Parental investment

335:. Eipo women of West New Guinea engage in a cultural practice in which they give birth just outside the village. Following the birth of their child, each woman weighed whether or not she should keep the child or leave the child in the brush nearby, inevitably ending in the death of the child. Likelihood of survival and availability of resources within the village were factors that played into this decision of whether or not to keep the baby. During one illustrated birth, the mother felt the child was too ill and would not survive, so she wrapped the child up, preparing to leave the child in the brush; however, upon seeing the child moving, the mother unwrapped the child and brought it into the village, demonstrating a shift of life and death. This conflict between the mother and the child resulted in detachment behaviors in Brazil, seen in Scheper-Hughes work as "many Alto babies remain not only unchristened but unnamed until they begin to walk or talk", or if a medical crisis arose and the baby needed an emergency 475:(1989) shows that males are tuned into physical attractiveness as it signals youth and fertility and ensures male reproductive success, which is increased by copulating with as many fertile females as possible. Women on the other hand are tuned into resources provided by potential mates, as their reproductive success is increased by ensuring their offspring will survive, and one way they do so is by getting resources for them. Alternatively, another study shows that men are more promiscuous than women, giving further support to this theory. Clark and Hatfield found that 75% of men were willing to have sex with a female stranger when propositioned, compared to 0% of women. On the other hand, 50% of women agreed to a date with a male stranger. This suggests males seek short-term relationships, while women show a strong preference for long-term relationships. 222: 351:

Through alloparental care stress on parents, especially the mother, can be reduced, therefore reducing the negative effects of the parent-offspring conflict on the mother. The apparent altruistic nature of the behavior may seem at odds with Darwin's theory of natural selection, as taking care of offspring which are not one's own would not increase one's direct fitness, while taking time, energy and resources away from raising one's own offspring. However, the behavior can be explained evolutionarily as increasing indirect fitness, as the offspring is likely to be non-descendent kin, therefore carrying some of the genetics of the alloparent.

406:. From Trivers' theory of parental investment, several implications follow. The first implication is that women are often but not always the more investing sex. The fact that they are often the more investing sex leads to the second implication that evolution favors females who are more selective of their mates to ensure that intercourse would not result in unnecessary or wasteful costs. The third implication is that because women invest more and are essential for the reproductive success of their offspring, they are a valuable resource for men; as a result, males often compete for sexual access to females. 671: 508:

success. If women did not choose their mates, Thornhill and Palmer claim there would be no rape. This ignores a variety of sociocultural factors, such as the fact that not only fertile females are raped – 34% of underage rape victims are under 12, which means they are not of fertile age, thus there is no evolutionary advantage in raping them. 14% of rapes in England are committed on males, who cannot increase a man's reproductive success as there will be no conception. Thus, what Thornhill and Palmer called an 'evolved machinery' might not be very advantageous.

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with a restricted sociosexual orientation have lower openness to casual sexual relationships. However, today it is acknowledged that sociosexuality does not in reality exist on a one-dimensional scale. Individuals who are less open to casual relationships are not always seeking committed relationships, and individuals who are less interested in committed relationships are not always interested in casual relationships. Short- and long-term mating orientations are the modern descriptors of openness to uncommitted and committed relationships, respectively.

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nutrients and undergoing childbirth, are a sizable investment. To ensure that this investment is not for nothing, mothers are likely to invest in their children after they are born, to be sure that they survive and are successful. Relative to most other species, human mothers give more resources to their offspring at a higher risk to their own health, even before the child is born. This is associated with the evolution of a slower life history, in which fewer, larger offspring are born after longer intervals, requiring increased parental investment.

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chorion erodes the uterine epithelium and has direct contact with maternal blood. The other placental phenotypes are separated from the maternal bloodstream by at least one layer of tissue. The more invasive placenta allows for a more efficient transfer of nutrients between the mother and fetus, but it comes with risks as well. The fetus is able to release hormones directly into the mother's bloodstream to “demand” increased resources. This can result in health problems for the mother, such as

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in common with themselves) than they are to their siblings (siblings usually share 50% of their DNA), so it is best for the offspring's fitness if the parent(s) invest more in them. To optimize fitness, a parent would want to invest in each offspring equally, but each offspring would want a larger share of parental investment. The parent is selected to invest in the offspring up until the point at which investing in the current offspring is costlier than investing in future offspring.

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pursue short-term and long-term relationships, but seek different qualities in their short- and long-term partners. For a short-term relationship women will prefer an attractive partner, but in a long-term relationship they might be willing to trade-off that attractiveness for resources and commitment. On the other hand, men might be accepting of a sexually willing partner in a short-term relationships, but to ensure their paternal certainty they will seek a faithful partner instead.

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Penguin. Although some animals do exhibit altruistic behaviors towards individuals that are not of direct relation, many of these behaviors appear mostly in parent-offspring relationships. While breeding, males remain in a fasting-period at the breeding site for five weeks, waiting for the female to return for her own incubation shift. However, during this time period, males may decide to abandon their egg if the female is delayed in her return to the breeding grounds.

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Grandmothers are certain of their genetic relation to their grandchildren, especially the children of their daughters, because maternal certainty of their own children is high, and their daughters are certain of their maternity to their children as well. It has also been theorized that grandmothers preferentially invest in the daughters of their daughters because X chromosomes carry more DNA and their granddaughters are most closely related to them.

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the sexual act and the sex cells invested. The rearing investment is the time and energy expended to raise the offspring after conception. In most species, the female's parental investment in both mating and rearing efforts greatly surpasses that of the male. In terms of sex cells (egg and sperms cells), the female's investment is typically a larger portion of both genetic material and overall virility, while typically males produce thousands of

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canal size meant that babies are born earlier in development, when they have smaller brains. Humans give birth to babies with brains 25% developed, while other primates give birth to offspring with brains 45-50% developed. A second possible explanation for the early birth in humans is the energy required to grow and sustain a larger brain. Supporting a larger brain gestationally requires energy the mother may be unable to invest.

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raises children's stress levels, which are linked to earlier onset of sexual activity and increased short-term mating orientation. Daughters of absent fathers are more likely to seek short-term partners, and one theory explains this as a preference for outside (non-partner) social support because of the perceived uncertain future and uncertain availability of committing partners in a high-stress environment.

490:. Males are more likely to show a stress response when imagining their partners showing sexual infidelity (having sexual relations with someone else), and women showed more stress when imagining their partner being emotionally unfaithful (being in love with another woman). PIT explains this, as woman's sexual infidelity decreases the male's paternal certainty, thus he will show more stress due to fear of 225: 526:

foreign policies. The parental investment hypothesis states that the size of coalitions and the physical strengths of its male members determines whether its activities with its foreign neighbors are aggressive or amiable. According to Trivers, men have had relatively low parental investments, and were therefore forced into fiercer competitive situations over limited reproductive resources.

