474: 17397: 17364: 17245: 17049: 17032:The isomorphism from 17027: 16963: 16862: 16826: 16765: 16725: 16674: 16485: 16359: 16288: 16171: 16069: 15975: 15865: 15544: 15405:positive semidefinite 15384: 15281: 15220: 15086: 14871: 14789: 14706: 14576: 14514:completeness relation 14480:Completeness relation 14465: 14297: 13924: 13895: 13847: 13818: 13789: 13758: 13511: 13329: 13226: 12706: 12487:, which makes it the 12474: 12360: 12203: 12106: 11991: 11857: 11742: 11630: 11553:Matrix exponentiating 11544: 11402: 11316: 11219: 11147: 10428: 10053: 9976: 9890: 9813: 9574: 9255:and vector component 9188: 9078: 8781: 8696: 8661: 8552: 8516: 8481: 8356: 8324: 8288: 8164: 8110: 8030: 7979: 7933: 7812: 7737: 7653: 7594: 7556: 7496: 7455: 7346: 7243: 7148: 7121: 7100:and taking the limit 7095: 6992: 6939: 6564: 6519:The tracelessness of 6514: 6466: 6416: 6274: 6167: 6119: 6054: 6025: 5884: 5853: 5743: 5714: 5654: 5617: 5583: 5528: 5386: 5326: 5302: 5282: 5255:has the same norm as 5250: 5216: 5128: 5078: 4974: 4870: 4850: 4819: 4679: 4620: 4505:completeness relation 4498: 4470:Completeness relation 4462: 4400: 4326: 4293: 4264: 4238: 4202: 3665: 3636: 3607: 3578: 3542: 3506: 3470: 3334: 2911: 2697: 2433: 2397: 2321: 2275: 2215: 2152: 2103: 2017: 1903: 1812:Commutation relations 1798: 1769: 1721: 1695: 1627: 1515: 1301: 1141: 1120: 1086: 1055: 1025: 994: 973: 939: 909: 875: 844: 823: 793: 765: 737: 691: 634: 559: 486: 384:Each Pauli matrix is 379:electromagnetic field 354: 35: 20719:Hypercomplex numbers 20714:Mathematical physics 19489:J. Math. Pures Appl. 19207: 18934: 18894:derived here in the 18849: 18733: 18727:tensor product space 18672: 18636:. In the convention 18419: 18305: 18224: 18155: 18095: 18040: 17942: 17762:particles with spin 17756:rotation group SO(3) 17613: 17486: 17454: 17384: 17259: 17058: 17036: 16972: 16950: 16835: 16799: 16738: 16698: 16684:Cartan decomposition 16544: 16386: 16334: 16190: 16084: 16034: 15876: 15557: 15453: 15278: 15095: 14888: 14806: 14734: 14523: 14500:-th Pauli matrix is 14308: 13933: 13904: 13884: 13827: 13798: 13769: 13528: 13346: 13237: 12740: 12536: 12517:for an analytic (at 12405: 12223: 11566: 11449: 11342: 11243: 11192: 11154:where Greek indices 10455: 10072: 10061:Some trace relations 9985: 9941: 9861: 9601: 9280: 9093: 8800: 8705: 8670: 8561: 8525: 8493: 8368: 8333: 8300: 8176: 8119: 8039: 7988: 7944: 7824: 7752: 7676: 7606: 7568: 7508: 7472: 7355: 7252: 7160: 7130: 7104: 7001: 6948: 6576: 6523: 6475: 6425: 6283: 6179: 6128: 6078: 6034: 5893: 5870: 5755: 5741:{\displaystyle R(U)} 5723: 5663: 5626: 5592: 5540: 5398: 5335: 5315: 5291: 5259: 5225: 5137: 5087: 4986: 4882: 4859: 4828: 4696: 4629: 4511: 4478: 4409: 4335: 4309: 4273: 4247: 4218: 3677: 3645: 3616: 3587: 3551: 3515: 3479: 3351: 2956: 2942:. The corresponding 2708: 2458: 2406: 2332: 2284: 2252: 2161: 2115: 2040: 1938: 1827: 1785: 1730: 1708: 1673: 1549: 1368: 1158: 1130: 1096: 1065: 1037: 1004: 983: 949: 921: 885: 854: 833: 805: 775: 747: 719: 700:Algebraic properties 678: 611: 532: 463: 369:, they occur in the 117: 77:that are traceless, 57:mathematical physics 20709:Rotational symmetry 20616:Linear independence 19863:Diagonally dominant 19590:2014SIGMA..10..084C 19542:Classical Mechanics 19418:Nielsen, Michael A. 19368:1993FoPh...23.1175G 18900:all representations 18885:The relation among 18508:quantum information 18502:Quantum information 18135:, the generator of 17899:Also useful in the 17752:spin representation 17444:classical mechanics 17432:Classical mechanics 16734:to the Lie algebra 15982:projection operator 15403:’ density matrix, ( 15338: 15319: 15194: 15175: 14633: 14614: 12527:Sylvester's formula 12509:matrix exponentials 11172:assume values from 9264:(and likewise with 8732: 6074:The eigenvalues of 1653:(sometimes denoted 1421: 1403: 1385: 709: 641:associative algebra 431:Hermitian operators 67:are a set of three 18:Pauli spin matrices 20621:Matrix exponential 20611:Jordan normal form 20445:Fisher information 20316:Euclidean distance 20230:Totally unimodular 19636:Liboff, Richard L. 19376:10.1007/BF01883676 19318: 19306: 19305: 19184: 18867: 18831: 18715: 18623:matrix exponential 18562:Gell-Mann matrices 18550:§ Dirac basis 18488: 18386: 18377: 18275: 18210: 18118: 18063: 18023: 18014: 17874:Kronecker products 17687: 17576: 17469: 17392: 17359: 17240: 17044: 17022: 16958: 16857: 16821: 16760: 16720: 16669: 16509:representation of 16502:can be seen as an 16493:As a result, each 16480: 16354: 16323:is the set of all 16283: 16166: 16064: 15970: 15964: 15860: 15854: 15570: 15539: 15530: 15379: 15321: 15302: 15215: 15177: 15158: 15157: 15081: 15079: 15042: 14990: 14964: 14917: 14884:, and hence that 14866: 14784: 14762: 14716: 14701: 14616: 14597: 14460: 14292: 13919: 13890: 13842: 13813: 13784: 13753: 13506: 13324: 13221: 13219: 12701: 12469: 12355: 12198: 12196: 11539: 11397: 11311: 11226:cyclic permutation 11214: 11213: 11142: 11140: 11105: 10653: 10423: 10421: 10048: 9971: 9885: 9808: 9569: 9561: 9183: 9073: 9071: 8776: 8718: 8717: 8691: 8656: 8619: 8581: 8547: 8511: 8476: 8351: 8319: 8283: 8220: 8159: 8105: 8025: 7974: 7928: 7850: 7807: 7732: 7648: 7589: 7551: 7491: 7450: 7341: 7238: 7143: 7116: 7090: 6987: 6934: 6922: 6749: 6559: 6509: 6461: 6411: 6269: 6162: 6114: 6049: 6020: 5882:{\displaystyle 2i} 5879: 5848: 5738: 5719:The components of 5709: 5649: 5612: 5578: 5523: 5381: 5321: 5297: 5277: 5245: 5211: 5123: 5073: 4969: 4865: 4845: 4814: 4674: 4615: 4493: 4474:Each component of 4457: 4395: 4321: 4288: 4259: 4233: 4197: 4195: 4184: 4082: 4030: 3978: 3660: 3631: 3602: 3573: 3537: 3501: 3465: 3329: 3327: 3316: 3265: 3212: 3146: 3081: 3015: 2906: 2904: 2692: 2690: 2428: 2392: 2361: 2316: 2270: 2210: 2147: 2098: 2012: 1925:Levi-Civita symbol 1913:structure constant 1898: 1793: 1764: 1716: 1690: 1622: 1620: 1510: 1495: 1407: 1389: 1371: 1296: 1287: 1136: 1115: 1081: 1050: 1020: 989: 968: 934: 904: 870: 839: 818: 788: 760: 732: 704: 686: 629: 554: 481: 425:linear combination 349: 347: 336: 260: 184: 53: 20686: 20685: 20678:Category:Matrices 20550:Fuzzy associative 20440:Doubly stochastic 20148:Positive-definite 19828:Block tridiagonal 19715:978-0-521-14505-3 19680:978-0-07-055287-6 19669:Quantum Mechanics 19523:978-0-7503-0606-5 19477:Rodrigues, Olinde 19435:978-0-521-63235-5 19314: 19163: 19141: 19126: 19082: 19060: 19045: 19013: 18981: 18946: 18446: 18271: 18238: 18229: 18160: 18117: 18100: 18062: 18045: 17901:quantum mechanics 17710:quantum mechanics 17704:Quantum mechanics 17682: 17649: 17519: 17504: 17466: 17355: 16659: 16631: 16603: 16279: 16257: 16235: 16217: 15956: 15909: 15846: 15809: 15781: 15732: 15704: 15657: 15609: 15594: 15569: 15465: 15375: 15211: 15148: 15073: 15033: 15004: 15001: 14963: 14916: 14753: 14714: 14561: 14536: 14439: 14424: 14404: 14384: 14339: 14288: 14258: 14253: 14238: 14228: 14223: 14195: 14190: 14175: 14145: 14123: 14108: 14092: 14072: 14067: 14057: 14045: 14030: 14014: 13975: 13970: 13960: 13916: 13893:{\displaystyle a} 13839: 13810: 13781: 13765:(Of course, when 13742: 13706: 13701: 13686: 13653: 13620: 13604: 13566: 13551: 13477: 13462: 13429: 13396: 13380: 13358: 13320: 13297: 13282: 13204: 13189: 13137: 13122: 13075: 13039: 13034: 13019: 12986: 12953: 12907: 12892: 12837: 12822: 12787: 12772: 12696: 12656: 12641: 12627: 12575: 12560: 12447: 12432: 12381: 12380: 12354: 12351: 12332: 12317: 12272: 12257: 12231: 12228: 12192: 12100: 12085: 12065: 11976: 11930: 11915: 11849: 11815: 11800: 11730: 11702: 11687: 11613: 11598: 11532: 11517: 11482: 11467: 11441:= 0, 1, 2, 3, ... 11372: 11357: 11334:= 0, 1, 2, 3, ... 11294: 11273: 11255: 11195: 11188:and the notation 11081: 10632: 10046: 10041: 10023: 10018: 10003: 9998: 9834: 9833: 9807: 9804: 9799: 9777: 9762: 9726: 9711: 9682: 9667: 9641: 9626: 9609: 9606: 9568: 9288: 9285: 9182: 9176: 9101: 9098: 8708: 8701:this is equal to 8687: 8675: 8610: 8572: 8543: 8530: 8510: 8498: 8350: 8338: 8305: 8243: 8219: 8158: 8124: 8044: 8021: 7993: 7970: 7949: 7875: 7849: 7798: 7765: 7644: 7542: 7490: 7477: 7172: 7032: 7013: 6980: 6930: 6912: 6845: 6844: 6833: 6795: 6710: 6674: 6672: 6668: 6667: 6655: 6625: 6616: 6558: 6553: 6538: 6528: 6498: 6480: 6460: 6455: 6440: 6430: 6394: 6374: 6359: 6336: 6316: 6301: 6288: 6265: 6242: 6212: 6197: 6184: 6151: 6133: 6113: 6108: 6093: 6083: 6014: 5996: 5981: 5953: 5938: 5923: 5908: 5791: 5669: 5517: 5499: 5489: 5466: 5447: 5431: 5416: 5324:{\displaystyle U} 5300:{\displaystyle U} 5271: 5238: 5205: 5186: 5170: 5155: 5120: 5105: 5064: 5049: 5025: 5010: 4949: 4934: 4915: 4900: 4868:{\displaystyle U} 4834: 4796: 4773: 4758: 4733: 4718: 4671: 4656: 4641: 4609: 4587: 4568: 4553: 4522: 4490: 4451: 4436: 4421: 4342: 3850: 3828: 3781: 3742: 3708: 3693: 3657: 3628: 3599: 3564: 3528: 3492: 3453: 3421: 3389: 3363: 3187: 3186: 3124: 3123: 3056: 3055: 2993: 2992: 2919: 2918: 2360: 2241:identity matrix. 1355:The matrices are 1149: 1148: 1139:{\displaystyle I} 992:{\displaystyle I} 842:{\displaystyle I} 639:and the (unital) 367:quantum mechanics 16:(Redirected from 20726: 20673:List of matrices 20665: 20664: 20641:Row echelon form 20585:State transition 20514:Seidel adjacency 20396:Totally positive 20256:Alternating sign 19853:Complex Hadamard 19756: 19749: 19742: 19733: 19732: 19727: 19692: 19672: 19661: 19631: 19610: 19609: 19583: 19552: 19546: 19545: 19537: 19528: 19527: 19503: 19497: 19496: 19485: 19472:Olinde Rodrigues 19469: 19454: 19448: 19447: 19422:Chuang, Isaac L. 19414: 19408: 19401: 19395: 19394: 19392: 19390: 19362:(9): 1175–1201. 19353: 19344: 19328: 19327: 19325: 19324: 19319: 19312: 19311: 19307: 19201: 19195: 19193: 19191: 19190: 19185: 19177: 19161: 19157: 19143: 19142: 19134: 19128: 19127: 19119: 19107: 19096: 19080: 19076: 19062: 19061: 19053: 19047: 19046: 19038: 19029: 19015: 19014: 19006: 18997: 18983: 18982: 18974: 18962: 18948: 18947: 18939: 18905: 18897: 18893: 18883: 18877: 18876: 18874: 18873: 18868: 18863: 18862: 18857: 18840: 18838: 18837: 18832: 18827: 18819: 18818: 18813: 18812: 18799: 18798: 18793: 18781: 18773: 18772: 18767: 18766: 18753: 18752: 18747: 18724: 18722: 18721: 18716: 18714: 18713: 18708: 18696: 18688: 18687: 18682: 18681: 18666: 18660: 18658: 18654: 18650: 18635: 18615: 18599:Split-quaternion 18557:Angular momentum 18519:unitary matrices 18497: 18495: 18494: 18489: 18484: 18483: 18477: 18476: 18464: 18463: 18454: 18453: 18447: 18439: 18434: 18433: 18407: 18395: 18393: 18392: 18387: 18382: 18381: 18369: 18368: 18363: 18362: 18351: 18350: 18345: 18344: 18321: 18320: 18315: 18314: 18295: 18284: 18282: 18281: 18276: 18269: 18268: 18267: 18262: 18261: 18251: 18250: 18236: 18227: 18219: 18217: 18216: 18211: 18206: 18205: 18200: 18199: 18192: 18191: 18173: 18172: 18158: 18147: 18134: 18127: 18125: 18124: 18119: 18115: 18114: 18113: 18108: 18107: 18098: 18079: 18072: 18070: 18069: 18064: 18060: 18059: 18058: 18053: 18052: 18043: 18032: 18030: 18029: 18024: 18019: 18018: 18011: 18010: 18005: 18004: 17983: 17982: 17977: 17976: 17958: 17957: 17952: 17951: 17918: 17914: 17890:ladder operators 17863: 17857: 17855: 17854: 17851: 17848: 17832: 17831: 17827: 17811: 17800: 17796: 17795: 17791: 17782:isospin operator 17771: 17770: 17766: 17760:non-relativistic 17745: 17735: 17734: 17730: 17696: 17694: 17693: 17688: 17683: 17675: 17667: 17666: 17650: 17642: 17633: 17625: 17624: 17605: 17601: 17597: 17585: 17583: 17582: 17577: 17572: 17571: 17555: 17554: 17538: 17537: 17521: 17520: 17512: 17506: 17505: 17497: 17478: 17476: 17475: 17470: 17468: 17467: 17459: 17449: 17422: 17418: 17414: 17410: 17406: 17402: 17401: 17399: 17398: 17393: 17391: 17368: 17366: 17365: 17360: 17353: 17352: 17351: 17335: 17325: 17324: 17308: 17298: 17297: 17281: 17266: 17249: 17247: 17246: 17241: 17236: 17235: 17216: 17215: 17206: 17205: 17190: 17181: 17180: 17161: 17160: 17151: 17150: 17135: 17126: 17125: 17106: 17105: 17096: 17095: 17080: 17065: 17053: 17051: 17050: 17045: 17043: 17031: 17029: 17028: 17023: 17018: 17014: 17012: 17003: 16994: 16985: 16967: 16965: 16964: 16959: 16957: 16941: 16894: 16890: 16886: 16878: 16874: 16870: 16866: 16864: 16863: 16858: 16847: 16846: 16830: 16828: 16827: 16822: 16811: 16810: 16790: 16769: 16767: 16766: 16761: 16750: 16749: 16729: 16727: 16726: 16721: 16710: 16709: 16694:The Lie algebra 16678: 16676: 16675: 16670: 16665: 16661: 16660: 16655: 16653: 16652: 16637: 16632: 16627: 16625: 16624: 16609: 16604: 16599: 16597: 16596: 16581: 16556: 16555: 16536: 16534: 16532: 16531: 16528: 16525: 16512: 16501: 16489: 16487: 16486: 16481: 16472: 16471: 16453: 16452: 16434: 16433: 16398: 16397: 16378: 16363: 16361: 16360: 16355: 16353: 16352: 16347: 16346: 16326: 16318: 16292: 16290: 16289: 16284: 16277: 16276: 16272: 16265: 16264: 16259: 16258: 16250: 16243: 16242: 16237: 16236: 16228: 16218: 16210: 16205: 16204: 16175: 16173: 16172: 16167: 16162: 16158: 16157: 16156: 16147: 16146: 16129: 16125: 16124: 16123: 16114: 16113: 16099: 16098: 16077: 16075: 16073: 16071: 16070: 16065: 16063: 16062: 16057: 16048: 16047: 16042: 16022: 16013: 16000: 15979: 15977: 15976: 15971: 15969: 15968: 15961: 15957: 15952: 15945: 15932: 15931: 15914: 15910: 15905: 15898: 15869: 15867: 15866: 15861: 15859: 15858: 15851: 15847: 15842: 15835: 15826: 15825: 15814: 15810: 15805: 15798: 15786: 15782: 15777: 15770: 15758: 15757: 15737: 15733: 15728: 15721: 15709: 15705: 15700: 15693: 15681: 15680: 15662: 15658: 15653: 15646: 15637: 15636: 15616: 15612: 15611: 15610: 15602: 15596: 15595: 15587: 15581: 15571: 15562: 15548: 15546: 15545: 15540: 15535: 15534: 15467: 15466: 15458: 15445: 15438: 15388: 15386: 15385: 15380: 15373: 15372: 15371: 15358: 15357: 15337: 15332: 15318: 15313: 15300: 15295: 15273: 15256: 15239: 15235: 15231: 15224: 15222: 15221: 15216: 15209: 15208: 15207: 15193: 15188: 15174: 15169: 15156: 15144: 15143: 15130: 15129: 15114: 15113: 15090: 15088: 15087: 15082: 15080: 15071: 15067: 15066: 15052: 15051: 15041: 15002: 14999: 14991: 14980: 14979: 14965: 14956: 14946: 14945: 14935: 14934: 14918: 14909: 14906: 14879: 14875: 14873: 14872: 14867: 14865: 14864: 14845: 14841: 14840: 14839: 14829: 14828: 14801: 14797: 14793: 14791: 14790: 14785: 14783: 14782: 14772: 14771: 14761: 14729: 14721: 14710: 14708: 14707: 14702: 14697: 14696: 14683: 14682: 14667: 14666: 14653: 14652: 14632: 14627: 14613: 14608: 14595: 14590: 14572: 14571: 14563: 14562: 14554: 14547: 14546: 14538: 14537: 14529: 14509: 14499: 14495: 14491: 14487: 14469: 14467: 14466: 14461: 14459: 14458: 14446: 14442: 14441: 14440: 14432: 14426: 14425: 14417: 14406: 14405: 14397: 14391: 14390: 14389: 14385: 14377: 14369: 14368: 14358: 14357: 14347: 14346: 14345: 14341: 14340: 14332: 14320: 14319: 14301: 14299: 14298: 14293: 14286: 14256: 14255: 14254: 14246: 14240: 14239: 14231: 14226: 14225: 14224: 14216: 14193: 14192: 14191: 14183: 14177: 14176: 14168: 14147: 14146: 14138: 14132: 14131: 14130: 14126: 14125: 14124: 14116: 14110: 14109: 14101: 14093: 14085: 14070: 14069: 14068: 14060: 14055: 14054: 14053: 14052: 14048: 14047: 14046: 14038: 14032: 14031: 14023: 14015: 14007: 13985: 13984: 13973: 13972: 13971: 13963: 13958: 13945: 13944: 13928: 13926: 13925: 13920: 13918: 13917: 13909: 13899: 13897: 13896: 13891: 13861: 13851: 13849: 13848: 13843: 13841: 13840: 13832: 13822: 13820: 13819: 13814: 13812: 13811: 13803: 13793: 13791: 13790: 13785: 13783: 13782: 13774: 13762: 13760: 13759: 13754: 13749: 13745: 13744: 13743: 13735: 13729: 13725: 13704: 13703: 13702: 13694: 13688: 13687: 13679: 13655: 13654: 13646: 13622: 13621: 13613: 13605: 13603: 13589: 13570: 13569: 13568: 13567: 13559: 13553: 13552: 13544: 13515: 13513: 13512: 13507: 13502: 13498: 13479: 13478: 13470: 13464: 13463: 13455: 13431: 13430: 13422: 13398: 13397: 13389: 13381: 13379: 13365: 13360: 13359: 13351: 13341: 13333: 13331: 13330: 13325: 13318: 13299: 13298: 13290: 13284: 13283: 13275: 13230: 13228: 13227: 13222: 13220: 13213: 13212: 13211: 13207: 13206: 13205: 13197: 13191: 13190: 13182: 13157: 13144: 13140: 13139: 13138: 13130: 13124: 13123: 13115: 13101: 13081: 13077: 13076: 13068: 13062: 13058: 13037: 13036: 13035: 13027: 13021: 13020: 13012: 12988: 12987: 12979: 12955: 12954: 12946: 12932: 12928: 12909: 12908: 12900: 12894: 12893: 12885: 12846: 12845: 12844: 12840: 12839: 12838: 12830: 12824: 12823: 12815: 12796: 12795: 12794: 12790: 12789: 12788: 12780: 12774: 12773: 12765: 12735: 12731: 12718: 12710: 12708: 12707: 12702: 12697: 12692: 12660: 12658: 12657: 12649: 12643: 12642: 12634: 12628: 12623: 12591: 12577: 12576: 12568: 12562: 12561: 12553: 12506: 12486: 12478: 12476: 12475: 12470: 12468: 12467: 12449: 12448: 12440: 12434: 12433: 12425: 12375: 12364: 12362: 12361: 12356: 12352: 12349: 12348: 12334: 12333: 12325: 12319: 12318: 12310: 12298: 12281: 12280: 12279: 12275: 12274: 12273: 12265: 12259: 12258: 12250: 12229: 12226: 12215: 12207: 12205: 12204: 12199: 12197: 12193: 12191: 12168: 12167: 12166: 12148: 12147: 12128: 