430:: where parental investment is bigger for a male than a female, it is usually the female who competes for a mate, as shown by Phalaropidae and polyandrous bird species. In these species females are usually more aggressive, brightly colored, and larger than males, suggesting the more investing sex has more choice while selecting a mate compared to the sex engaged in intra-sexual selection. 248:

predators and size is usually the determining factor in conflicts over resources. However, such benefits can come at the cost of parent's ability to reproduce in the future e.g., through increased risk of injury when defending offspring against predators, loss of mating opportunities whilst rearing offspring, and an increase in the time interval until the next reproduction.

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whether the men in their coalition have greater physical strength than the other. The male psychology conveyed in the ancient past has been passed on to modern times causing men to partly think and behave as they have during ancestral wars. According to this theory, leaders of international politics were not an exception. For example, the United States expected to win the

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reproductive life, partly due to higher obligate parental investment. Females will be more selective ("choosy") of mates than males will be, choosing males with good fitness (e.g., genes, high status, resources, etc.), so as to help offset any lack of direct parental investment from the male, and therefore increase reproductive success.

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between how many experiences in breeding an individual has and the duration an individual will wait until abandoning his egg. He proposed that the more experienced the individual, the better that individual will be at replenishing his exhausted body reserves, allowing him to remain at the egg for a longer period of time.

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Short- and long-term mating orientations influence women's preferences in men. Studies have found that women put great emphasis on career-orientation, ambition and devotion only when considering a long-term partner. When marriage is not involved, women put greater emphasis on physical attractiveness.

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as a willingness to engage in casual and uncommitted sexual relationships. Sociosexual orientation describes sociosexuality on a scale from unrestricted to restricted. Individuals with an unrestricted sociosexual orientation have higher openness to sex in less committed relationships, and individuals

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Women can only get pregnant while ovulating. Human ovulation is concealed, or not signaled externally. Concealed ovulation decreases paternity certainty because men are unsure when women ovulate. The evolution of concealed ovulation has been theorized to be a result of altriciality and increased need

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The obstetrical dilemma makes birth challenging, and a distinguishing trait of humans is the need for assistance during childbirth. The altered shape of the bipedal pelvis requires that babies leave the birth canal facing away from the mother, contrary to all other primate species. This makes it more

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The parental investment hypothesis contends that male physical strength of a coalition still determines the aggressiveness of modern conflicts between states. While this idea may seem unreasonable upon considering that male physical strength is one of the least determining aspects of today's warfare,

423:, pipefish seahorse and Panamanian poison arrow frog males invest more. Among the species where the male invests more, the male is also the pickier sex, placing higher demands on their selected female. For example, the female that they often choose usually contain 60% more eggs than rejected females. 318:

It shows that these penguins initially show a trade-off of their own health, in hopes of increasing the survivorship of their egg. But there comes a point where the male penguin's costs become too high in comparison to the gain of a successful breeding season. Olof Olsson investigated the correlation

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Trivers (1972) hypothesized that greater biologically obligated investment will predict greater voluntary investment. Mothers invest an impressive amount in their children before they are even born. The time and nutrients required to develop the fetus, and the risks associated with both giving these

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Trivers' theory overlooks that women do have short-term relationships such as one-night stands, while not all men behave promiscuously. An alternative explanation to PIT (Parental Investment Theory) and mate preferences would be Buss and Schmitt's sexual strategies theory. SST argues that both sexes

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He may also protect the young and provide them with opportunities to learn as young, as is the case with many wolves. Overall, the main role that males overtake is that of protection of the female and their young. That often can decrease the discrepancy of investment caused by the initial investment

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the young and while mouthbrooding, all nourishment she takes in goes to feed the young and she effectively starves herself. In doing this, her young are larger, heavier, and faster than they would have been without it. These benefits are very advantageous since it lowers their risk of being eaten by

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Parental investment theory, as proposed by Trivers, argues that the sex with higher obligatory investment will be more selective in choosing sex partners, and the sex with lower obligatory investment will be less selective and more interested in "casual" mating opportunities. The more investing sex

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Humans have evolved increasing levels of parental investment, both biologically and behaviorally. The fetus requires high investment from the mother, and the altricial newborn requires high investment from a community. Species whose newborn young are unable to move on their own and require parental

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at the expense of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring. A large parental investment largely decreases the parents' chances of investing in other offspring. Parental investment can be split into two main categories: mating investment and rearing investment. Mating investment consist of

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Parents are equally related to all offspring, and so in order to optimize their fitness and chance of reproducing their genes, they should distribute their investment equally among current and future offspring. However, any single offspring is more related to themselves (they have 100% of their DNA

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continued this line of thinking with his proposal of parental investment theory, which describes how parental investment affects sexual behavior. He concludes that the sex that has higher parental investment will be more selective when choosing a mate, and the sex with lower investment will compete

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Some inaccurate theories have been inspired by parental investment theory. The "structural powerlessness hypothesis" proposes that women strive to find mates with access to high levels of resources because as women, they are excluded from these resources directly. However, this hypothesis has been

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One essential psychological developments involved decision-making of whether to take flight or actively engage in warfare with another rivalry group. The two main factors that men referred to in such situations were (1) whether the coalition they are a part of is larger than its opposition and (2)

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For many species the only type of male investment received is that of sex cells. In those terms, the female investment greatly exceeds that of male investment as previously mentioned. However, there are other ways in which males invest in their offspring. For example, the male can find food as in

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Parental investment behavior enhances the chances of survival of offspring, and it does not require underlying mechanisms to be compatible with empathy applicable to adults, or situations involving unrelated offspring, and it does not require the offspring to reciprocate the altruistic behavior in

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Penguins are a prime example of a species that drastically sacrifices their own health and well-being in exchange for the survival of their offspring. This behavior, one that does not necessarily benefit the individual, but the genetic code from which the individual arises, can be seen in the King

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describes the modern decrease in both birth and death rates. From a Darwinian perspective, it does not make sense that families with more resources are having fewer children. One explanation for the demographic transition is the increased parental investment required to raise children who will be

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that acts both within and between the sexes. High levels of sexual dimorphism and larger body size in males is driven by a combination of male-male competition and female selective pressure. Primate species in which groups are formed of many females and one male have higher sexual dimorphism than

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If a male redirects his resources to another female it is a costly loss of time, energy and resources for her offspring. However, the risks for males are higher because although women invest more in their offspring, they have bigger maternity certainty because they themselves have carried out the