12125: 12120: 12102: 12101: 12093: 12087: 12086: 12078: 12066: 12064: 12047: 12046: 12045: 12033: 12032: 12013: 12010: 12005: 11981: 11977: 11975: 11952: 11951: 11950: 11932: 11931: 11923: 11917: 11916: 11908: 11899: 11898: 11879: 11876: 11871: 11850: 11848: 11831: 11830: 11829: 11817: 11816: 11808: 11802: 11801: 11793: 11784: 11783: 11764: 11761: 11756: 11735: 11731: 11729: 11721: 11720: 11719: 11714: 11710: 11709: 11705: 11704: 11703: 11695: 11689: 11688: 11680: 11663: 11662: 11652: 11649: 11644: 11622: 11621: 11620: 11616: 11615: 11614: 11606: 11600: 11599: 11591: 11555:, and using the 11548: 11546: 11545: 11540: 11534: 11533: 11525: 11519: 11518: 11510: 11504: 11503: 11489: 11485: 11484: 11483: 11475: 11469: 11468: 11460: 11442: 11431:For odd powers, 11427: 11423: 11416: 11406: 11404: 11403: 11398: 11387: 11386: 11374: 11373: 11365: 11359: 11358: 11350: 11335: 11320: 11318: 11317: 11312: 11301: 11296: 11295: 11287: 11284: 11275: 11274: 11266: 11257: 11256: 11248: 11223: 11221: 11220: 11215: 11212: 11187: 11171: 11167: 11151: 11149: 11148: 11143: 11141: 11137: 11136: 11124: 11123: 11104: 11071: 11070: 11058: 11057: 11045: 11044: 11032: 11031: 11013: 11009: 11008: 11007: 10995: 10994: 10982: 10981: 10966: 10965: 10953: 10952: 10940: 10939: 10916: 10912: 10911: 10910: 10898: 10897: 10882: 10881: 10869: 10868: 10853: 10852: 10840: 10839: 10812: 10808: 10807: 10806: 10797: 10796: 10787: 10786: 10777: 10776: 10752: 10751: 10724: 10723: 10711: 10710: 10698: 10697: 10679: 10678: 10666: 10665: 10652: 10621: 10617: 10616: 10615: 10606: 10605: 10596: 10595: 10571: 10570: 10548: 10544: 10543: 10542: 10533: 10532: 10508: 10507: 10485: 10481: 10480: 10448: 10432: 10430: 10429: 10424: 10422: 10418: 10414: 10413: 10412: 10400: 10399: 10384: 10383: 10371: 10370: 10355: 10354: 10342: 10341: 10314: 10310: 10309: 10308: 10299: 10298: 10289: 10288: 10279: 10278: 10254: 10253: 10225: 10221: 10220: 10219: 10210: 10209: 10200: 10199: 10175: 10174: 10152: 10148: 10147: 10146: 10137: 10136: 10102: 10098: 10097: 10057: 10055: 10054: 10049: 10047: 10042: 10034: 10032: 10024: 10019: 10011: 10009: 10004: 9999: 9991: 9989: 9980: 9978: 9977: 9972: 9970: 9956: 9948: 9936: 9928: 9922: 9920: 9919: 9916: 9913: 9894: 9892: 9891: 9886: 9856: 9839: 9828: 9817: 9815: 9814: 9809: 9805: 9802: 9801: 9800: 9792: 9786: 9785: 9779: 9778: 9770: 9764: 9763: 9755: 9752: 9751: 9735: 9734: 9728: 9727: 9719: 9713: 9712: 9704: 9701: 9700: 9691: 9690: 9684: 9683: 9675: 9669: 9668: 9660: 9657: 9656: 9650: 9649: 9643: 9642: 9634: 9628: 9627: 9619: 9616: 9615: 9607: 9604: 9593: 9578: 9576: 9575: 9570: 9566: 9562: 9555: 9554: 9542: 9541: 9532: 9531: 9519: 9518: 9509: 9508: 9499: 9498: 9488: 9487: 9462: 9461: 9452: 9451: 9442: 9441: 9432: 9431: 9418: 9414: 9410: 9409: 9394: 9393: 9383: 9382: 9359: 9358: 9349: 9348: 9332: 9331: 9322: 9321: 9312: 9311: 9302: 9301: 9286: 9283: 9272: 9263: 9254: 9246:for each matrix 9245: 9220: 9211: 9202: 9192: 9190: 9189: 9184: 9180: 9174: 9173: 9172: 9162: 9161: 9137: 9136: 9121: 9120: 9111: 9110: 9099: 9096: 9082: 9080: 9079: 9074: 9072: 9068: 9067: 9058: 9057: 9035: 9034: 9016: 9015: 9005: 9004: 8976: 8975: 8966: 8965: 8953: 8952: 8943: 8942: 8924: 8923: 8914: 8913: 8901: 8900: 8891: 8890: 8868: 8867: 8855: 8854: 8839: 8835: 8834: 8833: 8821: 8820: 8785: 8783: 8782: 8777: 8748: 8747: 8731: 8726: 8716: 8700: 8698: 8697: 8692: 8685: 8673: 8665: 8663: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8648: 8647: 8646: 8637: 8636: 8618: 8606: 8602: 8601: 8600: 8591: 8590: 8580: 8556: 8554: 8553: 8548: 8541: 8540: 8539: 8528: 8520: 8518: 8517: 8512: 8508: 8496: 8485: 8483: 8482: 8477: 8360: 8358: 8357: 8352: 8348: 8336: 8328: 8326: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8314: 8303: 8292: 8290: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8275: 8274: 8273: 8264: 8263: 8251: 8250: 8245: 8244: 8236: 8221: 8212: 8206: 8205: 8200: 8197: 8196: 8169:with components 8168: 8166: 8165: 8160: 8156: 8152: 8138: 8122: 8114: 8112: 8111: 8106: 8086: 8066: 8052: 8042: 8034: 8032: 8031: 8026: 8019: 8015: 8001: 7991: 7983: 7981: 7980: 7975: 7968: 7967: 7966: 7955: 7947: 7937: 7935: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7923: 7917: 7916: 7910: 7909: 7900: 7899: 7890: 7889: 7883: 7882: 7877: 7876: 7868: 7864: 7863: 7851: 7842: 7836: 7835: 7816: 7814: 7813: 7808: 7800: 7799: 7791: 7773: 7772: 7767: 7766: 7758: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7733: 7704: 7703: 7694: 7693: 7663:Minkowski metric 7657: 7655: 7654: 7649: 7642: 7641: 7640: 7631: 7630: 7618: 7617: 7598: 7596: 7595: 7590: 7588: 7587: 7576: 7560: 7558: 7557: 7552: 7544: 7543: 7535: 7520: 7519: 7501:with components 7500: 7498: 7497: 7492: 7488: 7487: 7486: 7475: 7459: 7457: 7456: 7451: 7440: 7393: 7367: 7366: 7350: 7348: 7347: 7342: 7313: 7287: 7264: 7263: 7247: 7245: 7244: 7239: 7174: 7173: 7165: 7152: 7150: 7149: 7144: 7142: 7141: 7125: 7123: 7122: 7117: 7099: 7097: 7096: 7091: 7080: 7075: 7074: 7038: 7034: 7033: 7025: 7015: 7014: 7006: 6996: 6994: 6993: 6988: 6986: 6982: 6981: 6973: 6960: 6959: 6943: 6941: 6940: 6935: 6928: 6927: 6926: 6919: 6914: 6913: 6905: 6902: 6894: 6893: 6880: 6879: 6867: 6866: 6846: 6840: 6835: 6834: 6826: 6823: 6815: 6814: 6802: 6797: 6796: 6788: 6785: 6777: 6773: 6768: 6767: 6754: 6753: 6746: 6745: 6730: 6729: 6716: 6712: 6711: 6703: 6693: 6692: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6656: 6648: 6638: 6637: 6623: 6622: 6618: 6617: 6609: 6599: 6593: 6588: 6587: 6568: 6566: 6565: 6560: 6556: 6555: 6554: 6546: 6540: 6539: 6531: 6526: 6518: 6516: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6499: 6491: 6488: 6478: 6470: 6468: 6467: 6462: 6458: 6457: 6456: 6448: 6442: 6441: 6433: 6428: 6420: 6418: 6417: 6412: 6401: 6396: 6395: 6387: 6384: 6376: 6375: 6367: 6361: 6360: 6352: 6343: 6338: 6337: 6329: 6326: 6318: 6317: 6309: 6303: 6302: 6294: 6286: 6278: 6276: 6275: 6270: 6263: 6256: 6255: 6250: 6244: 6243: 6235: 6232: 6224: 6223: 6214: 6213: 6205: 6199: 6198: 6190: 6182: 6171: 6169: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6152: 6144: 6141: 6131: 6123: 6121: 6120: 6115: 6111: 6110: 6109: 6101: 6095: 6094: 6086: 6081: 6058: 6056: 6055: 6050: 6048: 6047: 6042: 6029: 6027: 6026: 6021: 6016: 6015: 6007: 5998: 5997: 5989: 5983: 5982: 5974: 5955: 5954: 5946: 5940: 5939: 5931: 5925: 5924: 5916: 5910: 5909: 5901: 5888: 5886: 5885: 5880: 5857: 5855: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5840: 5839: 5838: 5826: 5825: 5813: 5812: 5792: 5784: 5779: 5778: 5747: 5745: 5744: 5739: 5718: 5716: 5715: 5710: 5696: 5670: 5667: 5658: 5656: 5655: 5650: 5636: 5621: 5619: 5618: 5613: 5602: 5587: 5585: 5584: 5579: 5565: 5532: 5530: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5518: 5510: 5501: 5500: 5492: 5487: 5468: 5467: 5459: 5453: 5449: 5448: 5440: 5433: 5432: 5424: 5418: 5417: 5409: 5390: 5388: 5387: 5382: 5371: 5351: 5330: 5328: 5327: 5322: 5306: 5304: 5303: 5298: 5286: 5284: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5272: 5264: 5254: 5252: 5251: 5246: 5244: 5240: 5239: 5231: 5220: 5218: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5206: 5198: 5192: 5188: 5187: 5179: 5172: 5171: 5163: 5157: 5156: 5148: 5132: 5130: 5129: 5124: 5122: 5121: 5113: 5107: 5106: 5098: 5082: 5080: 5079: 5074: 5066: 5065: 5057: 5051: 5050: 5042: 5027: 5026: 5018: 5012: 5011: 5003: 4978: 4976: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4964: 4951: 4950: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4927: 4917: 4916: 4908: 4902: 4901: 4893: 4874: 4872: 4871: 4866: 4854: 4852: 4851: 4846: 4835: 4832: 4823: 4821: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4809: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4789: 4786: 4775: 4774: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4751: 4742: 4741: 4735: 4734: 4726: 4720: 4719: 4711: 4708: 4707: 4683: 4681: 4680: 4675: 4673: 4672: 4664: 4658: 4657: 4649: 4643: 4642: 4634: 4624: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4610: 4602: 4596: 4595: 4589: 4588: 4580: 4577: 4576: 4570: 4569: 4561: 4555: 4554: 4546: 4543: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4523: 4515: 4502: 4500: 4499: 4494: 4492: 4491: 4483: 4466: 4464: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4452: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4429: 4423: 4422: 4414: 4404: 4402: 4401: 4396: 4394: 4393: 4384: 4383: 4378: 4363: 4355: 4354: 4343: 4340: 4330: 4328: 4327: 4322: 4297: 4295: 4294: 4289: 4287: 4286: 4281: 4268: 4266: 4265: 4260: 4242: 4240: 4239: 4234: 4232: 4231: 4226: 4206: 4204: 4203: 4198: 4196: 4189: 4188: 4181: 4180: 4166: 4165: 4150: 4149: 4136: 4135: 4120: 4119: 4108: 4107: 4087: 4086: 4048: 4047: 4035: 4034: 3996: 3995: 3983: 3982: 3947: 3946: 3931: 3927: 3926: 3916: 3915: 3903: 3902: 3889: 3888: 3878: 3877: 3862: 3858: 3857: 3852: 3851: 3843: 3836: 3835: 3830: 3829: 3821: 3816: 3815: 3805: 3804: 3789: 3788: 3783: 3782: 3774: 3769: 3768: 3750: 3749: 3744: 3743: 3735: 3730: 3729: 3710: 3709: 3701: 3695: 3694: 3686: 3669: 3667: 3666: 3661: 3659: 3658: 3650: 3640: 3638: 3637: 3632: 3630: 3629: 3621: 3611: 3609: 3608: 3603: 3601: 3600: 3592: 3582: 3580: 3579: 3574: 3572: 3571: 3566: 3565: 3557: 3546: 3544: 3543: 3538: 3536: 3535: 3530: 3529: 3521: 3510: 3508: 3507: 3502: 3500: 3499: 3494: 3493: 3485: 3474: 3472: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3460: 3455: 3454: 3446: 3442: 3441: 3429: 3428: 3423: 3422: 3414: 3410: 3409: 3397: 3396: 3391: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3377: 3365: 3364: 3356: 3338: 3336: 3335: 3330: 3328: 3321: 3320: 3288: 3287: 3270: 3269: 3237: 3236: 3217: 3216: 3188: 3182: 3178: 3169: 3168: 3151: 3150: 3125: 3119: 3115: 3106: 3105: 3086: 3085: 3057: 3051: 3047: 3038: 3037: 3020: 3019: 2994: 2988: 2984: 2975: 2974: 2941: 2937: 2915: 2913: 2912: 2907: 2905: 2891: 2887: 2886: 2885: 2873: 2872: 2844: 2840: 2839: 2838: 2826: 2825: 2797: 2793: 2792: 2791: 2779: 2778: 2747: 2743: 2742: 2741: 2729: 2728: 2701: 2699: 2698: 2693: 2691: 2687: 2686: 2664: 2660: 2659: 2658: 2646: 2645: 2627: 2626: 2604: 2600: 2599: 2598: 2586: 2585: 2567: 2566: 2544: 2540: 2539: 2538: 2526: 2525: 2497: 2493: 2492: 2491: 2479: 2478: 2450:Anticommutators 2444: 2443: 2437: 2435: 2434: 2429: 2418: 2417: 2401: 2399: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2387: 2375: 2374: 2362: 2353: 2347: 2346: 2325: 2323: 2322: 2317: 2309: 2301: 2300: 2295: 2279: 2277: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2265: 2260: 2246:Clifford algebra 2240: 2236: 2228: 2219: 2217: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2205: 2196: 2195: 2183: 2182: 2173: 2172: 2156: 2154: 2153: 2148: 2143: 2142: 2130: 2129: 2107: 2105: 2104: 2099: 2090: 2089: 2068: 2067: 2055: 2054: 2021: 2019: 2018: 2013: 1999: 1998: 1977: 1976: 1955: 1954: 1949: 1922: 1907: 1905: 1904: 1899: 1894: 1893: 1883: 1882: 1855: 1854: 1842: 1841: 1802: 1800: 1799: 1794: 1792: 1780: 1773: 1771: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1752: 1751: 1740: 1739: 1725: 1723: 1722: 1717: 1715: 1703: 1699: 1697: 1696: 1691: 1689: 1688: 1683: 1682: 1661: 1652: 1641: 1631: 1629: 1628: 1623: 1621: 1604: 1603: 1568: 1567: 1526: 1519: 1517: 1516: 1511: 1500: 1499: 1461: 1460: 1451: 1450: 1441: 1440: 1420: 1415: 1402: 1397: 1384: 1379: 1351: 1344: 1334: 1326: 1315: 1305: 1303: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1291: 1284: 1283: 1266: 1265: 1246: 1245: 1229: 1228: 1209: 1208: 1194: 1193: 1170: 1169: 1145: 1143: 1142: 1137: 1124: 1122: 1121: 1116: 1114: 1113: 1090: 1088: 1087: 1082: 1080: 1079: 1059: 1057: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1048: 1029: 1027: 1026: 1021: 1019: 1018: 998: 996: 995: 990: 977: 975: 974: 969: 967: 966: 943: 941: 940: 935: 933: 932: 913: 911: 910: 905: 903: 902: 879: 877: 876: 871: 869: 868: 848: 846: 845: 840: 827: 825: 824: 819: 817: 816: 797: 795: 794: 789: 787: 786: 769: 767: 766: 761: 759: 758: 741: 739: 738: 733: 731: 730: 710: 703: 695: 693: 692: 687: 685: 665: 638: 636: 635: 630: 625: 624: 619: 605:Clifford algebra 598: 563: 561: 560: 555: 544: 543: 527: 496: 490: 488: 487: 482: 477: 476: 471: 455: 451: 441:two-dimensional 421:Hermitian matrix 419: 415: 400: 391: 358: 356: 355: 350: 348: 341: 340: 295: 294: 282: 281: 265: 264: 219: 218: 206: 205: 189: 188: 146: 145: 133: 132: 108: 100: 70: 21: 20734: 20733: 20729: 20728: 20727: 20725: 20724: 20723: 20689: 20688: 20687: 20682: 20659: 20650: 20599: 20523: 20469: 20405: 20239: 20157: 20103: 20042: 19843:Centrosymmetric 19766: 19760: 19730: 19716: 19681: 19650: 19622: 19618: 19613: 19553: 19549: 19538: 19531: 19524: 19504: 19500: 19483: 19455: 19451: 19436: 19415: 19411: 19402: 19398: 19388: 19386: 19351: 19345: 19341: 19337: 19332: 19331: 19304: 19303: 19298: 19293: 19288: 19282: 19281: 19276: 19271: 19266: 19260: 19259: 19254: 19249: 19244: 19238: 19237: 19232: 19227: 19222: 19214: 19210: 19208: 19205: 19204: 19202: 19198: 19173: 19153: 19133: 19132: 19118: 19117: 19103: 19092: 19072: 19052: 19051: 19037: 19036: 19025: 19005: 19004: 18993: 18973: 18972: 18958: 18938: 18937: 18935: 18932: 18931: 18903: 18895: 18886: 18884: 18880: 18858: 18853: 18852: 18850: 18847: 18846: 18841:induced by the 18823: 18814: 18808: 18807: 18806: 18794: 18789: 18788: 18777: 18768: 18762: 18761: 18760: 18748: 18743: 18742: 18734: 18731: 18730: 18709: 18704: 18703: 18692: 18683: 18677: 18676: 18675: 18673: 18670: 18669: 18667: 18663: 18656: 18652: 18641: 18626: 18616: 18612: 18607: 18593:Exchange matrix 18531: 18504: 18479: 18478: 18472: 18468: 18459: 18455: 18449: 18448: 18438: 18426: 18422: 18420: 18417: 18416: 18405: 18400: 18376: 18375: 18370: 18364: 18358: 18357: 18356: 18353: 18352: 18346: 18340: 18339: 18338: 18336: 18326: 18325: 18316: 18310: 18309: 18308: 18306: 18303: 18302: 18298:are defined as 18293: 18288: 18263: 18257: 18256: 18255: 18243: 18239: 18225: 18222: 18221: 18201: 18195: 18194: 18193: 18181: 18177: 18165: 18161: 18156: 18153: 18152: 18145: 18140: 18133: 18129: 18109: 18103: 18102: 18101: 18096: 18093: 18092: 18078: 18074: 18054: 18048: 18047: 18046: 18041: 18038: 18037: 18013: 18012: 18006: 18000: 17999: 17998: 17996: 17990: 17989: 17984: 17978: 17972: 17971: 17970: 17963: 17962: 17953: 17947: 17946: 17945: 17943: 17940: 17939: 17929: 17916: 17912: 17907: 17852: 17849: 17844: 17843: 17841: 17834: 17829: 17825: 17824: 17806: 17798: 17793: 17789: 17788: 17768: 17764: 17763: 17743: 17738: 17732: 17728: 17727: 17720:describing the 17706: 17674: 17662: 17658: 17641: 17629: 17620: 17616: 17614: 17611: 17610: 17603: 17599: 17595: 17590: 17567: 17563: 17550: 17546: 17533: 17529: 17511: 17510: 17496: 17495: 17487: 17484: 17483: 17458: 17457: 17455: 17452: 17451: 17447: 17440: 17434: 17429: 17420: 17416: 17412: 17408: 17404: 17387: 17385: 17382: 17381: 17376: 17347: 17343: 17331: 17320: 17316: 17304: 17293: 17289: 17277: 17262: 17260: 17257: 17256: 17231: 17227: 17211: 17207: 17201: 17197: 17186: 17176: 17172: 17156: 17152: 17146: 17142: 17131: 17121: 17117: 17101: 17097: 17091: 17087: 17076: 17061: 17059: 17056: 17055: 17039: 17037: 17034: 17033: 17008: 16999: 16990: 16981: 16979: 16975: 16973: 16970: 16969: 16953: 16951: 16948: 16947: 16939: 16932: 16925: 16914: 16911: 16905: 16892: 16888: 16884: 16876: 16872: 16868: 16839: 16838: 16836: 16833: 16832: 16803: 16802: 16800: 16797: 16796: 16788: 16783: 16742: 16741: 16739: 16736: 16735: 16702: 16701: 16699: 16696: 16695: 16692: 16648: 16644: 16638: 16636: 16620: 16616: 16610: 16608: 16592: 16588: 16582: 16580: 16579: 16575: 16548: 16547: 16545: 16542: 16541: 16529: 16526: 16523: 16522: 16520: 16515: 16510: 16499: 16494: 16467: 16463: 16448: 16444: 16429: 16425: 16390: 16389: 16387: 16384: 16383: 16375: 16369: 16348: 16339: 16338: 16337: 16335: 16332: 16331: 16324: 16316: 16302: 16260: 16249: 16248: 16247: 16238: 16227: 16226: 16225: 16224: 16220: 16209: 16197: 16193: 16191: 16188: 16187: 16152: 16148: 16142: 16138: 16137: 16133: 16119: 16115: 16109: 16105: 16104: 16100: 16091: 16087: 16085: 16082: 16081: 16058: 16053: 16052: 16043: 16038: 16037: 16035: 16032: 16031: 16029: 16028: 16020: 16015: 16011: 16006: 15998: 15993: 15990: 15963: 15962: 15946: 15944: 15940: 15921: 15917: 15915: 15899: 15897: 15893: 15880: 15879: 15877: 15874: 15873: 15853: 15852: 15836: 15834: 15830: 15821: 15817: 15815: 15799: 15797: 15793: 15771: 15769: 15765: 15746: 15742: 15739: 15738: 15722: 15720: 15716: 15694: 15692: 15688: 15669: 15665: 15663: 15647: 15645: 15641: 15632: 15628: 15621: 15620: 15601: 15600: 15586: 15585: 15577: 15576: 15572: 15560: 15558: 15555: 15554: 15553:density matrix 15529: 15528: 15517: 15497: 15472: 15471: 15457: 15456: 15454: 15451: 15450: 15443: 15436: 15429: 15422: 15415: 15408: 15364: 15360: 15350: 15346: 15333: 15325: 15314: 15306: 15296: 15285: 15279: 15276: 15275: 15270: 15263: 15258: 15254: 15248: 15245: 15237: 15233: 15229: 15200: 15196: 15189: 15181: 15170: 15162: 15152: 15136: 15132: 