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species, where individuals may go through several reproductive bouts during their lifetime, a tradeoff may exist between investment in current offspring and future reproduction. Parents need to balance their offspring's demands against their own self-maintenance. This potential negative effect of

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Reproduction is costly. Individuals are limited in the degree to which they can devote time and resources to producing and raising their young, and such expenditure may also be detrimental to their future condition, survival, and further reproductive output. However, such expenditure is typically

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As altriciality increased, investment from individuals other than the mother became more necessary. High sociality meant that female relatives were present to help the mother, but paternal investment increased as well. Paternal investment increases as it becomes more difficult to have additional

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also makes birth more difficult and results in increased maternal investment. Humans have evolved both bipedalism and large brain size. The evolution of bipedalism altered the shape of the pelvis, and shrunk the birth canal at the same time brains were evolving to be larger. The decreasing birth

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Parental investment theory is not only used to explain evolutionary phenomena and human behavior but describes recurrences in international politics as well. Specifically, parental investment is referred to when describing competitive behaviors between states and determining aggressive nature of

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The males' sacrifice of their body weight and possible survivorship, in order to increase their offspring's chance of survival is a trade-off between current reproductive success and the parents' future survival. This trade-off makes sense with other examples of kin-based altruism and is a clear

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published an influential study of fruit flies in which he concluded that because female gametes are more costly to produce than male gametes, the reproductive success of females was limited by the ability to produce ovum, and the reproductive success of males was limited by access to females. In

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Men are more likely than women to give no parental investment to their children, and the children of low-investing fathers are more likely to give less parental investment to their own children. Father absence is a risk factor for both early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy. Father absence

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The developing human fetus––and especially the brain––requires nutrients to grow. In the later weeks of gestation, the fetus requires increasing nutrients as the growth of the brain increases. Rodents and primates have the most invasive placenta phenotype, the hemochorial placenta, in which the

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of females. Thornhill and Palmer claimed rape is an evolved technique for obtaining mates in an environment where women choose mates. As PIT claims males seek to copulate with as many fertile females as possible, the choice women have could result in a negative effect on the male's reproductive

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also referred to as 'Allomothering,' is when a member of a community, apart from the biological parents of the infant, partake in offspring care provision. A range of behaviors fall under the term alloparental care, some of which are: carrying, feeding, watching over, protecting, and grooming.

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However, these preferences (male promiscuity and female choosiness) can be explained in other ways. In Western cultures, male promiscuity is encouraged through the availability of pornographic magazines and videos targeted to the male audience. Alternatively, both Western and Eastern cultures

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describes the evolution of menopause, which may or may not be unique to humans among primates. As women age, the costs of investing in additional reproduction increase and the benefits decrease. At menopause, it is more beneficial to stop reproduction and begin investing in grandchildren.

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In many species, males can produce a larger number of offspring over the course of their lives by minimizing parental investment in favor of investing time impregnating any reproductive-age female who is fertile. In contrast, a female can have a much smaller number of offspring during her

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due to its greater military capacity when compared to its enemies. Yet victory, according to the traditional rule of greater coalition size, did not come about because the U.S. did not take enough consideration to other factors, such as the perseverance of the local population.

494:. On the other hand, the woman fears losing the resources her partner provides. If her partner has an emotional attachment to another female, it is likely that he will not invest into their offspring as much, thus a greater stress response is shown in this circumstance. 224: 401:

occur in women, investments which outweigh the man's investment of a single effective sperm cell. Furthermore, for women, one act of sexual intercourse could result in a 38-week commitment of human gestation and subsequent commitments related to rearing such as

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in 1972, predicts that the sex that invests more in its offspring will be more selective when choosing a mate, and the less-investing sex will have intra-sexual competition for access to mates. This theory has been influential in explaining sex differences in

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species that have both multiple females and males, or one female and one male. Polygynous primates have the highest sexual dimorphism, and polygamous and monogamous primates have less. Decreased polygyny is associated with increased paternal investment.

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human psychology has nevertheless evolved to operate on this basis. Moreover, although it may seem that mate seeking motivation is no longer a determinant, in modern wars sexuality, such as rape, is undeniably evident in conflicts even to this day.

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for paternal investment—if men are unsure of the time of ovulation, the best way to successfully reproduce would be to repeatedly mate with a woman throughout her cycle, which requires pair bonding, which in turn increases paternal investment.

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females receive a spermatophore containing nutrients, sperm and defensive toxins from the male during copulation. This gift, which can account for up to 10% of the male's body mass, constitutes the total parental investment the male provides.

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parental care was explicitly formalized by Trivers in 1972, who originally defined the term parental investment to mean "any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offspring's chance of surviving (and hence

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The second prediction that follows from Trivers' theory is that the fact that females invest more heavily in offspring makes them a valuable resource for males as it ensures the survival of their offspring which is the driving force of

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intra-sexually for mating opportunities. In 1974, Trivers extended parental investment theory to explain parent-offspring conflict, the conflict between investment that is optimal from the parent's versus the offspring's perspective.

667:, have high female sociality and births among bonobos are also social events. Sociality may have been a prerequisite for birth attendance, and bipedalism and birth attendance could have evolved as long as five million years ago. 265:, whereby males are haploid and females are diploid. This ensures that sisters are more related to each other than they ever would be to their own offspring, incentivizing them to help raise their mother's young over their own. 62:). Care can be provided at any stage of the offspring's life, from pre-natal (e.g. egg guarding and incubation in birds, and placental nourishment in mammals) to post-natal (e.g. food provisioning and protection of offspring). 236:

The benefits of parental investment to the offspring are large and are associated with the effects on condition, growth, survival, and ultimately on reproductive success of the offspring. For example, in the cichlid fish

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Bielby, J.; Mace, G. M.; Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P.; Cardillo, M.; Gittleman, J. L.; Jones, K. E.; Orme, C. D. L.; Purvis, A. (June 2007). "The Fast-Slow Continuum in Mammalian Life History: An Empirical Reevaluation".

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Generally, women prefer men who are likely to perform high parental investment and have good genes. Women prefer men with good financial status, who are more committed, who are more athletic, and who are healthier.

160:, wherein Fisher argued that parental expenditure on both sexes of offspring should be equal. Clutton-Brock expanded the concept of parental investment to include costs to any other component of parental fitness. 3606:

Cheverud, James M.; Dow, Malcolm M.; Leutenegger, Walter (November 1985). "The Quantitative Assessment of Phylogenetic Constraints in Comparative Analyses: Sexual Dimorphism in Body Weight Among Primates".

659:, like ants and bees, in which there is relatively high parental investment, cooperative care of young, and division of labor. It is unclear which evolved first; sociality, bipedalism, or birth attendance. 2642: 2382:

Demuru, Elisa; Ferrari, Pier Francesco; Palagi, Elisabetta (September 2018). "Is birth attendance a uniquely human feature? New evidence suggests that Bonobo females protect and support the parturient".

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naturally took place and men have evolved to address its unique reproductive problems. Among other adaptations, men's psychology has also developed to directly aid men in such intra-sexual competition.

443:. Therefore, the sex that invests less in offspring will compete among themselves to breed with the more heavily investing sex. In other words, males will compete for females. It has been argued that 251:

A special case of parental investment is when young do need nourishment and protection, but the genetic parents do not actually contribute in the effort to raise their own offspring. For example, in

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difficult for the mother to clear the baby's breathing passageways, to make sure the umbilical cord is not wrapped around the neck, and to pull the baby free without bending its body the wrong way.

3192: 287:. Parents are naturally selected to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will tend to exist when the benefits are substantially greater than the costs. 3658:

Leutenegger, Walter; Kelly, James T. (January 1977). "Relationship of sexual dimorphism in canine size and body size to social, behavioral, and ecological correlates in anthropoid primates".

339:. This conflict between survival, both emotional and physical, prompted a shift in cultural practices, thus resulting in new forms of investment from the mother towards the child. 3048:

Sillen-Tullberg, Birgitta; Moller, Anders P. (January 1993). "The Relationship between Concealed Ovulation and Mating Systems in Anthropoid Primates: A Phylogenetic Analysis".

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Trivers' theory has been very influential as the predictions it makes correspond to differences in sexual behaviors of men and women, as demonstrated by a variety of research.

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disproved by studies which found that financially successful women place an even greater importance on financial status, social status, and possession of professional degrees.

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Overall, parents are selected to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will be likely to evolve when the benefits exceed the costs.

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Jackson, Jenée James; Kirkpatrick, Lee A. (November 2007). "The structure and measurement of human mating strategies: toward a multidimensional model of sociosexuality".

104:. For the first time, evolutionary theory was used to explain why females are "coy" and males are "ardent" and compete with each other for females' attention. In 1930, 3888:

Belsky J, Steinberg L, Draper P (August 1991). "Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: and evolutionary theory of socialization".

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Belsky, J.; Steinberg, L.; Draper, P. (1991). "Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization".

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Sexual dimorphism is the difference in body size between male and female members of a species as a result of both intersexual and intrasexual selection, which is

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example of the use of altruism in an attempt to increase overall fitness of an individual's genetic material at the expense of the individual's future survival.

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and unable to fend for themselves for an extended period of time after birth. In these species, males invest more in their offspring than do the male parents of

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Wade, M. J.; Shuster, S. M. (2002). "The evolution of parental care in the context of sexual selection: a critical reassessment of parental investment theory".

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child. However, males can never have 100% paternal certainty and therefore risk investing resources and time in offspring that is genetically unrelated.

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cannot reproduce as frequently, causing the less investing sex to compete for mating opportunities. In humans, women have higher obligatory investment (

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Scheper-Hughes, Nancy (December 1985). "Culture, Scarcity, and Maternal Thinking: Maternal Detachment and Infant Survival in a Brazilian Shantytown".

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The maternal-offspring conflict has also been studied in animals species and humans. One such case has been documented in the mid-1970s by ethologist

58:. Parental investment may be performed by both males and females (biparental care), females alone (exclusive maternal care) or males alone (exclusive 5284: 1840:

Lopez, Anthony C.; McDermott, Rose; Petersen, Michael Bang (2011). "States in Mind: Evolution, Coalitional Psychology, and International Politics".

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Douglas, Pamela Heidi (2014-07-10). "Female sociality during the daytime birth of a wild bonobo at Luikotale, Democratic Republic of the Congo".

655:. In order to guarantee the presence of a birth attendant, humans must aggregate in groups. It has been controversially claimed that humans have 179:

through feeding the offspring in relation to their own access to the female throughout the mating period, which is generally a good predictor of

598:, where parents share equal responsibility in incubating their single egg and raising the chick. In crested auklets, both sexes are ornamented. 3958: 1480:

Trivers, R. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. Sexual Selection & the Descent of Man, Aldine de Gruyter, New York, 136-179.

776:). Women are more likely to have higher long-term mating orientations, and men are more likely to have higher short-term mating orientations. 2958: 2544:"The Selfish Grandma Gene: The Roles of the X-Chromosome and Paternity Uncertainty in the Evolution of Grandmothering Behavior and Longevity" 4719: 7296: 4019: 257:, oftentimes sterile female workers will not reproduce on their own, but will raise their mother's brood instead. This is common in social 3233:

Simpson, J. A.; Gangestad, S. W. (1991). "Individual differences in sociosexuality: evidence for convergent and discriminant validity".

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Leutenegger, Walter; Cheverud, James (December 1982). "Correlates of sexual dimorphism in primates: Ecological and size variables".

6448: 6050: 5223: 4678: 611:. Human children are born unable to care for themselves and require additional parental investment post-birth in order to survive. 1246:

Schürch, Roger, Roger & Taborsky, Barbara (2005). "The Functional Significance of Buccal Feeding in the Mouthbrooding Cichlid

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In species where both sexes invest highly in parental care, mutual choosiness is expected to arise. An example of this is seen in

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the example of balloon flies. He may find a safe environment for the female to feed or lay her eggs as exemplified in many birds.

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beneficial to the offspring, since it enhances their condition, survival, and reproductive success. These differences may lead to

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Burke, T.; Daviest, N. B.; Bruford, M. W.; Hatchwell, B. J. (1989). "Parental care and mating behaviour of polyandrous dunnocks

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Darwin, Charles (2009), "The Publication of the 'origin of Species'—Oct. 3, 1859–Dec. 31, 1859", in Darwin, Francis (ed.),

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Buss, M. D. (1999). Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the mind. (2nd ed.). United States: Pearson Education, Inc

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Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C. T. (2001). A natural history of rape: Biological bases of sexual coercion. MIT press.

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in 1972 is the investment in offspring by the parent that increases the offspring's chances of surviving and hence

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Ellis, B. J.; Bates, J. E.; Dodge, K. A.; Fergusson, D. M.; John Horwood, L.; Pettit, G. S.; Woodward, L. (2003).

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Context-specific mate choice criteria: Women’s trade-offs in the contexts of long-term and extra-pair mateships

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Mahmoud F. Fathalla (2013). "How Evolution of the Human Brain Shaped Women's Sexual and Reproductive Health".