15122: 15118: 15106: 15102: 15096: 15093: 15092: 15078: 15077: 15062: 15058: 15047: 15043: 15037: 15012: 14993: 14992: 14989: 14988: 14975: 14971: 14954: 14947: 14941: 14937: 14931: 14907: 14905: 14898: 14891: 14889: 14886: 14885: 14877: 14857: 14853: 14835: 14831: 14824: 14820: 14819: 14815: 14807: 14804: 14803: 14799: 14795: 14778: 14774: 14767: 14763: 14757: 14735: 14732: 14731: 14727: 14719: 14689: 14685: 14675: 14671: 14659: 14655: 14645: 14641: 14628: 14620: 14609: 14601: 14591: 14580: 14564: 14553: 14552: 14551: 14539: 14528: 14527: 14526: 14524: 14521: 14520: 14506: 14501: 14497: 14493: 14489: 14485: 14482: 14477: 14454: 14450: 14431: 14430: 14416: 14415: 14414: 14410: 14396: 14395: 14376: 14372: 14371: 14370: 14364: 14360: 14353: 14349: 14331: 14327: 14323: 14322: 14321: 14315: 14311: 14309: 14306: 14305: 14245: 14244: 14230: 14229: 14215: 14214: 14182: 14181: 14167: 14166: 14137: 14136: 14115: 14114: 14100: 14099: 14098: 14094: 14084: 14077: 14073: 14059: 14058: 14037: 14036: 14022: 14021: 14020: 14016: 14006: 14002: 13998: 13980: 13976: 13962: 13961: 13940: 13936: 13934: 13931: 13930: 13908: 13907: 13905: 13902: 13901: 13900:along any axis 13885: 13882: 13881: 13878: 13873: 13853: 13831: 13830: 13828: 13825: 13824: 13802: 13801: 13799: 13796: 13795: 13794:is parallel to 13773: 13772: 13770: 13767: 13766: 13734: 13733: 13693: 13692: 13678: 13677: 13645: 13644: 13612: 13611: 13610: 13606: 13593: 13588: 13584: 13580: 13558: 13557: 13543: 13542: 13535: 13531: 13529: 13526: 13525: 13469: 13468: 13454: 13453: 13421: 13420: 13388: 13387: 13386: 13382: 13369: 13364: 13350: 13349: 13347: 13344: 13343: 13339: 13289: 13288: 13274: 13273: 13238: 13235: 13234: 13218: 13217: 13196: 13195: 13181: 13180: 13179: 13175: 13168: 13164: 13155: 13154: 13129: 13128: 13114: 13113: 13112: 13108: 13097: 13079: 13078: 13067: 13066: 13026: 13025: 13011: 13010: 12978: 12977: 12945: 12944: 12943: 12939: 12899: 12898: 12884: 12883: 12861: 12857: 12847: 12829: 12828: 12814: 12813: 12812: 12808: 12801: 12797: 12779: 12778: 12764: 12763: 12762: 12758: 12751: 12747: 12743: 12741: 12738: 12737: 12733: 12729: 12720: 12716: 12661: 12659: 12648: 12647: 12633: 12632: 12592: 12590: 12567: 12566: 12552: 12551: 12537: 12534: 12533: 12504: 12484: 12463: 12459: 12439: 12438: 12424: 12423: 12406: 12403: 12402: 12389:Euler's formula 12366: 12344: 12324: 12323: 12309: 12308: 12294: 12264: 12263: 12249: 12248: 12247: 12243: 12236: 12232: 12224: 12221: 12220: 12195: 12194: 12169: 12153: 12149: 12143: 12139: 12129: 12127: 12121: 12110: 12092: 12091: 12077: 12076: 12048: 12038: 12034: 12028: 12024: 12014: 12012: 12006: 11995: 11979: 11978: 11953: 11937: 11933: 11922: 11921: 11907: 11906: 11894: 11890: 11880: 11878: 11872: 11861: 11832: 11822: 11818: 11807: 11806: 11792: 11791: 11779: 11775: 11765: 11763: 11757: 11746: 11733: 11732: 11722: 11715: 11694: 11693: 11679: 11678: 11677: 11673: 11669: 11665: 11664: 11658: 11654: 11653: 11651: 11645: 11634: 11623: 11605: 11604: 11590: 11589: 11588: 11584: 11577: 11573: 11569: 11567: 11564: 11563: 11524: 11523: 11509: 11508: 11490: 11474: 11473: 11459: 11458: 11457: 11453: 11452: 11450: 11447: 11446: 11432: 11428:by convention. 11425: 11424:is taken to be 11418: 11411: 11379: 11375: 11364: 11363: 11349: 11348: 11343: 11340: 11339: 11325: 11297: 11286: 11285: 11280: 11265: 11264: 11247: 11246: 11244: 11241: 11240: 11234: 11199: 11193: 11190: 11189: 11173: 11169: 11155: 11139: 11138: 11129: 11125: 11110: 11106: 11085: 11063: 11059: 11050: 11046: 11037: 11033: 11024: 11020: 11000: 10996: 10987: 10983: 10974: 10970: 10958: 10954: 10945: 10941: 10932: 10928: 10927: 10923: 10903: 10899: 10890: 10886: 10874: 10870: 10861: 10857: 10845: 10841: 10832: 10828: 10827: 10823: 10813: 10802: 10798: 10792: 10788: 10782: 10778: 10772: 10768: 10767: 10763: 10754: 10753: 10738: 10734: 10716: 10712: 10703: 10699: 10690: 10686: 10671: 10667: 10658: 10654: 10636: 10622: 10611: 10607: 10601: 10597: 10591: 10587: 10586: 10582: 10573: 10572: 10563: 10559: 10549: 10538: 10534: 10528: 10524: 10523: 10519: 10510: 10509: 10500: 10496: 10486: 10476: 10472: 10468: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10452: 10443: 10437: 10420: 10419: 10405: 10401: 10392: 10388: 10376: 10372: 10363: 10359: 10347: 10343: 10334: 10330: 10329: 10325: 10315: 10304: 10300: 10294: 10290: 10284: 10280: 10274: 10270: 10269: 10265: 10256: 10255: 10243: 10239: 10226: 10215: 10211: 10205: 10201: 10195: 10191: 10190: 10186: 10177: 10176: 10167: 10163: 10153: 10142: 10138: 10132: 10128: 10127: 10123: 10114: 10113: 10103: 10093: 10089: 10085: 10075: 10073: 10070: 10069: 10063: 10033: 10031: 10010: 10008: 9990: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9982: 9966: 9952: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9938: 9930: 9917: 9914: 9909: 9908: 9906: 9899: 9862: 9859: 9858: 9854: 9850: 9846: 9841: 9837: 9819: 9791: 9790: 9781: 9780: 9769: 9768: 9754: 9753: 9747: 9746: 9730: 9729: 9718: 9717: 9703: 9702: 9696: 9695: 9686: 9685: 9674: 9673: 9659: 9658: 9652: 9651: 9645: 9644: 9633: 9632: 9618: 9617: 9611: 9610: 9602: 9599: 9598: 9560: 9559: 9547: 9543: 9537: 9533: 9527: 9523: 9514: 9510: 9504: 9500: 9494: 9490: 9477: 9473: 9463: 9457: 9453: 9447: 9443: 9437: 9433: 9427: 9423: 9420: 9419: 9402: 9398: 9389: 9385: 9372: 9368: 9364: 9360: 9354: 9350: 9344: 9340: 9333: 9327: 9323: 9317: 9313: 9307: 9303: 9297: 9293: 9289: 9281: 9278: 9277: 9270: 9265: 9261: 9256: 9252: 9247: 9242: 9238: 9231: 9227: 9222: 9218: 9213: 9209: 9204: 9200: 9194: 9168: 9164: 9151: 9147: 9129: 9125: 9116: 9112: 9106: 9102: 9094: 9091: 9090: 9070: 9069: 9063: 9059: 9053: 9049: 9039: 9027: 9023: 9011: 9007: 8994: 8990: 8981: 8980: 8971: 8967: 8961: 8957: 8948: 8944: 8938: 8934: 8919: 8915: 8909: 8905: 8896: 8892: 8886: 8882: 8872: 8863: 8859: 8850: 8846: 8829: 8825: 8816: 8812: 8811: 8807: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8797: 8791: 8743: 8739: 8727: 8722: 8712: 8706: 8703: 8702: 8671: 8668: 8667: 8642: 8638: 8632: 8628: 8627: 8623: 8614: 8596: 8592: 8586: 8582: 8576: 8571: 8567: 8562: 8559: 8558: 8535: 8531: 8526: 8523: 8522: 8494: 8491: 8490: 8369: 8366: 8365: 8334: 8331: 8330: 8310: 8306: 8301: 8298: 8297: 8269: 8265: 8259: 8255: 8246: 8235: 8234: 8233: 8232: 8228: 8210: 8201: 8199: 8198: 8192: 8188: 8177: 8174: 8173: 8148: 8131: 8120: 8117: 8116: 8073: 8062: 8045: 8040: 8037: 8036: 8035:and this shows 8011: 7994: 7989: 7986: 7985: 7956: 7951: 7950: 7945: 7942: 7941: 7919: 7918: 7912: 7911: 7905: 7901: 7895: 7891: 7885: 7884: 7878: 7867: 7866: 7865: 7859: 7858: 7840: 7831: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7821: 7790: 7789: 7768: 7757: 7756: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7749: 7699: 7695: 7689: 7685: 7677: 7674: 7673: 7636: 7632: 7626: 7622: 7613: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7603: 7577: 7572: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7565: 7534: 7533: 7515: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7505: 7482: 7478: 7473: 7470: 7469: 7466: 7436: 7389: 7362: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7352: 7309: 7283: 7259: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7249: 7164: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7157: 7137: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7127: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7076: 7070: 7066: 7024: 7023: 7019: 7005: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6998: 6972: 6971: 6967: 6955: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6945: 6921: 6920: 6915: 6904: 6903: 6898: 6889: 6885: 6882: 6881: 6875: 6871: 6862: 6858: 6848: 6847: 6836: 6825: 6824: 6819: 6810: 6806: 6798: 6787: 6786: 6781: 6772: 6763: 6759: 6748: 6747: 6741: 6737: 6725: 6721: 6718: 6717: 6702: 6701: 6697: 6688: 6684: 6677: 6676: 6647: 6646: 6642: 6633: 6629: 6608: 6607: 6603: 6598: 6597: 6592: 6583: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6545: 6544: 6530: 6529: 6524: 6521: 6520: 6501: 6490: 6489: 6484: 6476: 6473: 6472: 6447: 6446: 6432: 6431: 6426: 6423: 6422: 6397: 6386: 6385: 6380: 6366: 6365: 6351: 6350: 6339: 6328: 6327: 6322: 6308: 6307: 6293: 6292: 6284: 6281: 6280: 6251: 6246: 6245: 6234: 6233: 6228: 6219: 6215: 6204: 6203: 6189: 6188: 6180: 6177: 6176: 6154: 6143: 6142: 6137: 6129: 6126: 6125: 6100: 6099: 6085: 6084: 6079: 6076: 6075: 6072: 6043: 6038: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6031: 6006: 6005: 5988: 5987: 5973: 5972: 5945: 5944: 5930: 5929: 5915: 5914: 5900: 5899: 5894: 5891: 5890: 5871: 5868: 5867: 5864: 5831: 5827: 5821: 5817: 5808: 5804: 5803: 5799: 5783: 5771: 5767: 5756: 5753: 5752: 5724: 5721: 5720: 5683: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5660: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5623: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5589: 5558: 5541: 5538: 5537: 5509: 5508: 5491: 5490: 5458: 5457: 5439: 5438: 5437: 5423: 5422: 5408: 5407: 5399: 5396: 5395: 5364: 5344: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5316: 5313: 5312: 5311:restriction on 5292: 5289: 5288: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5256: 5230: 5229: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5197: 5196: 5178: 5177: 5176: 5162: 5161: 5147: 5146: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5112: 5111: 5097: 5096: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5056: 5055: 5041: 5040: 5017: 5016: 5002: 5001: 4987: 4984: 4983: 4957: 4953: 4941: 4940: 4926: 4925: 4907: 4906: 4892: 4891: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4825: 4805: 4800: 4799: 4788: 4787: 4782: 4765: 4764: 4750: 4749: 4737: 4736: 4725: 4724: 4710: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4697: 4694: 4693: 4690: 4663: 4662: 4648: 4647: 4633: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4626: 4601: 4600: 4591: 4590: 4579: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4560: 4559: 4545: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4508: 4482: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4475: 4472: 4443: 4442: 4428: 4427: 4413: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4406: 4389: 4385: 4379: 4374: 4373: 4359: 4344: 4339: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4332: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4282: 4277: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4270: 4248: 4245: 4244: 4227: 4222: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4215: 4194: 4193: 4183: 4182: 4176: 4172: 4167: 4161: 4157: 4145: 4141: 4138: 4137: 4131: 4127: 4115: 4111: 4109: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4091: 4081: 4080: 4072: 4066: 4065: 4060: 4050: 4049: 4043: 4039: 4029: 4028: 4023: 4017: 4016: 4008: 3998: 3997: 3991: 3987: 3977: 3976: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3959: 3949: 3948: 3942: 3938: 3929: 3928: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3907: 3895: 3891: 3884: 3880: 3873: 3869: 3860: 3859: 3853: 3842: 3841: 3840: 3831: 3820: 3819: 3818: 3811: 3807: 3800: 3796: 3784: 3773: 3772: 3771: 3764: 3760: 3745: 3734: 3733: 3732: 3725: 3721: 3711: 3700: 3699: 3685: 3684: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3674: 3649: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3642: 3620: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3613: 3591: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3584: 3567: 3556: 3555: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3548: 3531: 3520: 3519: 3518: 3516: 3513: 3512: 3495: 3484: 3483: 3482: 3480: 3477: 3476: 3456: 3445: 3444: 3443: 3437: 3433: 3424: 3413: 3412: 3411: 3405: 3401: 3392: 3381: 3380: 3379: 3373: 3369: 3355: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3348: 3345: 3326: 3325: 3315: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3297: 3296: 3289: 3280: 3276: 3274: 3264: 3263: 3257: 3256: 3246: 3245: 3238: 3229: 3225: 3222: 3221: 3211: 3210: 3201: 3200: 3190: 3189: 3177: 3170: 3161: 3157: 3155: 3145: 3144: 3138: 3137: 3127: 3126: 3114: 3107: 3098: 3094: 3091: 3090: 3080: 3079: 3070: 3069: 3059: 3058: 3046: 3039: 3030: 3026: 3024: 3014: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2996: 2995: 2983: 2976: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2957: 2954: 2953: 2939: 2935: 2924: 2903: 2902: 2892: 2881: 2877: 2868: 2864: 2863: 2859: 2856: 2855: 2845: 2834: 2830: 2821: 2817: 2816: 2812: 2809: 2808: 2798: 2787: 2783: 2774: 2770: 2769: 2765: 2762: 2761: 2748: 2737: 2733: 2724: 2720: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2709: 2706: 2705: 2689: 2688: 2682: 2678: 2665: 2654: 2650: 2641: 2637: 2636: 2632: 2629: 2628: 2622: 2618: 2605: 2594: 2590: 2581: 2577: 2576: 2572: 2569: 2568: 2562: 2558: 2545: 2534: 2530: 2521: 2517: 2516: 2512: 2509: 2508: 2498: 2487: 2483: 2474: 2470: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2410: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2383: 2379: 2370: 2366: 2351: 2339: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2305: 2296: 2288: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2281: 2261: 2256: 2255: 2253: 2250: 2249: 2238: 2234: 2231:Kronecker delta 2226: 2221: 2201: 2197: 2191: 2187: 2178: 2174: 2168: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2138: 2134: 2125: 2121: 2116: 2113: 2112: 2082: 2078: 2063: 2059: 2050: 2046: 2041: 2038: 2037: 2031:anticommutation 2027: 1991: 1990: 1969: 1968: 1950: 1945: 1944: 1939: 1936: 1935: 1920: 1915: 1889: 1885: 1872: 1868: 1850: 1846: 1837: 1833: 1828: 1825: 1824: 1814: 1809: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1782: 1778: 1756: 1741: 1735: 1734: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1727: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1705: 1701: 1684: 1678: 1677: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1670: 1664:Hilbert–Schmidt 1660: 1654: 1650: 1640: 1636: 1619: 1618: 1605: 1599: 1595: 1586: 1585: 1569: 1563: 1559: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1546: 1529:identity matrix 1524: 1494: 1493: 1488: 1482: 1481: 1476: 1466: 1465: 1456: 1452: 1446: 1442: 1436: 1432: 1416: 1411: 1398: 1393: 1380: 1375: 1369: 1366: 1365: 1346: 1336: 1332: 1331:, which equals 1329:Kronecker delta 1325: 1321: 1310: 1286: 1285: 1276: 1272: 1267: 1258: 1254: 1238: 1234: 1231: 1230: 1221: 1217: 1201: 1197: 1195: 1186: 1182: 1175: 1174: 1165: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1155: 1131: 1128: 1127: 1109: 1105: 1097: 1094: 1093: 1075: 1071: 1066: 1063: 1062: 1044: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1034: 1014: 1010: 1005: 1002: 1001: 984: 981: 980: 962: 958: 950: 947: 946: 928: 924: 922: 919: 918: 898: 894: 886: 883: 882: 864: 860: 855: 852: 851: 834: 831: 830: 812: 808: 806: 803: 802: 782: 778: 776: 773: 772: 754: 750: 748: 745: 744: 726: 722: 720: 717: 716: 702: 681: 679: 676: 675: 664: 657: 650: 644: 620: 615: 614: 612: 609: 608: 597: 590: 583: 577: 536: 535: 533: 530: 529: 526: 519: 512: 506: 505:: the matrices 494: 472: 467: 466: 464: 461: 460: 458:Euclidean space 453: 450: 446: 417: 413: 399: 393: 389: 346: 345: 335: 334: 326: 320: 319: 314: 304: 303: 296: 290: 286: 277: 273: 270: 269: 259: 258: 253: 247: 246: 238: 228: 227: 220: 214: 210: 201: 197: 194: 193: 183: 182: 177: 171: 170: 165: 155: 154: 147: 141: 137: 128: 124: 120: 118: 115: 114: 106: 98: 68: 45:Albert Einstein 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 20732: 20722: 20721: 20716: 20711: 20706: 20701: 20684: 20683: 20681: 20680: 20675: 20670: 20655: 20652: 20651: 20649: 20648: 20643: 20638: 20633: 20631:Perfect matrix 20628: 20623: 20618: 20613: 20607: 20605: 20601: 20600: 20598: 20597: 20592: 20587: 20582: 20577: 20572: 20567: 20562: 20557: 20552: 20547: 20542: 20537: 20531: 20529: 20525: 20524: 20522: 20521: 20516: 20511: 20506: 20501: 20496: 20491: 20486: 20480: 20478: 20471: 20470: 20468: 20467: 20462: 20457: 20452: 20447: 20442: 20437: 20432: 20427: 20422: 20416: 20414: 20407: 20406: 20404: 20403: 20401:Transformation 20398: 20393: 20388: 20383: 20378: 20373: 20368: 20363: 20358: 20353: 20348: 20343: 20338: 20333: 20328: 20323: 20318: 20313: 20308: 20303: 20298: 20293: 20288: 20283: 20278: 20273: 20268: 20263: 20258: 20253: 20247: 20245: 20241: 20240: 20238: 20237: 20232: 20227: 20222: 20217: 20212: 20207: 20202: 20197: 20192: 20187: 20178: 20172: 20170: 20159: 20158: 20156: 20155: 20150: 20145: 20140: 20138:Diagonalizable 20135: 20130: 20125: 20120: 20114: 20112: 20108:Conditions on 20105: 20104: 20102: 20101: 20096: 20091: 20086: 20081: 20076: 20071: 20066: 20061: 20056: 20050: 20048: 20044: 20043: 20041: 20040: 20035: 20030: 20025: 20020: 20015: 20010: 20005: 20000: 19995: 19990: 19988:Skew-symmetric 19985: 19983:Skew-Hermitian 19980: 19975: 19970: 19965: 19960: 19955: 19950: 19945: 19940: 19935: 19930: 19925: 19920: 19915: 19910: 19905: 19900: 19895: 19890: 19885: 19880: 19875: 19870: 19865: 19860: 19855: 19850: 19845: 19840: 19835: 19830: 19825: 19820: 19818:Block-diagonal 19815: 19810: 19805: 19800: 19795: 19793:Anti-symmetric 19790: 19788:Anti-Hermitian 19785: 19780: 19774: 19772: 19768: 19767: 19759: 19758: 19751: 19744: 19736: 19729: 19728: 19714: 19693: 19679: 19662: 19648: 19632: 19619: 19617: 19614: 19612: 19611: 19556:Curtright, T L 19547: 19529: 19522: 19498: 19449: 19434: 19409: 19396: 19338: 19336: 19333: 19330: 19329: 19317: 19310: 19302: 19299: 19297: 19294: 19292: 19289: 19287: 19284: 19283: 19280: 19277: 19275: 19272: 19270: 19267: 19265: 19262: 19261: 19258: 19255: 19253: 19250: 19248: 19245: 19243: 19240: 19239: 19236: 19233: 19231: 19228: 19226: 19223: 19221: 19218: 19217: 19213: 19196: 19183: 19180: 19176: 19172: 19169: 19166: 19160: 19156: 19152: 19149: 19146: 19140: 19137: 19131: 19125: 19122: 19116: 19113: 19110: 19106: 19102: 19099: 19095: 19091: 19088: 19085: 19079: 19075: 19071: 19068: 19065: 19059: 19056: 19050: 19044: 19041: 19035: 19032: 19028: 19024: 19021: 19018: 19012: 19009: 19003: 19000: 18996: 18992: 18989: 18986: 18980: 18977: 18971: 18968: 18965: 18961: 18957: 18954: 18951: 18945: 18942: 18926:correspond to 18908:group identity 18878: 18866: 18861: 18856: 18830: 18826: 18822: 18817: 18811: 18805: 18802: 18797: 18792: 18787: 18784: 18780: 18776: 18771: 18765: 18759: 18756: 18751: 18746: 18741: 18738: 18712: 18707: 18702: 18699: 18695: 18691: 18686: 18680: 18661: 18619:in mathematics 18609: 18608: 18606: 18603: 18602: 18601: 18596: 18590: 18584: 18579: 18574: 18569: 18567:Poincaré group 18564: 18559: 18554: 18553: 18552: 18545:Gamma matrices 18542: 18537: 18530: 18527: 18503: 18500: 18499: 18498: 18487: 18482: 18475: 18471: 18467: 18462: 18458: 18452: 18445: 18442: 18437: 18432: 18429: 18425: 18410:gamma matrices 18403: 18397: 18396: 18385: 18380: 18374: 18371: 18367: 18361: 18355: 18354: 18349: 18343: 18337: 18335: 18332: 18331: 18329: 18324: 18319: 18313: 18291: 18274: 18266: 18260: 18254: 18249: 18246: 18242: 18235: 18232: 18209: 18204: 18198: 18190: 18187: 18184: 18180: 18176: 18171: 18168: 18164: 18143: 18131: 18112: 18106: 18076: 18057: 18051: 18034: 18033: 18022: 18017: 18009: 18003: 17997: 17995: 17992: 17991: 17988: 17985: 17981: 17975: 17969: 17968: 17966: 17961: 17956: 17950: 17928: 17925: 17910: 17878:spin operators 17741: 17705: 17702: 17698: 17697: 17686: 17681: 17678: 17673: 17670: 17665: 17661: 17656: 17653: 17648: 17645: 17640: 17637: 17632: 17628: 17623: 17619: 17593: 17587: 17586: 17575: 17570: 17566: 17561: 17558: 17553: 17549: 17544: 17541: 17536: 17532: 17527: 17524: 17518: 17515: 17509: 17503: 17500: 17494: 17491: 17465: 17462: 17436:Main article: 17433: 17430: 17428: 17425: 17390: 17372:As the set of 17370: 17369: 17358: 17350: 17346: 17341: 17338: 17334: 17329: 17323: 17319: 17314: 17311: 17307: 17302: 17296: 17292: 17287: 17284: 17280: 17275: 17272: 17269: 17265: 17239: 17234: 17230: 17225: 17222: 17219: 17214: 17210: 17204: 17200: 17196: 17193: 17189: 17184: 17179: 17175: 17170: 17167: 17164: 17159: 17155: 17149: 17145: 17141: 17138: 17134: 17129: 17124: 17120: 17115: 17112: 17109: 17104: 17100: 17094: 17090: 17086: 17083: 17079: 17074: 17071: 17068: 17064: 17042: 17021: 17017: 17011: 17006: 17002: 16997: 16993: 16988: 16984: 16978: 16956: 16937: 16930: 16923: 16907:Main article: 16904: 16901: 16879:is actually a 16856: 16853: 16850: 16845: 16842: 16820: 16817: 16814: 16809: 16806: 16786: 16759: 16756: 16753: 16748: 16745: 16719: 16716: 16713: 16708: 16705: 16691: 16688: 16680: 16679: 16668: 16664: 16658: 16651: 16647: 16642: 16635: 16630: 16623: 16619: 16614: 16607: 16602: 16595: 16591: 16586: 16578: 16574: 16571: 16568: 16565: 16562: 16559: 16554: 16551: 16497: 16491: 16490: 16479: 16476: 16470: 16466: 16461: 16457: 16451: 16447: 16442: 16438: 16432: 16428: 16423: 16419: 16416: 16413: 16410: 16407: 16404: 16401: 16396: 16393: 16373: 16351: 16345: 16342: 16301: 16298: 16294: 16293: 16282: 16275: 16271: 16268: 16263: 16256: 16253: 16246: 16241: 16234: 16231: 16223: 16216: 16213: 16208: 16203: 16200: 16196: 16177: 16176: 16165: 16161: 16155: 16151: 16145: 16141: 16136: 16132: 16128: 16122: 16118: 16112: 16108: 16103: 16097: 16094: 16090: 16061: 16056: 16051: 16046: 16041: 16025:tensor product 16023:living in the 16018: 16009: 15996: 15989: 15986: 15967: 15960: 15955: 15950: 15943: 15939: 15936: 15930: 15927: 15924: 15920: 15916: 15913: 15908: 15903: 15896: 15892: 15889: 15886: 15885: 15883: 15857: 15850: 15845: 15840: 15833: 15829: 15824: 15820: 15816: 15813: 15808: 15803: 15796: 15792: 15789: 15785: 15780: 15775: 15768: 15764: 15761: 15756: 15752: 15749: 15745: 15741: 15740: 15736: 15731: 15726: 15719: 15715: 15712: 15708: 15703: 15698: 15691: 15687: 15684: 15679: 15675: 15672: 15668: 15664: 15661: 15656: 15651: 15644: 15640: 15635: 15631: 15627: 15626: 15624: 15619: 15615: 15608: 15605: 15599: 15593: 15590: 15584: 15580: 15575: 15568: 15565: 15538: 15533: 15527: 15524: 15521: 15518: 15516: 15513: 15510: 15507: 15504: 15501: 15498: 15496: 15493: 15490: 15487: 15484: 15481: 15478: 15477: 15475: 15470: 15464: 15461: 15434: 15427: 15420: 15413: 15378: 15370: 15367: 15363: 15356: 15353: 15349: 15344: 15341: 15336: 15331: 15328: 15324: 15317: 15312: 15309: 15305: 15299: 15294: 15291: 15288: 15284: 15268: 15261: 15252: 15214: 15206: 15203: 15199: 15192: 15187: 15184: 15180: 15173: 15168: 15165: 15161: 15155: 15151: 15147: 15142: 15139: 15135: 15128: 15125: 15121: 15117: 15112: 15109: 15105: 15100: 15076: 15070: 15065: 15061: 15056: 15050: 15046: 15040: 15036: 15032: 15029: 15025: 15021: 15018: 15015: 15013: 15011: 15007: 14998: 14995: 14994: 14987: 14984: 14978: 14974: 14969: 14962: 14959: 14953: 14950: 14948: 14944: 14940: 14936: 14933: 14930: 14926: 14922: 14915: 14912: 14904: 14901: 14899: 14897: 14894: 14893: 14880:" denotes the 14863: 14860: 14856: 14851: 14848: 14844: 14838: 14834: 14827: 14823: 14818: 14814: 14811: 14781: 14777: 14770: 14766: 14760: 14756: 14752: 14749: 14745: 14742: 14739: 14713: 14712: 14711: 14700: 14695: 14692: 14688: 14681: 14678: 14674: 14670: 14665: 14662: 14658: 14651: 14648: 14644: 14639: 14636: 14631: 14626: 14623: 14619: 14612: 14607: 14604: 14600: 14594: 14589: 14586: 14583: 14579: 14575: 14570: 14567: 14560: 14557: 14550: 14545: 14542: 14535: 14532: 14504: 14481: 14478: 14457: 14453: 14449: 14445: 14438: 14435: 14429: 14423: 14420: 14413: 14409: 14403: 14400: 14394: 14388: 14383: 14380: 14375: 14367: 14363: 14356: 14352: 14344: 14338: 14335: 14330: 14326: 14318: 14314: 14291: 14285: 14282: 14279: 14276: 14273: 14270: 14267: 14264: 14261: 14252: 14249: 14243: 14237: 14234: 14222: 14219: 14213: 14210: 14207: 14204: 14201: 14198: 14189: 14186: 14180: 14174: 14171: 14165: 14162: 14159: 14156: 14153: 14150: 14144: 14141: 14135: 14129: 14122: 14119: 14113: 14107: 14104: 14097: 14091: 14088: 14083: 14080: 14076: 14066: 14063: 14051: 14044: 14041: 14035: 14029: 14026: 14019: 14013: 14010: 14005: 14001: 13997: 13994: 13991: 13988: 13983: 13979: 13969: 13966: 13957: 13954: 13951: 13948: 13943: 13939: 13915: 13912: 13889: 13877: 13876:Adjoint action 13874: 13838: 13835: 13809: 13806: 13780: 13777: 13752: 13748: 13741: 13738: 13732: 13728: 13724: 13721: 13718: 13715: 13712: 13709: 13700: 13697: 13691: 13685: 13682: 13676: 13673: 13670: 13667: 13664: 13661: 13658: 13652: 13649: 13643: 13640: 13637: 13634: 13631: 13628: 13625: 13619: 13616: 13609: 13602: 13599: 13596: 13592: 13587: 13583: 13579: 13576: 13573: 13565: 13562: 13556: 13550: 13547: 13541: 13538: 13534: 13505: 13501: 13497: 13494: 13491: 13488: 13485: 13482: 13476: 13473: 13467: 13461: 13458: 13452: 13449: 13446: 13443: 13440: 13437: 13434: 13428: 13425: 13419: 13416: 13413: 13410: 13407: 13404: 13401: 13395: 13392: 13385: 13378: 13375: 13372: 13368: 13363: 13357: 13354: 13323: 13317: 13314: 13311: 13308: 13305: 13302: 13296: 13293: 13287: 13281: 13278: 13272: 13269: 13266: 13263: 13260: 13257: 13254: 13251: 13248: 13245: 13242: 13216: 13210: 13203: 13200: 13194: 13188: 13185: 13178: 13174: 13171: 13167: 13163: 13160: 13158: 13156: 13153: 13150: 13147: 13143: 13136: 13133: 13127: 13121: 13118: 13111: 13107: 13104: 13100: 13096: 13093: 13090: 13087: 13084: 13082: 13080: 13074: 13071: 13065: 13061: 13057: 13054: 13051: 13048: 13045: 13042: 13033: 13030: 13024: 13018: 13015: 13009: 13006: 13003: 13000: 12997: 12994: 12991: 12985: 12982: 12976: 12973: 12970: 12967: 12964: 12961: 12958: 12952: 12949: 12942: 12938: 12935: 12931: 12927: 12924: 12921: 12918: 12915: 12912: 12906: 12903: 12897: 12891: 12888: 12882: 12879: 12876: 12873: 12870: 12867: 12864: 12860: 12856: 12853: 12850: 12848: 12843: 12836: 12833: 12827: 12821: 12818: 12811: 12807: 12804: 12800: 12793: 12786: 12783: 12777: 12771: 12768: 12761: 12757: 12754: 12750: 12746: 12745: 12719: 12713: 12712: 12711: 12700: 12695: 12691: 12688: 12685: 12682: 12679: 12676: 12673: 12670: 12667: 12664: 12655: 12652: 12646: 12640: 12637: 12631: 12626: 12622: 12619: 12616: 12613: 12610: 12607: 12604: 12601: 12598: 12595: 12589: 12586: 12583: 12580: 12574: 12571: 12565: 12559: 12556: 12550: 12547: 12544: 12541: 12503:for a general 12481: 12480: 12466: 12462: 12458: 12455: 12452: 12446: 12443: 12437: 12431: 12428: 12422: 12419: 12416: 12413: 12410: 12391:, extended to 12379: 12378: 12369: 12367: 12347: 12343: 12340: 12337: 12331: 12328: 12322: 12316: 12313: 12307: 12304: 12301: 12297: 12293: 12290: 12287: 12284: 12278: 12271: 12268: 12262: 12256: 12253: 12246: 12242: 12239: 12235: 12218: 12210: 12209: 12190: 12187: 12184: 12181: 12178: 12175: 12172: 12165: 12162: 12159: 12156: 12152: 12146: 12142: 12138: 12135: 12132: 12124: 12119: 12116: 12113: 12109: 12105: 12099: 12096: 12090: 12084: 12081: 12075: 12072: 12069: 12063: 12060: 12057: 12054: 12051: 12044: 12041: 12037: 12031: 12027: 12023: 12020: 12017: 12009: 12004: 12001: 11998: 11994: 11990: 11987: 11984: 11982: 11980: 11974: 11971: 11968: 11965: 11962: 11959: 11956: 11949: 11946: 11943: 11940: 11936: 11929: 11926: 11920: 11914: 11911: 11905: 11902: 11897: 11893: 11889: 11886: 11883: 11875: 11870: 11867: 11864: 11860: 11856: 11853: 11847: 11844: 11841: 11838: 11835: 11828: 11825: 11821: 11814: 11811: 11805: 11799: 11796: 11790: 11787: 11782: 11778: 11774: 11771: 11768: 11760: 11755: 11752: 11749: 11745: 11741: 11738: 11736: 11734: 11728: 11725: 11718: 11713: 11708: 11701: 11698: 11692: 11686: 11683: 11676: 11672: 11668: 11661: 11657: 11648: 11643: 11640: 11637: 11633: 11629: 11626: 11624: 11619: 11612: 11609: 11603: 11597: 11594: 11587: 11583: 11580: 11576: 11572: 11571: 11550: 11549: 11538: 11531: 11528: 11522: 11516: 11513: 11507: 11502: 11499: 11496: 11493: 11488: 11481: 11478: 11472: 11466: 11463: 11456: 11408: 11407: 11396: 11393: 11390: 11385: 11382: 11378: 11371: 11368: 11362: 11356: 11353: 11347: 11322: 11321: 11310: 11307: 11304: 11300: 11293: 11290: 11283: 11278: 11272: 11269: 11263: 11260: 11254: 11251: 11233: 11230: 11211: 11208: 11205: 11202: 11198: 11135: 11132: 11128: 11122: 11119: 11116: 11113: 11109: 11103: 11100: 11097: 11094: 11091: 11088: 11084: 11080: 11077: 11074: 11069: 11066: 11062: 11056: 11053: 11049: 11043: 11040: 11036: 11030: 11027: 11023: 11019: 11016: 11012: 11006: 11003: 10999: 10993: 10990: 10986: 10980: 10977: 10973: 10969: 10964: 10961: 10957: 10951: 10948: 10944: 10938: 10935: 10931: 10926: 10922: 10919: 10915: 10909: 10906: 10902: 10896: 10893: 10889: 10885: 10880: 10877: 10873: 10867: 10864: 10860: 10856: 10851: 10848: 10844: 10838: 10835: 10831: 10826: 10822: 10819: 10816: 10814: 10811: 10805: 10801: 10795: 10791: 10785: 10781: 10775: 10771: 10766: 10762: 10759: 10756: 10755: 10750: 10747: 10744: 10741: 10737: 10733: 10730: 10727: 10722: 10719: 10715: 10709: 10706: 10702: 10696: 10693: 10689: 10685: 10682: 10677: 10674: 10670: 10664: 10661: 10657: 10651: 10648: 10645: 10642: 10639: 10635: 10631: 10628: 10625: 10623: 10620: 10614: 10610: 10604: 10600: 10594: 10590: 10585: 10581: 10578: 10575: 10574: 10569: 10566: 10562: 10558: 10555: 10552: 10550: 10547: 10541: 10537: 10531: 10527: 10522: 10518: 10515: 10512: 10511: 10506: 10503: 10499: 10495: 10492: 10489: 10487: 10484: 10479: 10475: 10471: 10467: 10464: 10461: 10460: 10441: 10436:If the matrix 10434: 10433: 10417: 10411: 10408: 10404: 10398: 10395: 10391: 10387: 10382: 10379: 10375: 10369: 10366: 10362: 10358: 10353: 10350: 10346: 10340: 10337: 10333: 10328: 10324: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10307: 10303: 10297: 10293: 10287: 10283: 10277: 10273: 10268: 10264: 10261: 10258: 10257: 10252: 10249: 10246: 10242: 10238: 10235: 10232: 10229: 10227: 10224: 10218: 10214: 10208: 10204: 10198: 10194: 10189: 10185: 10182: 10179: 10178: 10173: 10170: 10166: 10162: 10159: 10156: 10154: 10151: 10145: 10141: 10135: 10131: 10126: 10122: 10119: 10116: 10115: 10112: 10109: 10106: 10104: 10101: 10096: 10092: 10088: 10084: 10081: 10078: 10077: 10062: 10059: 10045: 10040: 10037: 10030: 10027: 10022: 10017: 10014: 10007: 10002: 9997: 9994: 9969: 9965: 9962: 9959: 9955: 9951: 9947: 9884: 9881: 9878: 9875: 9872: 9869: 9866: 9852: 9848: 9844: 9832: 9831: 9822: 9820: 9798: 9795: 9789: 9784: 9776: 9773: 9767: 9761: 9758: 9750: 9745: 9742: 9739: 9733: 9725: 9722: 9716: 9710: 9707: 9699: 9694: 9689: 9681: 9678: 9672: 9666: 9663: 9655: 9648: 9640: 9637: 9631: 9625: 9622: 9614: 9596: 9580: 9579: 9565: 9558: 9553: 9550: 9546: 9540: 9536: 9530: 9526: 9522: 9517: 9513: 9507: 9503: 9497: 9493: 9486: 9483: 9480: 9476: 9472: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9460: 9456: 9450: 9446: 9440: 9436: 9430: 9426: 9422: 9421: 9417: 9413: 9408: 9405: 9401: 9397: 9392: 9388: 9381: 9378: 9375: 9371: 9367: 9363: 9357: 9353: 9347: 9343: 9339: 9336: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9320: 9316: 9310: 9306: 9300: 9296: 9292: 9291: 9268: 9259: 9250: 9240: 9236: 9229: 9225: 9216: 9207: 9179: 9171: 9167: 9160: 9157: 9154: 9150: 9146: 9143: 9140: 9135: 9132: 9128: 9124: 9119: 9115: 9109: 9105: 9088: 9084: 9083: 9066: 9062: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9038: 9033: 9030: 9026: 9022: 9019: 9014: 9010: 9003: 9000: 8997: 8993: 8989: 8986: 8983: 8982: 8979: 8974: 8970: 8964: 8960: 8956: 8951: 8947: 8941: 8937: 8933: 8930: 8927: 8922: 8918: 8912: 8908: 8904: 8899: 8895: 8889: 8885: 8881: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8871: 8866: 8862: 8858: 8853: 8849: 8845: 8842: 8838: 8832: 8828: 8824: 8819: 8815: 8810: 8806: 8805: 8790: 8787: 8775: 8772: 8769: 8766: 8763: 8760: 8757: 8754: 8751: 8746: 8742: 8738: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8721: 8715: 8711: 8690: 8684: 8681: 8678: 8655: 8651: 8645: 8641: 8635: 8631: 8626: 8622: 8617: 8613: 8609: 8605: 8599: 8595: 8589: 8585: 8579: 8575: 8570: 8566: 8546: 8538: 8534: 8507: 8504: 8501: 8487: 8486: 8475: 8472: 8469: 8466: 8463: 8460: 8457: 8454: 8451: 8448: 8445: 8442: 8439: 8436: 8433: 8430: 8427: 8424: 8421: 8418: 8415: 8412: 8409: 8406: 8403: 8400: 8397: 8394: 8391: 8388: 8385: 8382: 8379: 8376: 8373: 8347: 8344: 8341: 8318: 8313: 8309: 8294: 8293: 8282: 8278: 8272: 8268: 8262: 8258: 8254: 8249: 8242: 8239: 8231: 8227: 8224: 8218: 8215: 8209: 8204: 8195: 8191: 8187: 8184: 8181: 8155: 8151: 8147: 8144: 8141: 8137: 8134: 8130: 8127: 8104: 8101: 8098: 8095: 8092: 8089: 8085: 8082: 8079: 8076: 8072: 8069: 8065: 8061: 8058: 8055: 8051: 8048: 8024: 8018: 8014: 8010: 8007: 8004: 8000: 7997: 7973: 7965: 7962: 7959: 7954: 7927: 7922: 7915: 7908: 7904: 7898: 7894: 7888: 7881: 7874: 7871: 7862: 7857: 7854: 7848: 7845: 7839: 7834: 7830: 7818: 7817: 7806: 7803: 7797: 7794: 7788: 7785: 7782: 7779: 7776: 7771: 7764: 7761: 7743: 7742: 7731: 7728: 7725: 7722: 7719: 7716: 7713: 7710: 7707: 7702: 7698: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7681: 7659: 7658: 7647: 7639: 7635: 7629: 7625: 7621: 7616: 7612: 7586: 7583: 7580: 7575: 7562: 7561: 7550: 7547: 7541: 7538: 7532: 7529: 7526: 7523: 7518: 7514: 7485: 7481: 7465: 7464:Pauli 4-vector 7462: 7449: 7446: 7443: 7439: 7435: 7432: 7429: 7426: 7423: 7420: 7417: 7414: 7411: 7408: 7405: 7402: 7399: 7396: 7392: 7388: 7385: 7382: 7379: 7376: 7373: 7370: 7365: 7361: 7340: 7337: 7334: 7331: 7328: 7325: 7322: 7319: 7316: 7312: 7308: 7305: 7302: 7299: 7296: 7293: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7279: 7276: 7273: 7270: 7267: 7262: 7258: 7237: 7234: 7231: 7228: 7225: 7222: 7219: 7216: 7213: 7210: 7207: 7204: 7201: 7198: 7195: 7192: 7189: 7186: 7183: 7180: 7177: 7171: 7168: 7140: 7136: 7115: 7112: 7109: 7089: 7086: 7083: 7079: 7073: 7069: 7065: 7062: 7059: 7056: 7053: 7050: 7047: 7044: 7041: 7037: 7031: 7028: 7022: 7018: 7012: 7009: 6985: 6979: 6976: 6970: 6966: 6963: 6958: 6954: 6933: 6925: 6918: 6911: 6908: 6901: 6897: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6883: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6843: 6839: 6832: 6829: 6822: 6818: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6794: 6791: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6744: 6740: 6736: 