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Stokes, A. W., & Williams, H. W. (1971). Courtship feeding in gallinaceous birds. The Auk, 543-559.Chicago

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Lande, Russell (March 1980). "Sexual Dimorphism, Sexual Selection, and Adaptation in Polygenic Characters".

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Ralls, Katherine (September 1977). "Sexual Dimorphism in Mammals: Avian Models and Unanswered Questions".

7301: 7024: 6619: 6185: 5420: 5251: 4845: 2251:"The obstetric dilemma: An ancient game of Russian roulette, or a variable dilemma sensitive to ecology?" 801: 295: 674:

A baby, mother, grandmother, and great-grandmother. In humans, grandparents often help to raise a child.

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any way. Parentally investing individuals are not more vulnerable to being exploited by other adults.

7489: 7433: 7392: 7228: 6948: 6780: 6500: 6471: 6358: 6272: 6180: 6155: 5980: 5945: 5721: 4741: 4538: 4348: 4116: 4009: 3797: 2645:. Coping with divorce, single parenting, and remarriage: A risk and resiliency perspective, 117-145. 4870: 3955: 3715: 1414:

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has developed to avert the risk of potential loss of parental investment in offspring.

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A heavy criticism of the theory comes from Thornhill and Palmer's analysis of it in

393:, while sperm cells in men are supplied at a rate of twelve million per hour. Also, 7311: 7147: 7122: 7114: 6870: 6754: 6733: 5812: 5753: 5542: 5485: 4793: 4360: 4338: 4146: 3930: 3897: 3874: 3817: 3763: 3720: 3667: 3616: 3564: 3541: 3527: 3496: 3432: 3402: 3382: 3347: 3302: 3284: 3242: 3207: 3163: 3147: 3108: 3085: 3057: 3014: 2973: 2931: 2896: 2859: 2839: 2789: 2754: 2710: 2702: 2671: 2614: 2573: 2555: 2514: 2498: 2443: 2400: 2354: 2311: 2307: 2298:

Trevathan, Wenda R. (June 1996). "The Evolution of Bipedalism and Assisted Birth".

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tend to not discriminate between their own young and those of another male in

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Parental expenditure (e.g. time, energy, resources) that benefits offspring

5262: 3919:"The parental investment model and minimum mate choice criteria in humans" 3909: 3444: 3254: 3219: 3151: 2851: 2809: 2766: 2560: 2327: 1819: 1774: 1695: 698:

children, and as the effects of investment on offspring fitness increase.

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243:, a female has very high parental investment in her young because she 7063: 7034: 7009: 6893: 6748: 6662: 6085: 5213: 5064: 4673: 4291: 4039: 2935: 1152: 769: 723: 652: 579:, nurturing, and protecting offspring will be more discriminating in 576: 491: 398: 303:) at the cost of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring". 195: 55: 19: 3853:

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Gangestad, S. W.; Simpson, J. A.; DiGeronimo, K.; Biek, M. (1992).

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As female primates age, their ability to reproduce decreases. The

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In some species, such as humans and many birds, the offspring are

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able to maintain the same level of resources as their parents.

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discourage female promiscuity through social checks such as

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species, since reproductive success would otherwise suffer.

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PIT (Parental Investment Theory) also explains patterns of

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Holtzman, Nicholas S.; Strube, Michael J. (2013-07-18).

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The human need to have a birth attendant also requires

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(1997, June). 3332:Evolution and Human Behavior 3113:10.1016/0140-1750(79)90001-0 2385:Evolution and Human Behavior 1875:Bateman AJ (December 1948). 941:10.1017/cbo9780511702891.007 7: 7025:Identification (psychology) 6620:Evolutionary biology portal 3437:10.1037/0033-295x.100.2.204 2759:10.1037/0012-1649.34.6.1233 2676:10.1080/0032472031000149716 1812:10.1037/0033-295x.100.2.204 1718:Social Psychology Quarterly 1096:10.1093/genetics/154.4.1419 1039:"Parent-Offspring Conflict" 969:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 833: 802:Sexual dimorphism in humans 772:and childbirth), than men ( 607:care have a high degree of 10: 7511: 7449:Parent–teacher association 7224:Parental abuse by children 7105:Positive Parenting Program 7055:Parent management training 7050:Normative social influence 6581:Evolutionary psychologists 6454:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 6369:Human–animal communication 6081:Ovulatory shift hypothesis 5931:Imprinted brain hypothesis 5899:Human–computer interaction 4814:Life cycles/nuclear phases 4366:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 3798:Borgerhoff Mulder, Monique 3501:10.1037/0022-3514.50.3.559 3290:10.1177/147470491301100514 3247:10.1037/0022-3514.60.6.870 3212:10.1037/0022-3514.62.4.688 2901:10.1016/j.paid.2018.02.004 2844:10.1037/0003-066x.53.2.152 2216:Wenda., Trevathan (2011). 887:Clutton-Brock, T.H. 1991. 818: 815:The demographic transition 799: 749: 734: 690: 559: 459:response to this problem. 275: 139: 81: 7434:National Childbirth Trust 7411: 7320: 7237: 7229:Stress in early childhood 7161: 7113: 6972: 6949:Taking children seriously 6869: 6781:Applied behavior analysis 6764: 6669: 6575: 6501:Environmental determinism 6472:Cultural selection theory 6464: 6359:Evolutionary epistemology 6346: 6273:evolutionary neuroscience 6235: 6228: 6126: 6001: 5946:Rank theory of depression 5869: 5793: 5695: 5501: 5494: 5448:Parent–offspring conflict 5357: 5300: 5232: 5132: 5057: 4961: 4888: 4844: 4699: 4603: 4420: 4379: 4312:Parent–offspring conflict 4248: 4117:Earliest known life forms 4038: 4005: 3880:10.1017/S0140525X00023992 3533:10.1017/s0140525x00023992 3019:10.1007/s12110-005-1009-0 2641:McLanahan, S. S. (1999). 2620:10.1007/s12052-010-0263-8 2448:10.1007/s10329-014-0436-0 1653:10.1017/s0140525x00023992 1594:10.1080/00063656609476115 385:Human parental investment 285:parent-offspring conflict 278:Parent–offspring conflict 272:Parent-offspring conflict 7090:The talk (sex education) 6801:Developmental psychology 6394:Cultural group selection 6278:Biocultural anthropology 5971:Societal impacts of cars 5904:Media naturalness theory 5594:Fight-or-flight response 5165:Cultural group selection 5029:The eclipse of Darwinism 5001:On the Origin of Species 4976:Transmutation of species 2966:Journal of Social Issues 2957:Malamuth, N. M. (1981). 2747:Developmental Psychology 2360:10.1525/bio.2012.62.11.8 1730:10.1177/0190272514521220 1316:Journal of Avian Biology 1264:10.1163/1568539053778274 512:Versus sexual strategies 310:King penguin and a chick 93:On the Origin of Species 39:mother feeding her child 7495:Evolutionary psychology 7480:Reproduction in animals 7297:Parental responsibility 7257:Cost of raising a child 6594:Evolutionary psychology 6558:Sociocultural evolution 6399:Dual inheritance theory 5856:Personality development 5317:Theoretical foundations 5294:Evolutionary psychology 5170:Dual inheritance theory 5009:History of paleontology 3756:The American Naturalist 3375:The American Naturalist 3277:Evolutionary Psychology 3050:The American Naturalist 2707:10.1111/1467-8624.00569 2491:Biology of Reproduction 2130:Biology of Reproduction 2075:The American Naturalist 2032:10.1073/pnas.1305018110 1176:Journal of Fish Biology 975:10.5962/bhl.title.27468 845:Cost of raising a child 759:was first described by 752:Human mating strategies 551:Pair of crested auklets 453:Evolutionary psychology 52:evolutionary psychology 6516:Social constructionism 6511:Psychological nativism 6486:Biological determinism 6434:Recent human evolution 6429:Punctuated equilibrium 6252:Behavioral epigenetics 6247:evolutionary economics 6216:Variability hypothesis 6161:Emotional intelligence 5894:Engineering psychology 5584:Evolution of the brain 4858:Punctuated equilibrium 4179:Non-adaptive radiation 4127:Evolutionary arms race 1842:International Security 1448:Morgan, C. L. (1894). 860:Parental care in birds 827:demographic transition 821:Demographic transition 792: 727: 680:grandmother hypothesis 675: 628: 552: 521:International politics 311: 233: 199: 198:defending spiderlings. 40: 28: 7419:Families Need Fathers 6980:After-school activity 6904:Concerted cultivation 6899:Buddha-like parenting 6831:Nature versus nurture 6796:Cognitive development 6543:Multilineal evolution 6506:Nature versus nurture 6465:Theoretical positions 6313:Functional psychology 6308:Evolutionary medicine 6283:Biological psychiatry 5991:Texting while driving 5981:Lead–crime hypothesis 5841:Cognitive development 5826:Caregiver deprivation 5337:Gene selection theory 5150:Evolutionary medicine 5024:Mendelian inheritance 4732:Biological complexity 4720:Programmed cell death 4412:Phenotypic plasticity 4132:Evolutionary pressure 4122:Evidence of evolution 4020:Timeline of evolution 3936:10.1093/beheco/arh121 3152:10.2105/ajph.93.6.894 2987:on December 13, 2012. 2832:American Psychologist 2343:"Clash of the Titans" 2142:10.1093/biolre/ioy049 1696:10.1300/j056v02n01_04 1504:Psychological Science 1232:10.1093/beheco/ars064 790: 713: 673: 626: 585:intrasexual selection 550: 455:views jealousy as an 309: 231: 193: 34: 22: 7475:Evolutionary biology 7277:Right to family life 7204:Dysfunctional family 6914:Free-range parenting 6889:Attachment parenting 6879:Achievement ideology 6496:Cultural determinism 6303:Evolutionary biology 6288:Cognitive psychology 6236:Academic disciplines 5884:Cognitive ergonomics 5851:Language acquisition 5831:Childhood attachment 5644:Wason selection task 5538:Behavioral modernity 5327:Cognitive revolution 5310:Evolutionary thought 5124:Teleology in biology 5019:Blending inheritance 4397:Genetic assimilation 4260:Artificial selection 3999:Evolutionary biology 3514:Buss, D. M. (1989). 3425:Psychological Review 1854:10.1162/isec_a_00056 1800:Psychological Review 1634:Buss, D. M. (1989). 1461:Epstein, R. (1984). 1056:10.1093/icb/14.1.249 870:r/K selection theory 374:reproductive success 301:reproductive success 177:reproductive success 48:evolutionary biology 25:calliope hummingbird 7292:Parental alienation 7219:Narcissistic parent 7143:Positive discipline 6964:Work at home parent 6944:Strict father model 6929:Nurturant parenting 6836:Parental investment 6671:Kinship terminology 6563:Unilineal evolution 6328:Population genetics 6113:Sexy son hypothesis 6051:Hormonal motivation 6031:Concealed ovulation 5572:Dual process theory 5443:Parental investment 5187:Molecular evolution 5145:Ecological genetics 5014:Transitional fossil 4804:Sexual reproduction 4644:endomembrane system 4573:pollinator-mediated 4529:dolphins and whales 4307:Parental investment 3814:1998TEcoE..13..266B 3344:2007EHumB..28..382J 2561:10.4061/2011/165919 2397:2018EHumB..39..502D 2023:2013PNAS..110.7760G 1894:10.1038/hdy.1948.21 1586:1966BirdS..13..116R 1452:. London: W. Scott. 1188:1995JFBio..47..350S 1145:1989Natur.338..249B 1007:10.1038/hdy.1948.21 746:Mating orientations 737:Concealed ovulation 731:Concealed ovulation 687:Paternal investment 641:obstetrical dilemma 615:Maternal investment 589:Bateman's principle 148:life history theory 116:sexy son hypothesis 44:Parental investment 7338:T. Berry Brazelton 7075:Social integration 6811:Identity formation 6521:Social determinism 6404:Fisher's principle 6364:Great ape language 6354:Cultural evolution 6323:Philosophy of mind 6156:Division of labour 6118:Westermarck effect 6066:Mating preferences 5976:Distracted driving 5710:Literary criticism 5567:Domain specificity 5547:modularity of mind 5160:Cultural evolution 4275:Fisher's principle 4204:Handicap principle 4194:Parallel evolution 4058:Adaptive radiation 3961:2019-12-20 at the 3923:Behavioral Ecology 3725:10.1007/bf02693740 3672:10.1007/bf02382954 2664:Population Studies 2268:10.1002/ajpa.22160 2195:10.4137/rbi.s12217 1539:Systematic Zoology 1433:Mothers and Others 1219:Behavioral Ecology 1213:Utetheisa ornatrix 1129:Prunella modularis 1043:American Zoologist 793: 728: 676: 629: 553: 381:on a daily basis. 