6733: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6719: 6715: 6709: 6706: 6700: 6696: 6691: 6687: 6683: 6682: 6680: 6664: 6660: 6654: 6651: 6645: 6641: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6621: 6615: 6612: 6606: 6602: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6582: 6552: 6549: 6543: 6537: 6534: 6508: 6504: 6497: 6494: 6487: 6483: 6454: 6451: 6445: 6439: 6436: 6410: 6407: 6404: 6400: 6393: 6390: 6383: 6379: 6373: 6370: 6364: 6358: 6355: 6349: 6346: 6342: 6335: 6332: 6325: 6321: 6315: 6312: 6306: 6300: 6297: 6291: 6268: 6262: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6241: 6238: 6231: 6227: 6222: 6218: 6211: 6208: 6202: 6196: 6193: 6187: 6161: 6157: 6150: 6147: 6140: 6136: 6107: 6104: 6098: 6092: 6089: 6071: 6068: 6046: 6041: 6019: 6013: 6010: 6004: 6001: 5995: 5992: 5986: 5980: 5977: 5971: 5967: 5964: 5961: 5958: 5952: 5949: 5943: 5937: 5934: 5928: 5922: 5919: 5913: 5907: 5904: 5898: 5878: 5875: 5863: 5860: 5859: 5858: 5847: 5843: 5837: 5834: 5830: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5811: 5807: 5802: 5798: 5795: 5790: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5763: 5760: 5737: 5734: 5731: 5728: 5708: 5705: 5702: 5699: 5695: 5692: 5689: 5686: 5682: 5679: 5676: 5673: 5648: 5645: 5642: 5639: 5635: 5632: 5611: 5608: 5605: 5601: 5598: 5577: 5574: 5571: 5568: 5564: 5561: 5557: 5554: 5551: 5548: 5545: 5534: 5533: 5522: 5516: 5513: 5507: 5504: 5498: 5495: 5486: 5483: 5480: 5477: 5474: 5471: 5465: 5462: 5456: 5452: 5446: 5443: 5436: 5430: 5427: 5421: 5415: 5412: 5406: 5403: 5380: 5377: 5374: 5370: 5367: 5363: 5360: 5357: 5354: 5350: 5347: 5343: 5340: 5320: 5296: 5276: 5270: 5267: 5243: 5237: 5234: 5210: 5204: 5201: 5195: 5191: 5185: 5182: 5175: 5169: 5166: 5160: 5154: 5151: 5145: 5142: 5119: 5116: 5110: 5104: 5101: 5095: 5092: 5072: 5069: 5063: 5060: 5054: 5048: 5045: 5039: 5036: 5033: 5030: 5024: 5021: 5015: 5009: 5006: 5000: 4997: 4994: 4991: 4980: 4979: 4968: 4963: 4960: 4956: 4948: 4945: 4939: 4933: 4930: 4923: 4920: 4914: 4911: 4905: 4899: 4896: 4890: 4887: 4864: 4844: 4841: 4838: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4795: 4792: 4785: 4781: 4778: 4772: 4769: 4763: 4757: 4754: 4748: 4745: 4740: 4732: 4729: 4723: 4717: 4714: 4706: 4701: 4689: 4686: 4670: 4667: 4661: 4655: 4652: 4646: 4640: 4637: 4614: 4608: 4605: 4599: 4594: 4586: 4583: 4575: 4567: 4564: 4558: 4552: 4549: 4541: 4534: 4529: 4526: 4521: 4518: 4489: 4486: 4471: 4468: 4456: 4450: 4447: 4441: 4435: 4432: 4426: 4420: 4417: 4392: 4388: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4369: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4353: 4350: 4347: 4320: 4317: 4314: 4285: 4280: 4258: 4255: 4252: 4230: 4225: 4192: 4187: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4153: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4139: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4123: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4097: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4079: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4067: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4033: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4018: 4015: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4003: 4001: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3981: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3966: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3954: 3952: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3925: 3921: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3901: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3883: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3856: 3849: 3846: 3839: 3834: 3827: 3824: 3814: 3810: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3792: 3787: 3780: 3777: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3756: 3753: 3748: 3741: 3738: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3707: 3704: 3698: 3692: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3656: 3653: 3627: 3624: 3598: 3595: 3570: 3563: 3560: 3534: 3527: 3524: 3498: 3491: 3488: 3464: 3459: 3452: 3449: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3427: 3420: 3417: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3388: 3385: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3362: 3359: 3344: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3324: 3319: 3313: 3310: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3302: 3300: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3286: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3273: 3268: 3262: 3259: 3258: 3255: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3235: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3223: 3220: 3215: 3209: 3206: 3203: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3195: 3193: 3185: 3181: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3167: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3154: 3149: 3143: 3140: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3132: 3130: 3122: 3118: 3113: 3110: 3108: 3104: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3092: 3089: 3084: 3078: 3075: 3072: 3071: 3068: 3065: 3064: 3062: 3054: 3050: 3045: 3042: 3040: 3036: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3023: 3018: 3012: 3009: 3008: 3005: 3002: 3001: 2999: 2991: 2987: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2961: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2916: 2901: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2867: 2862: 2858: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2820: 2815: 2811: 2810: 2807: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2796: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2777: 2773: 2768: 2764: 2763: 2760: 2757: 2754: 2751: 2749: 2746: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2718: 2714: 2713: 2703: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2674: 2671: 2668: 2666: 2663: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2631: 2630: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2614: 2611: 2608: 2606: 2603: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2571: 2570: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2554: 2551: 2548: 2546: 2543: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2511: 2510: 2507: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2496: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2477: 2473: 2468: 2464: 2463: 2452: 2451: 2448: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2416: 2413: 2391: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2359: 2356: 2350: 2345: 2342: 2338: 2315: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2299: 2294: 2291: 2269: 2264: 2259: 2224: 2209: 2204: 2200: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2181: 2177: 2171: 2167: 2157:is defined as 2146: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2109: 2108: 2097: 2094: 2088: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2026: 2023: 2011: 2008: 2005: 2002: 1997: 1994: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1980: 1975: 1972: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1953: 1948: 1943: 1918: 1909: 1908: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1864: 1861: 1858: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1813: 1810: 1808: 1805: 1791: 1781:matrices over 1763: 1759: 1755: 1750: 1747: 1744: 1738: 1714: 1687: 1681: 1658: 1638: 1633: 1632: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1587: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1555: 1554: 1521: 1520: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1498: 1492: 1489: 1487: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1471: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1455: 1449: 1445: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1427: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1323: 1318:imaginary unit 1307: 1306: 1295: 1290: 1282: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1268: 1264: 1261: 1257: 1252: 1249: 1244: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1232: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1212: 1207: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1180: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1164: 1147: 1146: 1135: 1125: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1101: 1091: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1060: 1047: 1043: 1031: 1030: 1017: 1013: 1009: 999: 988: 978: 965: 961: 957: 954: 944: 931: 927: 915: 914: 901: 897: 893: 890: 880: 867: 863: 859: 849: 838: 828: 815: 811: 799: 798: 785: 781: 770: 757: 753: 742: 729: 725: 714: 701: 698: 684: 662: 655: 648: 628: 623: 618: 595: 588: 581: 553: 550: 547: 542: 539: 524: 517: 510: 499:anti-Hermitian 480: 475: 470: 448: 397: 371:Pauli equation 363:Wolfgang Pauli 344: 339: 333: 330: 327: 325: 322: 321: 318: 315: 313: 310: 309: 307: 302: 299: 297: 293: 289: 285: 280: 276: 272: 271: 268: 263: 257: 254: 252: 249: 248: 245: 242: 239: 237: 234: 233: 231: 226: 223: 221: 217: 213: 209: 204: 200: 196: 195: 192: 187: 181: 178: 176: 173: 172: 169: 166: 164: 161: 160: 158: 153: 150: 148: 144: 140: 136: 131: 127: 123: 122: 65:Pauli matrices 37:Wolfgang Pauli 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 20731: 20720: 20717: 20715: 20712: 20710: 20707: 20705: 20702: 20700: 20697: 20696: 20694: 20679: 20676: 20674: 20671: 20669: 20668: 20663: 20657: 20656: 20653: 20647: 20644: 20642: 20639: 20637: 20636:Pseudoinverse 20634: 20632: 20629: 20627: 20624: 20622: 20619: 20617: 20614: 20612: 20609: 20608: 20606: 20604:Related terms 20602: 20596: 20595:Z (chemistry) 20593: 20591: 20588: 20586: 20583: 20581: 20578: 20576: 20573: 20571: 20568: 20566: 20563: 20561: 20558: 20556: 20553: 20551: 20548: 20546: 20543: 20541: 20538: 20536: 20533: 20532: 20530: 20526: 20520: 20517: 20515: 20512: 20510: 20507: 20505: 20502: 20500: 20497: 20495: 20492: 20490: 20487: 20485: 20482: 20481: 20479: 20477: 20472: 20466: 20463: 20461: 20458: 20456: 20453: 20451: 20448: 20446: 20443: 20441: 20438: 20436: 20433: 20431: 20428: 20426: 20423: 20421: 20418: 20417: 20415: 20413: 20408: 20402: 20399: 20397: 20394: 20392: 20389: 20387: 20384: 20382: 20379: 20377: 20374: 20372: 20369: 20367: 20364: 20362: 20359: 20357: 20354: 20352: 20349: 20347: 20344: 20342: 20339: 20337: 20334: 20332: 20329: 20327: 20324: 20322: 20319: 20317: 20314: 20312: 20309: 20307: 20304: 20302: 20299: 20297: 20294: 20292: 20289: 20287: 20284: 20282: 20279: 20277: 20274: 20272: 20269: 20267: 20264: 20262: 20259: 20257: 20254: 20252: 20249: 20248: 20246: 20242: 20236: 20233: 20231: 20228: 20226: 20223: 20221: 20218: 20216: 20213: 20211: 20208: 20206: 20203: 20201: 20198: 20196: 20193: 20191: 20188: 20186: 20182: 20179: 20177: 20174: 20173: 20171: 20169: 20165: 20160: 20154: 20151: 20149: 20146: 20144: 20141: 20139: 20136: 20134: 20131: 20129: 20126: 20124: 20121: 20119: 20116: 20115: 20113: 20111: 20106: 20100: 20097: 20095: 20092: 20090: 20087: 20085: 20082: 20080: 20077: 20075: 20072: 20070: 20067: 20065: 20062: 20060: 20057: 20055: 20052: 20051: 20049: 20045: 20039: 20036: 20034: 20031: 20029: 20026: 20024: 20021: 20019: 20016: 20014: 20011: 20009: 20006: 20004: 20001: 19999: 19996: 19994: 19991: 19989: 19986: 19984: 19981: 19979: 19976: 19974: 19971: 19969: 19966: 19964: 19961: 19959: 19956: 19954: 19953:Pentadiagonal 19951: 19949: 19946: 19944: 19941: 19939: 19936: 19934: 19931: 19929: 19926: 19924: 19921: 19919: 19916: 19914: 19911: 19909: 19906: 19904: 19901: 19899: 19896: 19894: 19891: 19889: 19886: 19884: 19881: 19879: 19876: 19874: 19871: 19869: 19866: 19864: 19861: 19859: 19856: 19854: 19851: 19849: 19846: 19844: 19841: 19839: 19836: 19834: 19831: 19829: 19826: 19824: 19821: 19819: 19816: 19814: 19811: 19809: 19806: 19804: 19801: 19799: 19796: 19794: 19791: 19789: 19786: 19784: 19783:Anti-diagonal 19781: 19779: 19776: 19775: 19773: 19769: 19764: 19757: 19752: 19750: 19745: 19743: 19738: 19737: 19734: 19725: 19721: 19717: 19711: 19707: 19703: 19699: 19694: 19690: 19686: 19682: 19676: 19671: 19670: 19663: 19659: 19655: 19651: 19649:0-8053-8714-5 19645: 19641: 19637: 19633: 19629: 19625: 19621: 19620: 19607: 19603: 19599: 19595: 19591: 19587: 19582: 19577: 19573: 19569: 19565: 19561: 19557: 19551: 19543: 19536: 19534: 19525: 19519: 19515: 19511: 19510: 19502: 19494: 19491: 19490: 19482: 19478: 19473: 19467: 19463: 19459: 19453: 19445: 19441: 19437: 19431: 19427: 19423: 19419: 19413: 19406: 19400: 19385: 19381: 19377: 19373: 19369: 19365: 19361: 19357: 19350: 19343: 19339: 19315: 19308: 19300: 19295: 19290: 19285: 19278: 19273: 19268: 19263: 19256: 19251: 19246: 19241: 19234: 19229: 19224: 19219: 19211: 19200: 19178: 19174: 19170: 19167: 19164: 19158: 19154: 19150: 19147: 19144: 19135: 19129: 19120: 19114: 19111: 19104: 19097: 19093: 19089: 19086: 19083: 19077: 19073: 19069: 19066: 19063: 19054: 19048: 19039: 19033: 19030: 19026: 19022: 19019: 19016: 19007: 19001: 18998: 18994: 18990: 18987: 18984: 18975: 18966: 18963: 18959: 18955: 18952: 18949: 18940: 18929: 18925: 18921: 18917: 18913: 18909: 18901: 18892: 18889: 18882: 18864: 18859: 18844: 18815: 18795: 18785: 18769: 18754: 18749: 18739: 18736: 18728: 18710: 18700: 18684: 18665: 18648: 18644: 18639: 18633: 18629: 18624: 18620: 18614: 18610: 18600: 18597: 18594: 18591: 18589: 18585: 18583: 18580: 18578: 18575: 18573: 18570: 18568: 18565: 18563: 18560: 18558: 18555: 18551: 18548: 18547: 18546: 18543: 18541: 18538: 18536: 18533: 18532: 18526: 18524: 18520: 18516: 18515:quantum gates 18513: 18509: 18485: 18473: 18469: 18465: 18460: 18456: 18443: 18440: 18435: 18430: 18427: 18415: 18414: 18413: 18411: 18406: 18383: 18378: 18372: 18365: 18359: 18347: 18341: 18333: 18327: 18322: 18317: 18311: 18301: 18300: 18299: 18297: 18294: 18272: 18264: 18258: 18252: 18247: 18244: 18233: 18230: 18207: 18202: 18188: 18185: 18182: 18178: 18174: 18169: 18166: 18149: 18146: 18138: 18110: 18090: 18086: 18081: 18055: 18020: 18015: 18007: 18001: 17993: 17986: 17979: 17973: 17964: 17959: 17954: 17938: 17937: 17936: 17934: 17924: 17922: 17913: 17906: 17902: 17897: 17895: 17891: 17887: 17886:spin operator 17883: 17879: 17875: 17871: 17867: 17862: 17861: 17847: 17839: 17838: 17821: 17819: 17818:Hilbert space 17815: 17809: 17805: 17785: 17783: 17779: 17775: 17761: 17757: 17753: 17749: 17744: 17736: 17723: 17719: 17715: 17711: 17701: 17684: 17679: 17676: 17671: 17668: 17663: 17659: 17654: 17651: 17646: 17643: 17638: 17635: 17626: 17621: 17617: 17609: 17608: 17607: 17596: 17573: 17568: 17564: 17559: 17556: 17551: 17547: 17542: 17539: 17534: 17530: 17525: 17522: 17513: 17507: 17498: 17492: 17489: 17482: 17481: 17480: 17460: 17445: 17439: 17424: 17379: 17375: 17356: 17348: 17344: 17339: 17327: 17321: 17317: 17312: 17300: 17294: 17290: 17285: 17273: 17270: 17255: 17254: 17253: 17250: 17237: 17232: 17228: 17223: 17220: 17217: 17212: 17208: 17202: 17198: 17194: 17182: 17177: 17173: 17168: 17165: 17162: 17157: 17153: 17147: 17143: 17139: 17127: 17122: 17118: 17113: 17110: 17107: 17102: 17098: 17092: 17088: 17084: 17072: 17069: 17019: 17015: 17004: 16995: 16986: 16976: 16945: 16936: 16929: 16922: 16918: 16910: 16900: 16898: 16882: 16851: 16815: 16794: 16793:infinitesimal 16789: 16781: 16777: 16773: 16754: 16733: 16714: 16687: 16685: 16666: 16662: 16656: 16649: 16645: 16640: 16633: 16628: 16621: 16617: 16612: 16605: 16600: 16593: 16589: 16584: 16576: 16572: 16569: 16566: 16560: 16540: 16539: 16538: 16518: 16513: 16505: 16500: 16477: 16468: 16464: 16459: 16455: 16449: 16445: 16440: 16436: 16430: 16426: 16421: 16414: 16411: 16408: 16402: 16382: 16381: 16380: 16376: 16367: 16349: 16330: 16322: 16315: 16311: 16307: 16297: 16280: 16273: 16269: 16266: 16261: 16251: 16244: 16239: 16229: 16221: 16214: 16211: 16206: 16201: 16198: 16194: 16186: 16185: 16184: 16182: 16163: 16159: 16153: 16149: 16143: 16139: 16134: 16130: 16126: 16120: 16116: 16110: 16106: 16101: 16095: 16092: 16088: 16080: 16079: 16078: 16059: 16049: 16044: 16026: 16021: 16012: 16004: 16003:transposition 15999: 15985: 15983: 15965: 15958: 15953: 15948: 15941: 15937: 15934: 15928: 15925: 15922: 15918: 15911: 15906: 15901: 15894: 15890: 15887: 15881: 15870: 15855: 15848: 15843: 15838: 15831: 15827: 15822: 15818: 15811: 15806: 15801: 15794: 15790: 15787: 15783: 15778: 15773: 15766: 15762: 15759: 15754: 15750: 15747: 15743: 15734: 15729: 15724: 15717: 15713: 15710: 15706: 15701: 15696: 15689: 15685: 15682: 15677: 15673: 15670: 15666: 15659: 15654: 15649: 15642: 15638: 15633: 15629: 15622: 15617: 15613: 15603: 15597: 15588: 15582: 15573: 15566: 15563: 15552: 15536: 15531: 15525: 15522: 15519: 15514: 15511: 15508: 15505: 15502: 15499: 15494: 15491: 15488: 15485: 15482: 15479: 15473: 15468: 15459: 15447: 15442: 15433: 15426: 15419: 15412: 15406: 15402: 15398: 15394: 15389: 15376: 15368: 15365: 15361: 15354: 15351: 15347: 15342: 15339: 15334: 15329: 15326: 15322: 15315: 15310: 15307: 15303: 15297: 15292: 15289: 15286: 15282: 15271: 15264: 15251: 15244: 15243: 15228: 15212: 15204: 15201: 15197: 15190: 15185: 15182: 15178: 15171: 15166: 15163: 15159: 15153: 15149: 15145: 15140: 15137: 15133: 15126: 15123: 15119: 15115: 15110: 15107: 15103: 15098: 15074: 15068: 15063: 15059: 15054: 15048: 15044: 15038: 15034: 15030: 15027: 15023: 15019: 15016: 15014: 15009: 15005: 14996: 14985: 14982: 14976: 14972: 14967: 14960: 14957: 14951: 14949: 14942: 14938: 14928: 14924: 14920: 14913: 14910: 14902: 14900: 14895: 14883: 14861: 14858: 14854: 14849: 14846: 14842: 14836: 14832: 14825: 14821: 14816: 14812: 14809: 14779: 14775: 14768: 14764: 14758: 14754: 14750: 14747: 14743: 14740: 14737: 14725: 14698: 14693: 14690: 14686: 14679: 14676: 14672: 14668: 14663: 14660: 14656: 14649: 14646: 14642: 14637: 14634: 14629: 14624: 14621: 14617: 14610: 14605: 14602: 14598: 14592: 14587: 14584: 14581: 14577: 14573: 14568: 14565: 14555: 14548: 14543: 14540: 14530: 14519: 14518: 14517: 14515: 14510: 14507: 14476: 14471: 14455: 14451: 14447: 14443: 14433: 14427: 14418: 14411: 14407: 14398: 14392: 14386: 14381: 14378: 14373: 14365: 14361: 14354: 14350: 14342: 14336: 14333: 14328: 14324: 14316: 14312: 14302: 14289: 14277: 14271: 14268: 14265: 14262: 14247: 14241: 14232: 14217: 14211: 14205: 14199: 14196: 14184: 14178: 14169: 14163: 14157: 14151: 14148: 14139: 14133: 14127: 14117: 14111: 14102: 14095: 14089: 14086: 14081: 14078: 14074: 14061: 14049: 14039: 14033: 14024: 14017: 14011: 14008: 14003: 13999: 13995: 13989: 13981: 13977: 13964: 13952: 13949: 13941: 13937: 13910: 13887: 13872: 13868: 13863: 13860: 13856: 13833: 13804: 13775: 13763: 13750: 13746: 13736: 13730: 13726: 13722: 13719: 13716: 13713: 13710: 13707: 13695: 13689: 13680: 13674: 13671: 13668: 13665: 13662: 13659: 13656: 13647: 13641: 13638: 13635: 13632: 13629: 13626: 13623: 13614: 13607: 13600: 13597: 13594: 13590: 13585: 13581: 13577: 13574: 13571: 13560: 13554: 13545: 13539: 13536: 13532: 13523: 13521: 13520:BCH expansion 13516: 13503: 13499: 13495: 13492: 13489: 13486: 13483: 13480: 13471: 13465: 13456: 13450: 13447: 13444: 13441: 13438: 13435: 13432: 13423: 13417: 13414: 13411: 13408: 13405: 13402: 13399: 13390: 13383: 13376: 13373: 13370: 13366: 13361: 13352: 13337: 13321: 13315: 13312: 13309: 13306: 13303: 13300: 13291: 13285: 13276: 13270: 13267: 13264: 13261: 13258: 13255: 13252: 13249: 13246: 13243: 13240: 13231: 13214: 13208: 13198: 13192: 13183: 13176: 13172: 13169: 13165: 13161: 13159: 13151: 13148: 13145: 13141: 13131: 13125: 13116: 13109: 13105: 13102: 13098: 13094: 13091: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13069: 13063: 13059: 13055: 13052: 13049: 13046: 13043: 13040: 13028: 13022: 13013: 13007: 13004: 13001: 12998: 12995: 12992: 12989: 12980: 12974: 12971: 12968: 12965: 12962: 12959: 12956: 12947: 12940: 12936: 12933: 12929: 12925: 12922: 12919: 12916: 12913: 12910: 12901: 12895: 12886: 12880: 12877: 12874: 12871: 12868: 12865: 12862: 12858: 12854: 12851: 12849: 12841: 12831: 12825: 12816: 12809: 12805: 12802: 12798: 12791: 12781: 12775: 12766: 12759: 12755: 12752: 12748: 12727: 12726: 12698: 12693: 12686: 12683: 12677: 12674: 12668: 12662: 12650: 12644: 12635: 12629: 12624: 12617: 12614: 12608: 12605: 12599: 12593: 12587: 12584: 12569: 12563: 12554: 12545: 12539: 12532: 12531: 12530: 12528: 12524: 12520: 12516: 12515: 12510: 12502: 12501: 12495: 12493: 12492: 12464: 12460: 12456: 12441: 12435: 12426: 12417: 12414: 12401: 12400: 12399: 12396: 12394: 12390: 12386: 12377: 12370: 12368: 12365: 12345: 12341: 12338: 12326: 12320: 12311: 12302: 12299: 12295: 12291: 12288: 12285: 12282: 12276: 12266: 12260: 12251: 12244: 12240: 12237: 12233: 12217: 12216: 12213: 12188: 12182: 12179: 12176: 12173: 12163: 12160: 12157: 12154: 12150: 12144: 12136: 12133: 12117: 12114: 12111: 12107: 12094: 12088: 12079: 12070: 12067: 12061: 12055: 12052: 12042: 12039: 12035: 12029: 12021: 12018: 12002: 11999: 11996: 11992: 11988: 11985: 11983: 11972: 11966: 11963: 11960: 11957: 11947: 11944: 11941: 11938: 11924: 11918: 11909: 11903: 11895: 11887: 11884: 11868: 11865: 11862: 11858: 11854: 11851: 11845: 11839: 11836: 11826: 11823: 11809: 11803: 11794: 11788: 11780: 11772: 11769: 11753: 11750: 11747: 11743: 11739: 11737: 11726: 11723: 11716: 11711: 11706: 11696: 11690: 11681: 11674: 11670: 11666: 11659: 11655: 11641: 11638: 11635: 11631: 11627: 11625: 11617: 11607: 11601: 11592: 11585: 11581: 11578: 11574: 11562: 11561: 11560: 11558: 11554: 11536: 11526: 11520: 11511: 11505: 11500: 11497: 11494: 11491: 11486: 11476: 11470: 11461: 11454: 11445: 11444: 11443: 11440: 11436: 11429: 11421: 11414: 11394: 11391: 11388: 11383: 11380: 11366: 11360: 11351: 11338: 11337: 11336: 11333: 11329: 11308: 11305: 11302: 11288: 11276: 11267: 11261: 11258: 11249: 11239: 11238: 11237: 11229: 11227: 11206: 11203: 11196: 11185: 11181: 11177: 11166: 11162: 11158: 11152: 11133: 11130: 11126: 11120: 11117: 11114: 11111: 11107: 11098: 11095: 11092: 11089: 11082: 11078: 11075: 11072: 11067: 11064: 11060: 11054: 11051: 11047: 11041: 11038: 11034: 11028: 11025: 11021: 11017: 11014: 11010: 11004: 11001: 10997: 10991: 10988: 10984: 10978: 10975: 10971: 10967: 10962: 10959: 10955: 10949: 10946: 10942: 10936: 10933: 10929: 10924: 10920: 10917: 10913: 10907: 10904: 10900: 10894: 10891: 10887: 10883: 10878: 10875: 10871: 10865: 10862: 10858: 10854: 10849: 10846: 10842: 10836: 10833: 10829: 10824: 10820: 10817: 10815: 10809: 10803: 10799: 10793: 10789: 10783: 10779: 10773: 10769: 10764: 10760: 10757: 10748: 10745: 10742: 10739: 10735: 10731: 10728: 10725: 10720: 10717: 10713: 10707: 10704: 10700: 10694: 10691: 10687: 10683: 10680: 10675: 10672: 10668: 10662: 10659: 10655: 10646: 10643: 10640: 10633: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10618: 10612: 10608: 10602: 10598: 10592: 10588: 10583: 10579: 10576: 10567: 10564: 10560: 10556: 10553: 10551: 10545: 10539: 10535: 10529: 10525: 10520: 10516: 10513: 10504: 10501: 10497: 10493: 10490: 10488: 10482: 10477: 10473: 10469: 10465: 10462: 10450: 10447: 10440: 10415: 10409: 10406: 10402: 10396: 10393: 10389: 10385: 10380: 10377: 10373: 10367: 10364: 10360: 10356: 10351: 10348: 10344: 10338: 10335: 10331: 10326: 10322: 10319: 10317: 10311: 10305: 10301: 10295: 10291: 10285: 10281: 10275: 10271: 10266: 10262: 10259: 10250: 10247: 10244: 10240: 10236: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10222: 10216: 10212: 10206: 10202: 10196: 10192: 10187: 10183: 10180: 10171: 10168: 10164: 10160: 10157: 10155: 10149: 10143: 10139: 10133: 10129: 10124: 10120: 10117: 10110: 10107: 10105: 10099: 10094: 10090: 10086: 10082: 10079: 10068: 10067: 10066: 10058: 10043: 10035: 10028: 10025: 10020: 10012: 10005: 10000: 9992: 9960: 9957: 9949: 9935: 9934: 9927: 9926: 9912: 9904: 9903: 9896: 9882: 9879: 9876: 9873: 9870: 9867: 9864: 9855: 9830: 9823: 9821: 9818: 9793: 9787: 9771: 9765: 9756: 9743: 9740: 9737: 9720: 9714: 9705: 9692: 9676: 9670: 9661: 9635: 9629: 9620: 9595: 9594: 9591: 9589: 9588:cross product 9585: 9563: 9556: 9551: 9548: 9544: 9538: 9534: 9528: 9524: 9520: 9515: 9511: 9505: 9501: 9495: 9491: 9484: 9481: 9478: 9474: 9470: 9467: 9465: 9458: 9454: 9448: 9444: 9438: 9434: 9428: 9424: 9415: 9411: 9406: 9403: 9399: 9395: 9390: 9386: 9379: 9376: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9361: 9355: 9351: 9345: 9341: 9337: 9335: 9328: 9324: 9318: 9314: 9308: 9304: 9298: 9294: 9276: 9275: 9274: 9271: 9262: 9253: 9243: 9232: 9219: 9210: 9198: 9193: 9177: 9169: 9165: 9158: 9155: 9152: 9148: 9144: 9141: 9138: 9133: 9130: 9126: 9122: 9117: 9113: 9107: 9103: 9087: 9064: 9060: 9054: 9050: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9028: 9024: 9020: 9017: 9012: 9008: 9001: 8998: 8995: 8991: 8987: 8984: 8972: 8968: 8962: 8958: 8954: 8949: 8945: 8939: 8935: 8928: 8920: 8916: 8910: 8906: 8902: 8897: 8893: 8887: 8883: 8876: 8874: 8864: 8860: 8856: 8851: 8847: 8840: 8836: 8830: 8826: 8822: 8817: 8813: 8808: 8796: 8795: 8794: 8786: 8773: 8767: 8764: 8761: 8755: 8752: 8744: 8740: 8728: 8723: 8719: 8713: 8709: 8688: 8682: 8679: 8676: 8653: 8649: 8643: 8639: 8633: 8629: 8624: 8615: 8611: 8607: 8603: 8597: 8593: 8587: 8583: 8577: 8573: 8568: 8544: 8536: 8532: 8505: 8502: 8499: 8473: 8467: 8464: 8458: 8455: 8452: 8446: 8440: 8437: 8431: 8425: 8422: 8419: 8413: 8404: 8398: 8389: 8383: 8380: 8377: 8364: 8363: 8362: 8345: 8342: 8339: 8316: 8311: 8307: 8280: 8276: 8270: 8266: 8260: 8256: 8252: 8247: 8237: 8229: 8225: 8222: 8216: 8213: 8207: 8202: 8193: 8185: 8172: 8171: 8170: 8145: 8142: 8128: 8125: 8102: 8096: 8093: 8090: 8070: 8059: 8056: 8022: 8008: 8005: 7971: 7963: 7960: 7957: 7938: 7925: 7906: 7902: 7896: 7892: 7879: 7869: 7855: 7852: 7846: 7843: 7837: 7832: 7828: 7804: 7792: 7786: 7783: 7780: 7774: 7769: 7759: 7748: 7747: 7746: 7729: 7723: 7720: 7717: 7711: 7708: 7700: 7696: 7690: 7686: 7672: 7671: 7670: 7668: 7664: 7645: 7637: 7633: 7627: 7623: 7614: 7610: 7602: 7601: 7600: 7584: 7581: 7578: 7548: 7536: 7530: 7527: 7521: 7516: 7512: 7504: 7503: 7502: 7483: 7479: 7461: 7441: 7437: 7433: 7427: 7424: 7421: 7415: 7412: 7409: 7403: 7400: 7394: 7390: 7386: 7380: 7377: 7374: 7368: 7363: 7359: 7332: 7329: 7323: 7320: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7300: 7297: 7294: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7274: 7271: 7265: 7260: 7256: 7232: 7229: 7226: 7223: 7220: 7217: 7214: 7211: 7208: 7205: 7202: 7199: 7196: 7193: 7190: 7187: 7184: 7178: 7175: 7166: 7154: 7138: 7134: 7113: 7107: 7081: 7077: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7060: 7054: 7051: 7048: 7045: 7042: 7035: 7026: 7020: 7016: 7007: 6983: 6974: 6968: 6964: 6956: 6952: 6931: 6923: 6906: 6895: 6890: 6886: 6876: 6872: 6868: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6849: 6827: 6816: 6811: 6807: 6789: 6778: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6731: 6726: 6722: 6713: 6704: 6698: 6694: 6689: 6685: 6678: 6658: 6649: 6643: 6639: 6634: 6630: 6619: 6610: 6604: 6600: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6580: 6570: 6547: 6541: 6532: 6506: 6492: 6481: 6449: 6443: 6434: 6408: 6405: 6388: 6377: 6368: 6362: 6353: 6330: 6319: 6310: 6304: 6295: 6266: 6260: 6257: 6252: 6236: 6225: 6220: 6206: 6200: 6191: 6173: 6159: 6145: 6134: 6102: 6096: 6087: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6044: 6017: 6008: 6002: 5990: 5984: 5975: 5965: 5962: 5959: 5947: 5941: 5932: 5926: 5917: 5911: 5902: 5876: 5873: 5862:Cross-product 5845: 5841: 5835: 5832: 5828: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5809: 5805: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5788: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5772: 5764: 5758: 5751: 5750: 5749: 5732: 5726: 5706: 5700: 5680: 5674: 5646: 5640: 5606: 5575: 5569: 5555: 5549: 5543: 5520: 5511: 5505: 5493: 5481: 5475: 5469: 5460: 5454: 5450: 5441: 5434: 5425: 5419: 5410: 5404: 5401: 5394: 5393: 5392: 5375: 5355: 5341: 5338: 5318: 5310: 5294: 5274: 5265: 5241: 5232: 5208: 5199: 5193: 5189: 5180: 5173: 5164: 5158: 5149: 5143: 5140: 5114: 5108: 5099: 5093: 5090: 5070: 5058: 5052: 5043: 5031: 5019: 5013: 5004: 4998: 4995: 4966: 4961: 4958: 4954: 4943: 4937: 4928: 4921: 4918: 4909: 4903: 4894: 4888: 4885: 4878: 4877: 4876: 4862: 4839: 4811: 4806: 4790: 4779: 4776: 4767: 4761: 4752: 4746: 4743: 4727: 4721: 4712: 4685: 4665: 4659: 4650: 4635: 4612: 4603: 4597: 4581: 4562: 4556: 4547: 4527: 4524: 4519: 4516: 4506: 4484: 4467: 4454: 4445: 4439: 4430: 4415: 4390: 4380: 4367: 4351: 4348: 4345: 4318: 4315: 4312: 4303: 4301: 4300:cross-product 4283: 4256: 4253: 4250: 4228: 4212: 4210: 4190: 4185: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4151: 4146: 4142: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4121: 4116: 4112: 4104: 4100: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4077: 4074: 4069: 4062: 4057: 4051: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4031: 4025: 4020: 4013: 4010: 4005: 3999: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3979: 3973: 3968: 3961: 3956: 3950: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3933: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3899: 3896: 3892: 3885: 3881: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3864: 3854: 3844: 3837: 3832: 3822: 3812: 3808: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3785: 3775: 3765: 3761: 3754: 3746: 3736: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3713: 3702: 3696: 3687: 3671: 3651: 3622: 3593: 3568: 3558: 3532: 3522: 3496: 3486: 3462: 3457: 3447: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3425: 3415: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3393: 3383: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3357: 3343:Pauli vectors 3322: 3317: 3311: 3304: 3298: 3293: 3291: 3284: 3281: 3277: 3271: 3266: 3260: 3253: 3247: 3242: 3240: 3233: 3230: 3226: 3218: 3213: 3207: 3204: 3197: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3172: 3165: 3162: 3158: 3152: 3147: 3141: 3134: 3128: 3120: 3116: 3111: 3109: 3102: 3099: 3095: 3087: 3082: 3076: 3073: 3066: 3060: 3052: 3048: 3043: 3041: 3034: 3031: 3027: 3021: 3016: 3010: 3003: 2997: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2978: 2971: 2968: 2964: 2952: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2933: 2929: 2926:Each of the ( 2899: 2896: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2869: 2865: 2860: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2841: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2794: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2775: 2771: 2766: 2758: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2744: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2704: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2672: 2669: 2667: 2661: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2638: 2633: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2552: 2549: 2547: 2541: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2505: 2502: 2500: 2494: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2471: 2466: 2454: 2453: 2449: 2446: 2445: 2442: 2439: 2422: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2357: 2354: 2348: 2343: 2340: 2336: 2326: 2313: 2297: 2267: 2262: 2247: 2242: 2232: 2227: 2207: 2202: 2198: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2175: 2169: 2165: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2122: 2095: 2092: 2086: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2072: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2036: 2035: 2034: 2032: 2022: 2009: 2003: 1987: 1981: 1965: 1959: 1956: 1951: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1921: 1914: 1895: 1890: 1886: 1879: 1876: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1862: 1859: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1838: 1834: 1823: 1822: 1821: 1819: 1804: 1777: 1748: 1745: 1742: 1685: 1669: 1668:Hilbert space 1665: 1657: 1647: 1645: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1589: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1564: 1560: 1545: 1544: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1532: 1530: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1496: 1490: 1485: 1478: 1473: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1453: 1447: 1443: 1437: 1433: 1428: 1425: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1364: 1363: 1362: 1360: 1359: 1353: 1349: 1343: 1339: 1330: 1319: 1313: 1293: 1288: 1280: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1262: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1247: 1242: 1239: 1235: 1225: 1222: 1218: 1213: 1210: 1205: 1202: 1198: 1190: 1187: 1183: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1154: 1153: 1152: 1133: 1126: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1099: 1092: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1061: 1045: 1041: 1033: 1032: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1000: 986: 979: 963: 959: 955: 952: 945: 929: 925: 917: 916: 899: 895: 891: 888: 881: 865: 861: 857: 850: 836: 829: 813: 809: 801: 800: 783: 779: 771: 755: 751: 743: 727: 723: 715: 712: 711: 707: 697: 673: 670:) to that of 669: 668:is isomorphic 661: 654: 647: 643:generated by 642: 626: 621: 606: 602: 594: 587: 580: 575: 571: 567: 566:exponentiates 548: 523: 516: 509: 504: 500: 497:to make them 491: 478: 473: 459: 444: 443:Hilbert space 440: 436: 432: 428: 426: 422: 411: 408: 404: 396: 387: 382: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 359: 342: 337: 331: 328: 323: 316: 311: 305: 300: 298: 291: 287: 283: 278: 274: 266: 261: 255: 250: 243: 240: 235: 229: 224: 222: 215: 211: 207: 202: 198: 190: 185: 179: 174: 167: 162: 156: 151: 149: 142: 138: 134: 129: 125: 112: 104: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 73: 66: 62: 58: 50: 46: 42: 38: 34: 30: 19: 20658: 20590:Substitution 20476:graph theory 20083: 19973:Quaternionic 19963:Persymmetric 19697: 19668: 19639: 19627: 19571: 19567: 19560:Fairlie, D B 19550: 19541: 19508: 19501: 19492: 19487: 19465: 19452: 19425: 19412: 19399: 19387:. Retrieved 19359: 19355: 19342: 19199: 18927: 18923: 18919: 18915: 18911: 18907: 18899: 18890: 18887: 18881: 18725:, where the 18664: 18646: 18642: 18637: 18631: 18627: 18618: 18613: 18577:Bloch sphere 18522: 18505: 18402: 18398: 18289: 18150: 18142: 18082: 18035: 17930: 17908: 17898: 17881: 17872:. By taking 17859: 17858: 17845: 17836: 17835: 17822: 17807: 17786: 17751: 17739: 17707: 17699: 17591: 17588: 17441: 17377: 17371: 17251: 16934: 16927: 16920: 16916: 16912: 16881:double cover 16792: 16784: 16693: 16686:is trivial. 