333:Wulf Schiefenhövel 312: 234: 200: 124:Angus John Bateman 120:Fisher's principle 41: 29: 27:feeding her chicks 7462: 7461: 7272:Family disruption 7194:Cinderella effect 7174:Child abandonment 7148:Tactical ignoring 7045:Moral development 6924:Helicopter parent 6919:Gatekeeper parent 6884:Atlas personality 6861:Social psychology 6806:Human development 6791:Child development 6776:Attachment theory 6629: 6628: 6607:Psychology portal 6571: 6570: 6414:Hologenome theory 6384:Unit of selection 6379:Primate cognition 6293:Cognitive science 6224: 6223: 6095:Sexual attraction 6071:Mating strategies 5836:Cinderella effect 5766:Moral foundations 5670:Visual perception 5562:Domain generality 5531:Facial expression 5479:Sexual dimorphism 5438:Natural selection 5384:Hamiltonian spite 5260: 5259: 4876:Uniformitarianism 4829:Sex-determination 4334:Sexual dimorphism 4329:Natural selection 4233:Unit of selection 4199:Signalling theory 3890:Child Development 2782:Child Development 2695:Child Development 2017:(19): 7760–7765. 1962:(11): 1199–1206. 1775:"Rape statistics" 840:Cinderella effect 796:Sexual dimorphism 441:natural selection 348:Alloparental care 343:Alloparental care 254:Bombus terrestris 229: 154:in his 1930 book 118:, and introduced 98:natural selection 7502: 7490:Sexual selection 7312:Shared parenting 7123:Blanket training 7115:Child discipline 6755:In loco parentis 6734:Shared parenting 6656: 6649: 6642: 6633: 6632: 6616: 6603: 6590: 6589: 6233: 6232: 6229:Related subjects 6016:Adult attachment 5543:Cognitive module 5499: 5498: 5486:Social selection 5460:Costly signaling 5455:Sexual selection 5342:Modern synthesis 5287: 5280: 5273: 5264: 5263: 5250: 5240: 5239: 5039:Modern synthesis 4799:Multicellularity 4794:Mosaic evolution 4679:auditory ossicle 4361:Social selection 4344:Flowering plants 4339:Sexual selection 3992: 3985: 3978: 3969: 3968: 3940: 3938: 3913: 3884: 3882: 3842: 3841: 3794: 3788: 3787: 3762:(981): 917–938. 3751: 3745: 3744: 3718: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3615:(6): 1335–1351. 3603: 3597: 3596: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3535: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3486: 3477: 3471: 3468: 3462: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3422: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3310: 3292: 3268: 3259: 3258: 3230: 3224: 3223: 3197: 3188: 3182: 3181: 3171: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3004: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2986: 2980:. 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Kazdin 7365: 7360: 7355: 7350: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7328:Mary Ainsworth 7324: 7322: 7318: 7317: 7315: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7243: 7241: 7240:social aspects 7235: 7234: 7232: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7165: 7163: 7159: 7158: 7156: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7119: 7117: 7111: 7110: 7108: 7107: 7102: 7092: 7087: 7082: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7005:Dishabituation 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6976: 6974: 6970: 6969: 6967: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6934:Slow parenting 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6875: 6873: 6867: 6866: 6864: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6772: 6770: 6765:Theories 6762: 6761: 6759: 6758: 6751: 6746: 6744:Blended family 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6724:Nuclear family 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6675: 6673: 6667: 6666: 6659: 6658: 6651: 6644: 6636: 6627: 6626: 6624: 6623: 6610: 6597: 6584: 6576: 6573: 6572: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6529: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6474: 6468: 6466: 6462: 6461: 6459: 6458: 6457: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6350: 6348: 6344: 6343: 6341: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6258: 6249: 6239: 6237: 6230: 6226: 6225: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6132: 6130: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6097: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6007: 6005: 5999: 5998: 5996: 5995: 5994: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5936:Mind-blindness 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5912: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5880: 5878: 5867: 5866: 5864: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5810: 5805: 5799: 5797: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5787: 5782: 5781: 5780: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5758: 5757: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5736: 5731: 5730: 5729: 5719: 5718: 5717: 5712: 5701: 5699: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5689: 5688: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5648: 5647: 5646: 5641: 5631: 5629:theory of mind 5622: 5613: 5612: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5575: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5540: 5535: 5534: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5512: 5510: 5496: 5492: 5491: 5489: 5488: 5483: 5482: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5462: 5452: 5451: 5450: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5424: 5423: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5396:Baldwin effect 5393: 5392: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5371: 5365: 5363: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5351: 5346: 5345: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5314: 5313: 5312: 5301: 5298: 5297: 5290: 5289: 5282: 5275: 5267: 5258: 5257: 5255: 5254: 5244: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5205: 5204: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5173: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5136: 5134: 5130: 5129: 5127: 5126: 5121: 5120: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5108: 5107: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5067: 5061: 5059: 5055: 5054: 5052: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5005: 5004: 4995:Charles Darwin 4992: 4991: 4990: 4978: 4973: 4967: 4965: 4959: 4958: 4956: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4933:Non-ecological 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4894: 4892: 4886: 4885: 4883: 4882: 4873: 4864: 4850: 4848: 4842: 4841: 4839: 4838: 4833: 4832: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4723: 4722: 4717: 4706: 4704: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4686: 4684:nervous system 4681: 4676: 4671: 4663: 4662: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4610: 4608: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4576: 4575: 4565: 4564: 4563: 4558: 4557: 4556: 4551: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4520: 4519: 4514: 4504: 4494: 4489: 4488: 4487: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4461: 4460: 4450: 4445: 4444: 4443: 4433: 4427: 4425: 4418: 4417: 4415: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4383: 4381: 4377: 4376: 4374: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4357: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4315: 4314: 4309: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4288: 4287: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4256: 4254: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4240: 4230: 4225: 4224: 4223: 4218: 4208: 4207: 4206: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4184:Origin of life 4181: 4176: 4171: 4169:Microevolution 4166: 4164:Macroevolution 4161: 4156: 4151: 4150: 4149: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4102:Common descent 4099: 4098: 4097: 4087: 4082: 4080:Baldwin effect 4077: 4076: 4075: 4070: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4044: 4042: 4036: 4035: 4033: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4006: 4003: 4002: 3995: 3994: 3987: 3980: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3941: 3914: 3885: 3858: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3843: 3808:(7): 266–270. 3789: 3768:10.1086/283223 3746: 3709:(4): 387–402. 3693: 3666:(1): 117–136. 3650: 3598: 3563:(2): 292–305. 3547: 3506: 3495:(3): 559–570. 3472: 3463: 3450: 3431:(2): 204–232. 3408: 3387:10.1086/341520 3381:(3): 285–292. 3365: 3338:(6): 382–391. 3322: 3283:(5): 1101–29. 3260: 3225: 3183: 3146:(6): 894–898. 3126: 3091: 3062:10.1086/285458 3040: 3013:(3): 233–265. 2990: 2972:(4): 138–157. 2949: 2914: 2895:(1): 144–150. 2872: 2869:on 2019-03-02. 2815: 2788:(4): 647–670. 2772: 2753:(6): 1233–45. 2730: 2701:(3): 801–821. 2681: 2647: 2634: 2613:(3): 464–465. 2593: 2534: 2497:(3): 398–406. 2477: 2442:(4): 533–542. 2426: 2391:(5): 502–510. 2374: 2333: 2306:(2): 287–290. 2290: 2261:(S55): 40–71. 2241: 2226: 2208: 2173: 2136:(1): 196–211. 2116: 2087:10.1086/516847 2081:(6): 748–757. 2064: 1997: 1943: 1908: 1867: 1825: 1780: 1766: 1752: 1743: 1724:(2): 100–122. 1701: 1667: 1626: 1617: 1608: 1599: 1580:(2): 116–129. 1564: 1529: 1510:(4): 251–255. 1482: 1470: 1454: 1441: 1424: 1404: 1385:(4): 291–317. 1369: 1362: 1341: 1322:(3): 264–267. 1301: 1292: 1277: 1258:(3): 265–281. 1238: 1225:(5): 1009–14. 1201: 1182:(2): 350–353. 1166: 1119: 1070: 1049:(1): 249–264. 1029: 1000:(3): 349–368. 