16681: 16516: 16495: 16492: 16371: 16303: 16295: 16178: 16016: 16007: 15994: 15991: 15871: 15448: 15446:conditions. 15431: 15424: 15417: 15410: 15401:mixed states 15397:Bloch sphere 15390: 15266: 15259: 15249: 15246: 14717: 14513: 14511: 14502: 14483: 14303: 13879: 13858: 13854: 13764: 13524: 13517: 13232: 12723: 12721: 12522: 12518: 12512: 12498: 12496: 12488: 12482: 12397: 12382: 12371: 12219: 12211: 11551: 11438: 11434: 11430: 11419: 11412: 11409: 11331: 11327: 11323: 11235: 11183: 11179: 11175: 11164: 11160: 11156: 11153: 10451: 10445: 10438: 10435: 10064: 9932: 9931: 9924: 9923: 9910: 9901: 9900: 9897: 9842: 9835: 9824: 9597: 9590:results in 9581: 9266: 9257: 9248: 9234: 9223: 9214: 9205: 9195: 9089: 9085: 8792: 8488: 8295: 7939: 7819: 7744: 7667:mostly minus 7666: 7660: 7563: 7467: 7155: 6571: 6174: 6073: 6065: 6061:Killing form 5865: 5535: 5308: 4981: 4691: 4473: 4304: 4213: 3672: 3346: 2947:eigenvectors 2925: 2447:Commutators 2440: 2327: 2243: 2237:denotes the 2222: 2110: 2028: 1933: 1916: 1910: 1815: 1655: 1648: 1634: 1536:determinants 1533: 1522: 1357: 1354: 1347: 1341: 1337: 1311: 1308: 1150: 706:Cayley table 659: 652: 645: 592: 585: 578: 521: 514: 507: 503:Lie algebras 492: 429: 410:vector space 394: 383: 360: 113:symmetries. 64: 54: 29: 20565:Hamiltonian 20489:Biadjacency 20425:Correlation 20341:Householder 20291:Commutation 20028:Vandermonde 20023:Tridiagonal 19958:Permutation 19948:Nonnegative 19933:Matrix unit 19813:Bisymmetric 19564:Zachos, C K 19458:Gibbs, J.W. 19356:Found. Phys 18843:dot product 18089:four-tensor 17905:Pauli group 17823:For a spin 16944:quaternions 16903:Quaternions 16368:by the set 16329:Lie algebra 16321:Lie algebra 14492:and column 12393:quaternions 9584:dot product 9197:Contracting 9086:so that, 4688:Determinant 2932:eigenvalues 2033:relations: 1820:relations: 1818:commutation 1646:+1 and −1. 1644:eigenvalues 672:quaternions 435:observables 61:mathematics 20699:Lie groups 20693:Categories 20465:Transition 20460:Stochastic 20430:Covariance 20412:statistics 20391:Symplectic 20386:Similarity 20215:Unimodular 20210:Orthogonal 20195:Involutory 20190:Invertible 20185:Projection 20181:Idempotent 20123:Convergent 20018:Triangular 19968:Polynomial 19913:Hessenberg 19883:Equivalent 19878:Elementary 19858:Copositive 19848:Conference 19808:Bidiagonal 19616:References 19495:: 380–440. 19405:spinor map 18906:, being a 18638:in physics 18517:are 2 × 2 18285:where the 18080:matrices. 17814:orthogonal 17758:acting on 17718:observable 16732:isomorphic 16304:The group 15551:idempotent 14473:See also: 13865:See also: 12398:Note that 4405:that maps 2944:normalized 1911:where the 1358:involutory 1350:= 1, 2, 3, 601:isomorphic 433:represent 83:involutory 47:, for the 20646:Wronskian 20570:Irregular 20560:Gell-Mann 20509:Laplacian 20504:Incidence 20484:Adjacency 20455:Precision 20420:Centering 20326:Generator 20296:Confusion 20281:Circulant 20261:Augmented 20220:Unipotent 20200:Nilpotent 20176:Congruent 20153:Stieltjes 20128:Defective 20118:Companion 20089:Redheffer 20008:Symmetric 20003:Sylvester 19978:Signature 19908:Hermitian 19888:Frobenius 19798:Arrowhead 19778:Alternant 19724:855534544 19689:643977885 19658:837947786 19581:1402.3541 19168:⁡ 19148:⁡ 19139:^ 19130:⋅ 19124:^ 19115:− 19087:⁡ 19067:⁡ 19058:^ 19049:× 19043:^ 19034:− 19020:⁡ 19011:^ 18988:⁡ 18979:^ 18953:⁡ 18944:^ 18804:→ 18786:⊗ 18755:× 18737:⋅ 18701:⊗ 18510:, single- 18474:ν 18470:γ 18461:μ 18457:γ 18431:ν 18428:μ 18424:Σ 18360:σ 18342:σ 18312:α 18259:α 18253:≡ 18241:Σ 18231:− 18197:Σ 18189:ℓ 18179:ϵ 18175:≡ 18170:ℓ 18163:Σ 18105:Σ 18083:However, 18050:Σ 18002:σ 17974:σ 17949:Σ 17754:) of the 17677:θ 17672:⁡ 17660:σ 17644:θ 17639:⁡ 17622:θ 17565:σ 17548:σ 17531:σ 17517:→ 17514:σ 17508:⋅ 17502:→ 17464:→ 17345:σ 17337:↦ 17318:σ 17310:↦ 17291:σ 17283:↦ 17268:↦ 17229:σ 17221:− 17209:σ 17199:σ 17195:− 17192:↦ 17174:σ 17166:− 17154:σ 17144:σ 17140:− 17137:↦ 17119:σ 17111:− 17099:σ 17089:σ 17085:− 17082:↦ 17067:↦ 16780:rotations 16646:σ 16618:σ 16590:σ 16573:⁡ 16465:σ 16446:σ 16427:σ 16415:⁡ 16310:Lie group 16255:→ 16252:σ 16245:⋅ 16233:→ 16230:σ 16150:σ 16140:σ 16117:σ 16107:σ 16050:⊗ 15949:θ 15938:⁡ 15929:ϕ 15902:θ 15891:⁡ 15839:θ 15828:⁡ 15802:θ 15791:⁡ 15774:θ 15763:⁡ 15755:ϕ 15725:θ 15714:⁡ 15697:θ 15686:⁡ 15678:ϕ 15671:− 15650:θ 15639:⁡ 15607:→ 15604:σ 15598:⋅ 15592:→ 15526:θ 15523:⁡ 15515:ϕ 15512:⁡ 15506:θ 15503:⁡ 15495:ϕ 15492:⁡ 15486:θ 15483:⁡ 15463:→ 15369:γ 15366:β 15362:δ 15355:δ 15352:α 15348:δ 15330:δ 15327:γ 15323:σ 15311:β 15308:α 15304:σ 15283:∑ 15205:γ 15202:δ 15186:δ 15183:γ 15179:σ 15167:β 15164:α 15160:σ 15150:∑ 15141:γ 15138:γ 15127:β 15124:α 15120:δ 15111:β 15108:α 15060:σ 15045:σ 15035:∑ 14997:∴ 14973:σ 14855:δ 14833:σ 14822:σ 14813:⁡ 14776:σ 14755:∑ 14694:δ 14691:γ 14687:δ 14680:β 14677:α 14673:δ 14669:− 14664:γ 14661:β 14657:δ 14650:δ 14647:α 14643:δ 14625:δ 14622:γ 14618:σ 14606:β 14603:α 14599:σ 14578:∑ 14574:≡ 14569:δ 14566:γ 14559:→ 14556:σ 14549:⋅ 14544:β 14541:α 14534:→ 14531:σ 14452:σ 14437:→ 14434:σ 14428:× 14422:^ 14408:⋅ 14402:^ 14379:π 14351:σ 14334:π 14329:− 14272:⁡ 14266:− 14251:→ 14248:σ 14242:⋅ 14236:^ 14221:^ 14200:⁡ 14188:→ 14185:σ 14179:× 14173:^ 14152:⁡ 14143:→ 14140:σ 14121:→ 14118:σ 14112:⋅ 14106:^ 14079:− 14065:→ 14062:σ 14043:→ 14040:σ 14034:⋅ 14028:^ 13968:→ 13965:σ 13950:− 13914:^ 13837:^ 13808:^ 13779:^ 13740:→ 13737:σ 13731:⋅ 13720:⁡ 13711:⁡ 13699:^ 13690:× 13684:^ 13675:− 13669:⁡ 13660:⁡ 13651:^ 13636:⁡ 13627:⁡ 13618:^ 13598:⁡ 13578:⁡ 13564:→ 13561:σ 13555:⋅ 13549:^ 13493:⁡ 13484:⁡ 13475:^ 13466:× 13460:^ 13451:− 13445:⁡ 13436:⁡ 13427:^ 13412:⁡ 13403:⁡ 13394:^ 13374:⁡ 13356:^ 13342:, then, 13338:. Given 13313:⁡ 13304:⁡ 13295:^ 13286:⋅ 13280:^ 13271:− 13265:⁡ 13256:⁡ 13244:⁡ 13202:→ 13199:σ 13193:⋅ 13187:^ 13149:⁡ 13135:→ 13132:σ 13126:⋅ 13120:^ 13095:⁡ 13073:→ 13070:σ 13064:⋅ 13053:⁡ 13044:⁡ 13032:^ 13023:× 13017:^ 13008:− 13002:⁡ 12993:⁡ 12984:^ 12969:⁡ 12960:⁡ 12951:^ 12923:⁡ 12914:⁡ 12905:^ 12896:⋅ 12890:^ 12881:− 12875:⁡ 12866:⁡ 12835:→ 12832:σ 12826:⋅ 12820:^ 12785:→ 12782:σ 12776:⋅ 12770:^ 12684:− 12675:− 12654:→ 12651:σ 12645:⋅ 12639:^ 12615:− 12573:→ 12570:σ 12564:⋅ 12558:^ 12445:→ 12442:σ 12436:⋅ 12430:^ 12385:analogous 12383:which is 12342:⁡ 12330:→ 12327:σ 12321:⋅ 12315:^ 12292:⁡ 12270:→ 12267:σ 12261:⋅ 12255:^ 12134:− 12123:∞ 12108:∑ 12098:→ 12095:σ 12089:⋅ 12083:^ 12019:− 12008:∞ 11993:∑ 11928:→ 11925:σ 11919:⋅ 11913:^ 11885:− 11874:∞ 11859:∑ 11813:→ 11810:σ 11804:⋅ 11798:^ 11770:− 11759:∞ 11744:∑ 11700:→ 11697:σ 11691:⋅ 11685:^ 11647:∞ 11632:∑ 11611:→ 11608:σ 11602:⋅ 11596:^ 11530:→ 11527:σ 11521:⋅ 11515:^ 11480:→ 11477:σ 11471:⋅ 11465:^ 11370:→ 11367:σ 11361:⋅ 11355:^ 11292:^ 11271:^ 11253:→ 11207:… 11204:α 11197:∑ 11134:μ 11127:δ 11121:γ 11118:β 11115:α 11108:ε 11099:μ 11096:γ 11093:β 11090:α 11083:∑ 11068:μ 11061:δ 11055:γ 11048:δ 11042:β 11035:δ 11029:α 11022:δ 11015:− 11005:γ 10998:δ 10992:α 10985:δ 10979:μ 10976:β 10972:δ 10963:μ 10956:δ 10950:β 10943:δ 10937:γ 10934:α 10930:δ 10908:γ 10905:β 10901:δ 10895:μ 10892:α 10888:δ 10879:μ 10876:β 10872:δ 10866:γ 10863:α 10859:δ 10855:− 10850:μ 10847:γ 10843:δ 10837:β 10834:α 10830:δ 10804:μ 10800:σ 10794:γ 10790:σ 10784:β 10780:σ 10774:α 10770:σ 10761:⁡ 10749:γ 10746:β 10743:α 10736:ε 10721:γ 10714:δ 10708:β 10701:δ 10695:α 10688:δ 10681:− 10676:γ 10669:δ 10663:β 10660:α 10656:δ 10647:γ 10644:β 10641:α 10634:∑ 10613:γ 10609:σ 10603:β 10599:σ 10593:α 10589:σ 10580:⁡ 10568:β 10565:α 10561:δ 10540:β 10536:σ 10530:α 10526:σ 10517:⁡ 10505:α 10498:δ 10478:α 10474:σ 10466:⁡ 10410:ℓ 10403:δ 10390:δ 10374:δ 10368:ℓ 10361:δ 10357:− 10349:ℓ 10345:δ 10332:δ 10302:σ 10296:ℓ 10292:σ 10282:σ 10272:σ 10263:⁡ 10251:ℓ 10241:ε 10217:ℓ 10213:σ 10203:σ 10193:σ 10184:⁡ 10165:δ 10140:σ 10130:σ 10121:⁡ 10091:σ 10083:⁡ 10039:→ 10036:σ 10016:→ 10013:σ 10006:× 9996:→ 9993:σ 9964:ℏ 9950:× 9880:∧ 9868:⋅ 9797:→ 9794:σ 9788:⋅ 9775:→ 9766:× 9760:→ 9724:→ 9715:⋅ 9709:→ 9680:→ 9677:σ 9671:⋅ 9665:→ 9639:→ 9636:σ 9630:⋅ 9624:→ 9545:δ 9516:ℓ 9512:σ 9485:ℓ 9475:ε 9455:σ 9435:σ 9400:δ 9391:ℓ 9387:σ 9380:ℓ 9370:ε 9325:σ 9315:σ 9273:) yields 9203:-vectors 9170:ℓ 9166:σ 9159:ℓ 9149:ε 9127:δ 9114:σ 9104:σ 9061:σ 9051:σ 9025:δ 9013:ℓ 9009:σ 9002:ℓ 8992:ε 8969:σ 8959:σ 8946:σ 8936:σ 8917:σ 8907:σ 8903:− 8894:σ 8884:σ 8861:σ 8848:σ 8827:σ 8814:σ 8756:η 8745:μ 8741:σ 8724:μ 8714:μ 8710:∑ 8680:× 8644:μ 8640:σ 8634:μ 8616:μ 8612:∑ 8598:μ 8594:σ 8588:μ 8578:μ 8574:∑ 8537:μ 8533:σ 8459:⁡ 8453:− 8441:⁡ 8426:⁡ 8343:× 8312:μ 8308:σ 8271:† 8261:μ 8257:σ 8248:ν 8241:¯ 8238:σ 8226:⁡ 8203:ν 8194:μ 8180:Λ 8129:∈ 8071:≅ 7907:μ 7903:σ 7897:μ 7880:ν 7873:¯ 7870:σ 7856:⁡ 7833:ν 7796:→ 7793:σ 7787:− 7770:μ 7763:¯ 7760:σ 7712:η 7701:μ 7697:σ 7691:μ 7638:μ 7634:σ 7628:μ 7620:↦ 7615:μ 7540:→ 7537:σ 7517:μ 7513:σ 7484:μ 7480:σ 7434:ϑ 7428:⁡ 7416:φ 7410:− 7404:⁡ 7387:ϑ 7381:⁡ 7375:− 7364:− 7360:ψ 7333:φ 7324:⁡ 7307:ϑ 7301:⁡ 7281:ϑ 7275:⁡ 7257:ψ 7233:ϑ 7230:⁡ 7221:φ 7218:⁡ 7212:ϑ 7209:⁡ 7200:φ 7197:⁡ 7191:ϑ 7188:⁡ 7170:→ 7135:σ 7111:→ 7108:ϵ 7068:ϵ 7064:− 7055:− 7043:ϵ 7030:→ 7011:→ 6978:→ 6965:− 6962:→ 6910:→ 6869:− 6831:→ 6793:→ 6765:− 6761:ψ 6708:→ 6653:→ 6614:→ 6581:ψ 6551:→ 6548:σ 6542:⋅ 6536:→ 6496:→ 6482:± 6453:→ 6450:σ 6444:⋅ 6438:→ 6392:→ 6372:→ 6369:σ 6363:⋅ 6357:→ 6334:→ 6320:− 6314:→ 6311:σ 6305:⋅ 6299:→ 6240:→ 6226:− 6210:→ 6207:σ 6201:⋅ 6195:→ 6149:→ 6135:± 6106:→ 6103:σ 6097:⋅ 6091:→ 6012:→ 6009:σ 6003:⋅ 5994:→ 5985:× 5979:→ 5951:→ 5948:σ 5942:⋅ 5936:→ 5921:→ 5918:σ 5912:⋅ 5906:→ 5833:− 5819:σ 5806:σ 5797:⁡ 5681:≅ 5556:∈ 5515:→ 5512:σ 5506:⋅ 5497:→ 5464:→ 5461:σ 5455:⋅ 5445:→ 5429:→ 5426:σ 5420:⋅ 5414:→ 5405:∗ 5391:given by 5362:→ 5269:→ 5236:→ 5203:→ 5200:σ 5194:⋅ 5184:→ 5168:→ 5165:σ 5159:⋅ 5153:→ 5144:∗ 5118:→ 5115:σ 5109:⋅ 5103:→ 5094:∗ 5083:and that 5062:→ 5059:σ 5053:⋅ 5047:→ 5023:→ 5020:σ 5014:⋅ 5008:→ 4999:∗ 4959:− 4947:→ 4944:σ 4938:⋅ 4932:→ 4913:→ 4910:σ 4904:⋅ 4898:→ 4889:∗ 4794:→ 4780:− 4771:→ 4762:⋅ 4756:→ 4747:− 4731:→ 4728:σ 4722:⋅ 4716:→ 4669:→ 4666:σ 4660:⋅ 4654:→ 4645:↦ 4639:→ 4607:→ 4585:→ 4582:σ 4566:→ 4563:σ 4557:⋅ 4551:→ 4528:⁡ 4488:→ 4449:→ 4446:σ 4440:⋅ 4434:→ 4425:↦ 4419:→ 4391:∗ 4368:⊗ 4349:× 4316:× 4254:× 4170:− 4122:− 4075:− 4011:− 3920:σ 3900:ℓ 3893:δ 3886:ℓ 3882:σ 3855:ℓ 3848:^ 3838:⋅ 3826:^ 3813:ℓ 3809:σ 3786:ℓ 3779:^ 3766:ℓ 3762:σ 3755:⋅ 3740:^ 3706:→ 3703:σ 3697:⋅ 3691:→ 3655:^ 3626:^ 3597:^ 3562:^ 3526:^ 3490:^ 3451:^ 3435:σ 3419:^ 3403:σ 3387:^ 3371:σ 3361:→ 3358:σ 3285:− 3278:ψ 3227:ψ 3205:− 3166:− 3159:ψ 3096:ψ 3074:− 3035:− 3028:ψ 2965:ψ 2928:Hermitian 2879:σ 2866:σ 2832:σ 2819:σ 2785:σ 2772:σ 2735:σ 2722:σ 2680:σ 2652:σ 2639:σ 2620:σ 2592:σ 2579:σ 2560:σ 2532:σ 2519:σ 2485:σ 2472:σ 2381:σ 2368:σ 2337:σ 2199:σ 2189:σ 2176:σ 2166:σ 2136:σ 2123:σ 2080:δ 2061:σ 2048:σ 1988:≅ 1966:≅ 1960:× 1931:is used. 1887:σ 1870:ε 1848:σ 1835:σ 1666:) of the 1597:σ 1593:⁡ 1577:− 1561:σ 1454:σ 1444:σ 1434:σ 1426:− 1409:σ 1391:σ 1373:σ 1274:δ 1270:− 1256:δ 1236:δ 1219:δ 1211:− 1199:δ 1184:δ 1163:σ 1107:σ 1100:− 1073:σ 1042:σ 1012:σ 960:σ 953:− 926:σ 896:σ 889:− 862:σ 810:σ 780:σ 752:σ 724:σ 386:Hermitian 329:− 288:σ 275:σ 241:− 212:σ 199:σ 139:σ 126:σ 79:Hermitian 20704:Matrices 20474:Used in 20410:Used in 20371:Rotation 20346:Jacobian 20306:Distance 20286:Cofactor 20271:Carleman 20251:Adjugate 20235:Weighing 20168:inverses 20164:products 20133:Definite 20064:Identity 20054:Exchange 20047:Constant 20013:Toeplitz 19898:Hadamard 19868:Diagonal 19638:(2002). 19606:18776942 19479:(1840). 19460:(1884). 19444:43641333 19424:(2000). 19403:See the 19384:14670523 18891:n, m, k 18888:a, b, c, 18621:for the 18529:See also 18296:matrices 18091:. Hence 17804:2-sphere 16537:so that 16160:⟩ 16127:⟩ 13823:, so is 5451:′ 5242:′ 5190:′ 4982:we find 4507:below) 2280:denoted 1316:is the " 564:, which 405:for the 75:matrices 20575:Overlap 20540:Density 20499:Edmonds 20376:Seifert 20336:Hessian 20301:Coxeter 20225:Unitary 20143:Hurwitz 20074:Of ones 20059:Hilbert 19993:Skyline 19938:Metzler 19928:Logical 19923:Integer 19833:Boolean 19765:classes 19586:Bibcode 19574:: 084. 19364:Bibcode 18645:⟼ exp(− 18605:Remarks 17856:⁠ 17842:⁠ 17828:⁄ 17792:⁄ 17778:spinors 17767:⁄ 17731:⁄ 17427:Physics 17374:versors 16533:⁠ 16521:⁠ 16366:spanned 16314:unitary 16308:is the 16074:⁠ 16030:⁠ 16001:be the 15393:complex 14876:where " 14724:complex 14496:of the 9929:, then 9921:⁠ 9907:⁠ 5309:special 4855:matrix 2229:is the 1923:is the 1776:complex 1774:of all 1527:is the 1327:is the 1320:", and 603:to the 574:algebra 439:complex 111:isospin 93:letter 87:unitary 72:complex 20494:Degree 20435:Design 20366:Random 20356:Payoff 20351:Moment 20276:Cartan 20266:Bézout 20205:Normal 20079:Pascal 20069:Lehmer 19998:Sparse 19918:Hollow 19903:Hankel 19838:Cauchy 19763:Matrix 19722:  19712:  19687:  19677:  19656:  19646:  19604:  19520:  19442:  19432:  19382:  19313:  19162:  19081:  18630:⟼ exp( 18287:Dirac 18270:  18237:  18228:  18159:  18116:  18099:  18061:  18044:  17921:tensor 17919:-fold 17864:, the 17774:states 17772:. The 17354:  16895:, see 16774:, the 16278:  16027:space 15374:  15242:Q.E.D. 15225:where 15210:  15072:  15003:  15000:  14794:where 14287:  14257:  14227:  14194:  14071:  14056:  13974:  13959:  13869:, and 13852:, and 13705:  13319:  13038:  12353:  12350:  12230:  12227:  9806:  9803:  9608:  9605:  9567:  9287:  9284:  9181:  9175:  9100:  9097:  8686:  8674:  8542:  8529:  8509:  8497:  8349:  8337:  8304:  8157:  8123:  8043:  8020:  7992:  7969:  7948:  7665:(with 7643:  7489:  7476:  6929:  6671:  6666:  6624:  6557:  6527:  6479:  6459:  6429:  6287:  6264:  6183:  6132:  6112:  6082:  5536:where 5488:  5221:where 4207:using 3641:, and 3547:, and 3475:where 2111:where 1927:, and 1540:traces 1523:where 572:. The 63:, the 20555:Gamma 20519:Tutte 20381:Shear 20094:Shift 20084:Pauli 20033:Walsh 19943:Moore 19823:Block 19602:S2CID 19576:arXiv 19568:SIGMA 19484:(PDF) 19389:5 May 19380:S2CID 19352:(PDF) 19335:Notes 18904:SU(2) 18896:2 × 2 18657:SU(2) 18512:qubit 17870:SU(2) 17726:spin 17724:of a 17421:SO(3) 17417:SU(2) 17413:SU(2) 17405:SU(2) 16893:SO(3) 16889:SU(2) 16885:SO(3) 16877:SU(2) 16873:SO(3) 16869:SU(2) 16776:group 16772:SO(3) 16690:SO(3) 16511:su(2) 16325:2 × 2 16317:2 × 2 16306:SU(2) 16300:SU(2) 15441:trace 14882:trace 14715:Proof 13859:a + b 12730:SU(2) 12717:SU(2) 12521:and − 12505:2 × 2 12491:SU(2) 11437:+ 1, 11236:For 2239:2 × 2 1779:2 × 2 1702:2 × 2 570:SU(2) 418:2 × 2 414:2 × 2 403:basis 365:. In 95:sigma 91:Greek 69:2 × 2 20361:Pick 20331:Gram 20099:Zero 19803:Band 19720:OCLC 19710:ISBN 19685:OCLC 19675:ISBN 19654:OCLC 19644:ISBN 19518:ISBN 19514:xxii 19440:OCLC 19430:ISBN 19391:2023 18928:half 18912:half 17888:and 17722:spin 16871:and 16831:and 16570:span 16412:span 16014:and 15992:Let 15549:the 15232:and 13334:the 12736:in 11174:{0, 11168:and 9586:and 9212:and 8329:For 7351:and 6124:are 2949:are 2938:and 2248:for 2220:and 1642:has 1538:and 1534:The 1314:= −1 407:real 375:spin 85:and 59:and 20450:Hat 20183:or 20166:or 19702:doi 19594:doi 19372:doi 19165:tan 19145:tan 19084:tan 19064:tan 19017:tan 18985:tan 18950:tan 18902:of 18845:on 18506:In 18412:as 17931:In 17868:of 17708:In 17669:sin 17636:cos 17442:In 17419:to 16891:to 16883:of 16778:of 16730:is 16312:of 15935:sin 15888:cos 15819:sin 15788:cos 15760:sin 15711:cos 15683:sin 15630:cos 15520:cos 15509:sin 15500:sin 15489:cos 15480:sin 15257:so 14730:as 14269:cos 14197:sin 14149:cos 13862:.) 13717:sin 13708:sin 13666:cos 13657:sin 13633:cos 13624:sin 13595:sin 13575:exp 13490:sin 13481:sin 13442:cos 13433:sin 13409:cos 13400:sin 13371:sin 13310:sin 13301:sin 13262:cos 13253:cos 13241:cos 13146:sin 13092:cos 13050:sin 13041:sin 12999:cos 12990:sin 12966:cos 12957:sin 12920:sin 12911:sin 12872:cos 12863:cos 12725:(2) 12514:(2) 12500:(2) 12409:det 12387:to 12339:sin 12289:cos 11422:= 0 11415:= 1 9836:If 8734:det 8621:det 8565:det 8408:det 8393:det 8372:det 7680:det 7425:cos 7401:exp 7378:sin 7321:exp 7298:sin 7272:cos 7227:cos 7215:sin 7206:sin 7194:cos 7185:sin 6063:). 5622:by 5035:det 4990:det 4700:det 4341:Mat 2402:of 1919:jkl 1700:of 1557:det 1335:if 696:). 607:of 599:is 412:of 103:tau 55:In 20695:: 19718:. 19708:. 19683:. 19652:. 19626:. 19600:. 19592:. 19584:. 19572:10 19570:. 19562:; 19558:; 19532:^ 19516:. 19486:. 19464:. 19438:. 19420:; 19378:. 19370:. 19360:23 19358:. 19354:. 18647:iσ 18640:, 18632:iσ 18628:iσ 18625:, 18525:. 18404:μν 18144:μν 18132:μν 17840:= 17820:. 17784:. 17740:iσ 17407:, 17380:⊂ 16946:, 16935:iσ 16933:, 16928:iσ 16926:, 16921:iσ 16919:, 16899:. 16785:iσ 16519:= 16496:iσ 16372:iσ 16183:, 15997:jk 15984:. 15430:, 15423:, 15416:, 15269:αβ 15265:= 15262:αβ 15055:tr 15024:tr 14968:tr 14921:tr 14878:tr 14810:tr 14505:αβ 14503:σ 14470:. 13929:: 13857:= 12529:, 12494:. 12395:. 11559:, 11330:, 11182:, 11178:, 11163:, 11159:, 10758:tr 10577:tr 10514:tr 10463:tr 10444:= 10260:tr 10181:tr 10118:tr 10080:tr 9905:= 9233:= 8456:tr 8438:tr 8423:tr 8223:tr 7853:tr 7460:. 7153:. 6409:0. 5889:) 5794:tr 5668:SU 5470:=: 4919::= 4833:SU 4525:tr 4211:. 3670:. 3612:, 3511:, 2940:−1 2936:+1 2934:: 2233:. 2225:jk 1803:. 1590:tr 1531:. 1361:: 1340:= 1333:+1 1324:jk 713:× 660:iσ 658:, 653:iσ 651:, 646:iσ 591:, 584:, 522:iσ 520:, 515:iσ 513:, 508:iσ 81:, 20580:S 20038:Z 19755:e 19748:t 19741:v 19726:. 19704:: 19691:. 19660:. 19630:. 19608:. 19596:: 19588:: 19578:: 19493:5 19446:. 19407:. 19374:: 19366:: 19316:. 19309:) 19301:1 19296:0 19291:0 19286:0 19279:0 19274:0 19269:1 19264:0 19257:0 19252:1 19247:0 19242:0 19235:0 19230:0 19225:0 19220:1 19212:( 19194:. 19182:) 19179:2 19175:/ 19171:b 19159:2 19155:/ 19151:a 19136:n 19121:m 19112:1 19109:( 19105:/ 19101:) 19098:2 19094:/ 19090:b 19078:2 19074:/ 19070:a 19055:n 19040:m 19031:2 19027:/ 19023:b 19008:m 19002:+ 18999:2 18995:/ 18991:a 18976:n 18970:( 18967:= 18964:2 18960:/ 18956:c 18941:k 18924:c 18922:, 18920:b 18918:, 18916:a 18865:. 18860:3 18855:R 18829:) 18825:C 18821:( 18816:2 18810:M 18801:) 18796:3 18791:R 18783:) 18779:C 18775:( 18770:2 18764:M 18758:( 18750:3 18745:R 18740:: 18711:3 18706:R 18698:) 18694:C 18690:( 18685:2 18679:M 18659:. 18653:i 18649:) 18643:σ 18634:) 18486:. 18481:] 18466:, 18451:[ 18444:2 18441:i 18436:= 18401:Σ 18384:. 18379:) 18373:0 18366:k 18348:k 18334:0 18328:( 18323:= 18318:k 18292:k 18290:α 18273:, 18265:k 18248:k 18245:0 18234:i 18208:. 18203:j 18186:k 18183:j 18167:k 18141:Σ 18130:Σ 18111:k 18077:k 18075:σ 18056:k 18021:. 18016:) 18008:k 17994:0 17987:0 17980:k 17965:( 17960:= 17955:k 17917:n 17911:n 17909:G 17882:j 17860:σ 17853:2 17850:/ 17846:ħ 17837:J 17830:2 17826:1 17810:, 17808:S 17799:π 17794:2 17790:1 17769:2 17765:1 17750:( 17742:j 17733:2 17729:1 17685:. 17680:2 17664:x 17655:i 17652:+ 17647:2 17631:1 17627:= 17618:Q 17604:θ 17600:x 17594:θ 17592:Q 17574:. 17569:z 17560:z 17557:+ 17552:y 17543:y 17540:+ 17535:x 17526:x 17523:= 17499:x 17493:= 17490:P 17461:x 17448:P 17409:U 17389:H 17378:U 17357:. 17349:1 17340:i 17333:k 17328:, 17322:2 17313:i 17306:j 17301:, 17295:3 17286:i 17279:i 17274:, 17271:I 17264:1 17238:. 17233:3 17224:i 17218:= 17213:2 17203:1 17188:k 17183:, 17178:2 17169:i 17163:= 17158:1 17148:3 17133:j 17128:, 17123:1 17114:i 17108:= 17103:3 17093:2 17078:i 17073:, 17070:I 17063:1 17041:H 17020:. 17016:} 17010:k 17005:, 17001:j 16996:, 16992:i 16987:, 16983:1 16977:{ 16955:H 16940:} 16938:3 16931:2 16924:1 16917:I 16915:{ 16855:) 16852:3 16849:( 16844:o 16841:s 16819:) 16816:2 16813:( 16808:u 16805:s 16787:j 16758:) 16755:3 16752:( 16747:o 16744:s 16718:) 16715:2 16712:( 16707:u 16704:s 16667:. 16663:} 16657:2 16650:3 16641:i 16634:, 16629:2 16622:2 16613:i 16606:, 16601:2 16594:1 16585:i 16577:{ 16567:= 16564:) 16561:2 16558:( 16553:u 16550:s 16535:, 16530:2 16527:/ 16524:1 16517:λ 16498:j 16478:. 16475:} 16469:3 16460:i 16456:, 16450:2 16441:i 16437:, 16431:1 16422:i 16418:{ 16409:= 16406:) 16403:2 16400:( 16395:u 16392:s 16377:} 16374:k 16370:{ 16350:2 16344:u 16341:s 16281:. 16274:) 16270:1 16267:+ 16262:k 16240:j 16222:( 16215:2 16212:1 16207:= 16202:k 16199:j 16195:P 16164:. 16154:j 16144:k 16135:| 16131:= 16121:k 16111:j 16102:| 16096:k 16093:j 16089:P 16076:, 16060:2 16055:C 16045:2 16040:C 16019:k 16017:σ 16010:j 16008:σ 15995:P 15966:) 15959:) 15954:2 15942:( 15926:i 15923:+ 15919:e 15912:) 15907:2 15895:( 15882:( 15856:) 15849:) 15844:2 15832:( 15823:2 15812:) 15807:2 15795:( 15784:) 15779:2 15767:( 15751:i 15748:+ 15744:e 15735:) 15730:2 15718:( 15707:) 15702:2 15690:( 15674:i 15667:e 15660:) 15655:2 15643:( 15634:2 15623:( 15618:= 15614:) 15589:a 15583:+ 15579:1 15574:( 15567:2 15564:1 15537:, 15532:) 15474:( 15469:= 15460:a 15444:1 15437:} 15435:3 15432:σ 15428:2 15425:σ 15421:1 15418:σ 15414:0 15411:σ 15409:{ 15377:. 15343:2 15340:= 15335:k 15316:k 15298:3 15293:0 15290:= 15287:k 15272:. 15267:δ 15260:σ 15255:, 15253:0 15250:σ 15238:M 15234:δ 15230:γ 15213:, 15198:M 15191:k 15172:k 15154:k 15146:+ 15134:M 15116:= 15104:M 15099:2 15075:, 15069:M 15064:k 15049:k 15039:k 15031:+ 15028:M 15020:I 15017:= 15010:M 15006:2 14986:. 14983:M 14977:k 14961:2 14958:1 14952:= 14943:k 14939:a 14929:, 14925:M 14914:2 14911:1 14903:= 14896:c 14862:k 14859:j 14850:2 14847:= 14843:) 14837:k 14826:j 14817:( 14800:a 14796:c 14780:k 14769:k 14765:a 14759:k 14751:+ 14748:I 14744:c 14741:= 14738:M 14728:M 14720:I 14699:. 14638:2 14635:= 14630:k 14611:k 14593:3 14588:1 14585:= 14582:k 14508:. 14498:k 14494:β 14490:α 14486:k 14456:z 14448:= 14444:) 14419:y 14412:( 14399:x 14393:= 14387:) 14382:2 14374:( 14366:y 14362:R 14355:x 14343:) 14337:2 14325:( 14317:y 14313:R 14290:. 14284:) 14281:) 14278:a 14275:( 14263:1 14260:( 14233:n 14218:n 14212:+ 14209:) 14206:a 14203:( 14170:n 14164:+ 14161:) 14158:a 14155:( 14134:= 14128:) 14103:n 14096:( 14090:2 14087:a 14082:i 14075:e 14050:) 14025:n 14018:( 14012:2 14009:a 14004:i 14000:e 13996:= 13993:) 13990:a 13987:( 13982:n 13978:R 13956:) 13953:a 13947:( 13942:n 13938:R 13911:n 13888:a 13855:c 13834:k 13805:m 13776:n 13751:. 13747:) 13727:) 13723:b 13714:a 13696:m 13681:n 13672:a 13663:b 13648:m 13642:+ 13639:b 13630:a 13615:n 13608:( 13601:c 13591:c 13586:i 13582:( 13572:= 13546:k 13540:c 13537:i 13533:e 13504:. 13500:) 13496:b 13487:a 13472:m 13457:n 13448:a 13439:b 13424:m 13418:+ 13415:b 13406:a 13391:n 13384:( 13377:c 13367:1 13362:= 13353:k 13340:c 13322:, 13316:b 13307:a 13292:m 13277:n 13268:b 13259:a 13250:= 13247:c 13215:, 13209:) 13184:k 13177:( 13173:c 13170:i 13166:e 13162:= 13152:c 13142:) 13117:k 13110:( 13106:i 13103:+ 13099:c 13089:I 13086:= 13060:) 13056:b 13047:a 13029:m 13014:n 13005:a 12996:b 12981:m 12975:+ 12972:b 12963:a 12948:n 12941:( 12937:i 12934:+ 12930:) 12926:b 12917:a 12902:m 12887:n 12878:b 12869:a 12859:( 12855:I 12852:= 12842:) 12817:m 12810:( 12806:b 12803:i 12799:e 12792:) 12767:n 12760:( 12756:a 12753:i 12749:e 12734:c 12699:. 12694:2 12690:) 12687:a 12681:( 12678:f 12672:) 12669:a 12666:( 12663:f 12636:n 12630:+ 12625:2 12621:) 12618:a 12612:( 12609:f 12606:+ 12603:) 12600:a 12597:( 12594:f 12588:I 12585:= 12582:) 12579:) 12555:n 12549:( 12546:a 12543:( 12540:f 12523:a 12519:a 12485:1 12479:, 12465:2 12461:a 12457:= 12454:] 12451:) 12427:n 12421:( 12418:a 12415:i 12412:[ 12376:) 12374:2 12372:( 12346:a 12336:) 12312:n 12306:( 12303:i 12300:+ 12296:a 12286:I 12283:= 12277:) 12252:n 12245:( 12241:a 12238:i 12234:e 12208:. 12189:! 12186:) 12183:1 12180:+ 12177:q 12174:2 12171:( 12164:1 12161:+ 12158:q 12155:2 12151:a 12145:q 12141:) 12137:1 12131:( 12118:0 12115:= 12112:q 12104:) 12080:n 12074:( 12071:i 12068:+ 12062:! 12059:) 12056:p 12053:2 12050:( 12043:p 12040:2 12036:a 12030:p 12026:) 12022:1 12016:( 12003:0 12000:= 11997:p 11989:I 11986:= 11973:! 11970:) 11967:1 11964:+ 11961:q 11958:2 11955:( 11948:1 11945:+ 11942:q 11939:2 11935:) 11910:n 11904:a 11901:( 11896:q 11892:) 11888:1 11882:( 11869:0 11866:= 11863:q 11855:i 11852:+ 11846:! 11843:) 11840:p 11837:2 11834:( 11827:p 11824:2 11820:) 11795:n 11789:a 11786:( 11781:p 11777:) 11773:1 11767:( 11754:0 11751:= 11748:p 11740:= 11727:! 11724:k 11717:k 11712:] 11707:) 11682:n 11675:( 11671:a 11667:[ 11660:k 11656:i 11642:0 11639:= 11636:k 11628:= 11618:) 11593:n 11586:( 11582:a 11579:i 11575:e 11537:. 11512:n 11506:= 11501:1 11498:+ 11495:q 11492:2 11487:) 11462:n 11455:( 11439:q 11435:q 11433:2 11426:I 11420:p 11413:p 11395:, 11392:I 11389:= 11384:p 11381:2 11377:) 11352:n 11346:( 11332:p 11328:p 11326:2 11309:, 11306:1 11303:= 11299:| 11289:n 11282:| 11277:, 11268:n 11262:a 11259:= 11250:a 11210:) 11201:( 11186:} 11184:z 11180:y 11176:x 11170:μ 11165:γ 11161:β 11157:α 11131:0 11112:0 11102:) 11087:( 11079:i 11076:2 11073:+ 11065:0 11052:0 11039:0 11026:0 11018:8 11011:) 11002:0 10989:0 10968:+ 10960:0 10947:0 10925:( 10921:4 10918:+ 10914:) 10884:+ 10825:( 10821:2 10818:= 10810:) 10765:( 10740:0 10732:i 10729:2 10726:+ 10718:0 10705:0 10692:0 10684:4 10673:0 10650:) 10638:( 10630:2 10627:= 10619:) 10584:( 10557:2 10554:= 10546:) 10521:( 10502:0 10494:2 10491:= 10483:) 10470:( 10446:I 10442:0 10439:σ 10416:) 10407:k 10397:m 10394:j 10386:+ 10381:m 10378:k 10365:j 10352:m 10339:k 10336:j 10327:( 10323:2 10320:= 10312:) 10306:m 10286:k 10276:j 10267:( 10248:k 10245:j 10237:i 10234:2 10231:= 10223:) 10207:k 10197:j 10188:( 10172:k 10169:j 10161:2 10158:= 10150:) 10144:k 10134:j 10125:( 10111:0 10108:= 10100:) 10095:j 10087:( 10044:2 10029:i 10026:= 10021:2 10001:2 9968:J 9961:i 9958:= 9954:J 9946:J 9933:J 9925:σ 9918:2 9915:/ 9911:ħ 9902:J 9883:b 9877:a 9874:+ 9871:b 9865:a 9853:z 9851:σ 9849:y 9847:σ 9845:x 9843:σ 9838:i 9829:) 9827:1 9825:( 9783:) 9772:b 9757:a 9749:( 9744:i 9741:+ 9738:I 9732:) 9721:b 9706:a 9698:( 9693:= 9688:) 9662:b 9654:( 9647:) 9621:a 9613:( 9564:. 9557:I 9552:k 9549:j 9539:k 9535:b 9529:j 9525:a 9521:+ 9506:k 9502:b 9496:j 9492:a 9482:k 9479:j 9471:i 9468:= 9459:k 9449:k 9445:b 9439:j 9429:j 9425:a 9416:) 9412:I 9407:k 9404:j 9396:+ 9377:k 9374:j 9366:i 9362:( 9356:k 9352:b 9346:j 9342:a 9338:= 9329:k 9319:j 9309:k 9305:b 9299:j 9295:a 9269:q 9267:b 9260:p 9258:a 9251:q 9249:σ 9244:) 9241:p 9239:a 9237:q 9235:σ 9230:q 9228:σ 9226:p 9224:a 9217:q 9215:b 9208:p 9206:a 9201:3 9178:. 9156:k 9153:j 9145:i 9142:+ 9139:I 9134:k 9131:j 9123:= 9118:k 9108:j 9065:k 9055:j 9047:2 9044:= 9037:I 9032:k 9029:j 9021:2 9018:+ 8999:k 8996:j 8988:i 8985:2 8978:) 8973:j 8963:k 8955:+ 8950:k 8940:j 8932:( 8929:+ 8926:) 8921:j 8911:k 8898:k 8888:j 8880:( 8877:= 8870:} 8865:k 8857:, 8852:j 8844:{ 8841:+ 8837:] 8831:k 8823:, 8818:j 8809:[ 8774:. 8771:) 8768:x 8765:, 8762:x 8759:( 8753:= 8750:) 8737:( 8729:2 8720:x 8689:, 8683:2 8677:2 8654:. 8650:) 8630:x 8625:( 8608:= 8604:) 8584:x 8569:( 8545:, 8506:B 8503:, 8500:A 8474:. 8471:) 8468:B 8465:A 8462:( 8450:) 8447:B 8444:( 8435:) 8432:A 8429:( 8420:+ 8417:) 8414:B 8411:( 8405:+ 8402:) 8399:A 8396:( 8390:= 8387:) 8384:B 8381:+ 8378:A 8375:( 8346:2 8340:2 8317:. 8281:. 8277:) 8267:S 8253:S 8230:( 8217:2 8214:1 8208:= 8190:) 8186:S 8183:( 8154:) 8150:C 8146:, 8143:2 8140:( 8136:L 8133:S 8126:S 8103:. 8100:) 8097:3 8094:, 8091:1 8088:( 8084:n 8081:i 8078:p 8075:S 8068:) 8064:C 8060:, 8057:2 8054:( 8050:L 8047:S 8023:, 8017:) 8013:C 8009:, 8006:2 8003:( 7999:L 7996:S 7972:; 7964:3 7961:, 7958:1 7953:R 7926:. 7921:) 7914:) 7893:x 7887:( 7861:( 7847:2 7844:1 7838:= 7829:x 7805:. 7802:) 7784:, 7781:I 7778:( 7775:= 7730:. 7727:) 7724:x 7721:, 7718:x 7715:( 7709:= 7706:) 7687:x 7683:( 7646:, 7624:x 7611:x 7585:3 7582:, 7579:1 7574:R 7549:. 7546:) 7531:, 7528:I 7525:( 7522:= 7448:) 7445:) 7442:2 7438:/ 7431:( 7422:, 7419:) 7413:i 7407:( 7398:) 7395:2 7391:/ 7384:( 7372:( 7369:= 7339:) 7336:) 7330:i 7327:( 7318:) 7315:2 7311:/ 7304:( 7295:, 7292:) 7289:2 7285:/ 7278:( 7269:( 7266:= 7261:+ 7236:) 7224:, 7203:, 7182:( 7179:a 7176:= 7167:a 7139:z 7114:0 7088:) 7085:) 7082:2 7078:/ 7072:2 7061:1 7058:( 7052:, 7049:0 7046:, 7040:( 7036:| 7027:a 7021:| 7017:= 7008:a 6984:| 6975:a 6969:| 6957:3 6953:a 6932:. 6924:] 6917:| 6907:a 6900:| 6896:+ 6891:3 6887:a 6877:1 6873:a 6864:2 6860:a 6856:i 6850:[ 6842:) 6838:| 6828:a 6821:| 6817:+ 6812:3 6808:a 6804:( 6800:| 6790:a 6783:| 6779:2 6775:1 6770:= 6756:; 6751:] 6743:2 6739:a 6735:i 6732:+ 6727:1 6723:a 6714:| 6705:a 6699:| 6695:+ 6690:3 6686:a 6679:[ 6663:) 6659:| 6650:a 6644:| 6640:+ 6635:3 6631:a 6627:( 6620:| 6611:a 6605:| 6601:2 6595:1 6590:= 6585:+ 6533:a 6507:. 6503:| 6493:a 6486:| 6435:a 6406:= 6403:) 6399:| 6389:a 6382:| 6378:+ 6354:a 6348:( 6345:) 6341:| 6331:a 6324:| 6296:a 6290:( 6267:, 6261:0 6258:= 6253:2 6248:| 6237:a 6230:| 6221:2 6217:) 6192:a 6186:( 6160:. 6156:| 6146:a 6139:| 6088:a 6045:3 6040:R 6018:. 6000:) 5991:b 5976:a 5970:( 5966:i 5963:2 5960:= 5957:] 5933:b 5927:, 5903:a 5897:[ 5877:i 5874:2 5846:. 5842:) 5836:1 5829:U 5823:j 5815:U 5810:i 5801:( 5789:2 5786:1 5781:= 5776:j 5773:i 5769:) 5765:U 5762:( 5759:R 5736:) 5733:U 5730:( 5727:R 5707:. 5704:) 5701:3 5698:( 5694:n 5691:i 5688:p 5685:S 5678:) 5675:2 5672:( 5647:, 5644:) 5641:2 5638:( 5634:U 5631:S 5610:) 5607:3 5604:( 5600:O 5597:S 5576:. 5573:) 5570:3 5567:( 5563:O 5560:S 5553:) 5550:U 5547:( 5544:R 5521:, 5503:) 5494:a 5485:) 5482:U 5479:( 5476:R 5473:( 5442:a 5435:= 5411:a 5402:U 5379:) 5376:3 5373:( 5369:O 5366:S 5359:) 5356:2 5353:( 5349:U 5346:S 5342:: 5339:R 5319:U 5295:U 5275:, 5266:a 5233:a 5209:, 5181:a 5174:= 5150:a 5141:U 5100:a 5091:U 5071:, 5068:) 5044:a 5038:( 5032:= 5029:) 5005:a 4996:U 4993:( 4967:, 4962:1 4955:U 4929:a 4922:U 4895:a 4886:U 4863:U 4843:) 4840:2 4837:( 4812:. 4807:2 4802:| 4791:a 4784:| 4777:= 4768:a 4753:a 4744:= 4739:) 4713:a 4705:( 4651:a 4636:a 4613:. 4604:a 4598:= 4593:) 4574:) 4548:a 4540:( 4533:( 4520:2 4517:1 4485:a 4455:. 4431:a 4416:a 4387:) 4381:3 4376:R 4371:( 4365:) 4361:C 4357:( 4352:2 4346:2 4319:2 4313:2 4284:3 4279:R 4257:2 4251:2 4229:3 4224:R 4191:, 4186:) 4178:3 4174:a 4163:2 4159:a 4155:i 4152:+ 4147:1 4143:a 4133:2 4129:a 4125:i 4117:1 4113:a 4105:3 4101:a 4094:( 4089:= 4084:) 4078:1 4070:0 4063:0 4058:1 4052:( 4045:3 4041:a 4037:+ 4032:) 4026:0 4021:i 4014:i 4006:0 4000:( 3993:2 3989:a 3985:+ 3980:) 3974:0 3969:1 3962:1 3957:0 3951:( 3944:1 3940:a 3936:= 3924:k 3913:k 3909:a 3905:= 3897:k 3875:k 3871:a 3867:= 3845:x 3833:k 3823:x 3802:k 3798:a 3794:= 3791:) 3776:x 3758:( 3752:) 3747:k 3737:x 3727:k 3723:a 3719:( 3716:= 3688:a 3652:z 3623:y 3594:x 3569:3 3559:x 3533:2 3523:x 3497:1 3487:x 3463:, 3458:3 3448:x 3439:3 3431:+ 3426:2 3416:x 3407:2 3399:+ 3394:1 3384:x 3375:1 3367:= 3323:. 3318:] 3312:1 3305:0 3299:[ 3294:= 3282:z 3272:, 3267:] 3261:0 3254:1 3248:[ 3243:= 3234:+ 3231:z 3219:, 3214:] 3208:i 3198:1 3192:[ 3184:2 3180:1 3175:= 3163:y 3153:, 3148:] 3142:i 3135:1 3129:[ 3121:2 3117:1 3112:= 3103:+ 3100:y 3088:, 3083:] 3077:1 3067:1 3061:[ 3053:2 3049:1 3044:= 3032:x 3022:, 3017:] 3011:1 3004:1 2998:[ 2990:2 2986:1 2981:= 2972:+ 2969:x 2900:0 2897:= 2889:} 2883:1 2875:, 2870:3 2861:{ 2853:0 2850:= 2842:} 2836:3 2828:, 2823:2 2814:{ 2806:0 2803:= 2795:} 2789:2 2781:, 2776:1 2767:{ 2759:I 2756:2 2753:= 2745:} 2739:1 2731:, 2726:1 2717:{ 2684:2 2676:i 2673:2 2670:= 2662:] 2656:1 2648:, 2643:3 2634:[ 2624:1 2616:i 2613:2 2610:= 2602:] 2596:3 2588:, 2583:2 2574:[ 2564:3 2556:i 2553:2 2550:= 2542:] 2536:2 2528:, 2523:1 2514:[ 2506:0 2503:= 2495:] 2489:1 2481:, 2476:1 2467:[ 2426:) 2423:3 2420:( 2415:o 2412:s 2390:] 2385:k 2377:, 2372:j 2364:[ 2358:4 2355:1 2349:= 2344:k 2341:j 2314:. 2311:) 2307:R 2303:( 2298:3 2293:l 2290:C 2268:, 2263:3 2258:R 2235:I 2223:δ 2208:, 2203:j 2193:k 2185:+ 2180:k 2170:j 2145:} 2140:k 2132:, 2127:j 2119:{ 2096:, 2093:I 2087:k 2084:j 2076:2 2073:= 2070:} 2065:k 2057:, 2052:j 2044:{ 2010:. 2007:) 2004:3 2001:( 1996:o 1993:s 1985:) 1982:2 1979:( 1974:u 1971:s 1963:) 1957:, 1952:3 1947:R 1942:( 1917:ε 1896:, 1891:l 1880:l 1877:k 1874:j 1866:i 1863:2 1860:= 1857:] 1852:k 1844:, 1839:j 1831:[ 1790:C 1762:) 1758:C 1754:( 1749:2 1746:, 1743:2 1737:M 1713:R 1686:2 1680:H 1659:0 1656:σ 1651:I 1639:j 1637:σ 1616:, 1613:0 1610:= 1601:j 1583:, 1580:1 1574:= 1565:j 1525:I 1508:, 1505:I 1502:= 1497:) 1491:1 1486:0 1479:0 1474:1 1468:( 1463:= 1458:3 1448:2 1438:1 1429:i 1423:= 1418:2 1413:3 1405:= 1400:2 1395:2 1387:= 1382:2 1377:1 1348:j 1342:k 1338:j 1322:δ 1312:i 1294:, 1289:) 1281:3 1278:j 1263:2 1260:j 1251:i 1248:+ 1243:1 1240:j 1226:2 1223:j 1214:i 1206:1 1203:j 1191:3 1188:j 1177:( 1172:= 1167:j 1134:I 1111:x 1103:i 1077:y 1069:i 1046:z 1016:x 1008:i 987:I 964:z 956:i 930:y 900:y 892:i 866:z 858:i 837:I 814:x 784:z 756:y 728:x 683:H 674:( 663:3 656:2 649:1 627:, 622:3 617:R 596:3 593:σ 589:2 586:σ 582:1 579:σ 552:) 549:2 546:( 541:u 538:s 525:3 518:2 511:1 495:i 479:. 474:3 469:R 454:k 449:k 447:σ 398:0 395:σ 390:I 343:. 338:) 332:1 324:0 317:0 312:1 306:( 301:= 292:z 284:= 279:3 267:, 262:) 256:0 251:i 244:i 236:0 230:( 225:= 216:y 208:= 203:2 191:, 186:) 180:0 175:1 168:1 163:0 157:( 152:= 143:x 135:= 130:1 107:τ 105:( 99:σ 97:( 51:. 20:)

Index

Pauli spin matrices

Wolfgang Pauli
Nobel Prize in physics
Albert Einstein
Pauli exclusion principle
mathematical physics
mathematics
complex
matrices
Hermitian
involutory
unitary
Greek
sigma
tau
isospin
Wolfgang Pauli
quantum mechanics
Pauli equation
spin
electromagnetic field
Hermitian
basis
real
vector space
Hermitian matrix
linear combination
Hermitian operators
observables

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