980: 955: 949: 923: 893: 879: 877: 874: 873: 872: 867: 862: 857: 855:Mate desertion 852: 847: 842: 835: 832: 816: 813: 797: 794: 757:Sociosexuality 747: 744: 735:Main article: 732: 729: 707: 704: 688: 685: 616: 613: 603: 600: 569:Robert Trivers 560:Main article: 557: 554: 522: 519: 513: 510: 469:Cross-cultural 464: 461: 435: 432: 421:Mormon cricket 411: 408: 386: 383: 370:Robert Trivers 365: 362: 356: 353: 344: 341: 328: 325: 276:Main article: 273: 270: 173:polygynandrous 140:Main article: 137: 134: 88:Charles Darwin 83: 80: 67:Robert Trivers 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7507: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7472: 7470: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7416: 7414: 7412:Organizations 7410: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7398:B. F. Skinner 7396: 7394: 7393:William Sears 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7363:Thomas Gordon 7361: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7325: 7323: 7319: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7252:Child support 7250: 7248: 7247:Child custody 7245: 7244: 7242: 7236: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7189:Child neglect 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7166: 7164: 7160: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7120: 7118: 7116: 7112: 7106: 7103: 7100: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7065: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7020:Homeschooling 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6977: 6975: 6971: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6876: 6874: 6872: 6868: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6856:Socialization 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6841:Paternal bond 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6826:Maternal bond 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6763: 6757: 6756: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6739:Single parent 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6699:Alloparenting 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6676: 6674: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6657: 6652: 6650: 6645: 6643: 6638: 6637: 6634: 6622: 6621: 6615: 6611: 6609: 6608: 6602: 6598: 6596: 6595: 6585: 6583: 6582: 6578: 6577: 6574: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6548:Neo-Darwinism 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6533:Functionalism 6531: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6491:Connectionism 6489: 6487: 6484: 6483: 6482: 6481:indeterminism 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6469: 6467: 6463: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6386: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6351: 6349: 6345: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6244: 6241: 6240: 6238: 6234: 6231: 6227: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6201:Schizophrenia 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6186:Mental health 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6131: 6129: 6125: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6061:Mate guarding 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6021:Age disparity 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6006: 6004: 6000: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5973: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5951:Schizophrenia 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5886: 5885: 5882: 5881: 5879: 5877: 5876:Mental health 5872: 5871:Human factors 5868: 5862: 5861:Socialization 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5821:paternal bond 5818: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5798: 5796: 5792: 5786: 5783: 5779: 5776: 5775: 5774: 5771: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5762: 5759: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5741: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5728: 5725: 5724: 5723: 5720: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5707: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5698: 5694: 5686: 5685:Naïve physics 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5672: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5652: 5651:Motor control 5649: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5636: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5617: 5614: 5610: 5609:Ophidiophobia 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5599:Arachnophobia 5597: 5596: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5549: 5548: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5526:Display rules 5524: 5522: 5519: 5518: 5517: 5514: 5513: 5511: 5509: 5504: 5500: 5497: 5493: 5487: 5484: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5457: 5456: 5453: 5449: 5446: 5445: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5428:Kin selection 5426: 5422: 5419: 5418: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5376: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5364: 5362: 5356: 5350: 5347: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5322:Adaptationism 5320: 5319: 5318: 5315: 5311: 5308: 5307: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5299: 5295: 5288: 5283: 5281: 5276: 5274: 5269: 5268: 5265: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5243: 5235: 5234: 5231: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5198: 5197:Phylogenetics 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5157: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5137: 5135: 5131: 5125: 5122: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5106: 5103: 5102: 5101: 5100:Structuralism 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5075:Catastrophism 5073: 5072: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5062: 5060: 5056: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5034:Neo-Darwinism 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5003: 5002: 4998: 4997: 4996: 4993: 4989: 4988: 4984: 4983: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4966: 4964: 4960: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4948:Reinforcement 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4887: 4881: 4880:Catastrophism 4877: 4874: 4872: 4871:Macromutation 4868: 4867:Micromutation 4865: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4852: 4851: 4849: 4847: 4843: 4837: 4834: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4806: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4774:Immune system 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4748: 4745: 4744: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4712: 4711: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4698: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4666: 4664: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4634:symbiogenesis 4632: 4631: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4611: 4609: 4607: 4602: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4574: 4571: 4570: 4569: 4566: 4562: 4559: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4499: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4486: 4483: 4482: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4459: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4442: 4439: 4438: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4428: 4426: 4424: 4419: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4378: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4341: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4304: 4303: 4302:Kin selection 4300: 4298: 4297:Genetic drift 4295: 4293: 4290: 4286: 4283: 4282: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4253: 4247: 4239: 4236: 4235: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4213: 4212: 4209: 4205: 4202: 4201: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4148: 4145: 4144: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4096: 4093: 4092: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4065: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4045: 4043: 4041: 4037: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4007: 4004: 4000: 3993: 3988: 3986: 3981: 3979: 3974: 3973: 3970: 3964: 3960: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3896:(4): 647–70. 3895: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3859: 3856: 3852: 3851: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3793: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3750: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3697: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3654: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3602: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3551: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3510: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3483: 3476: 3467: 3460: 3454: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3419: 3412: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3326: 3318: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3267: 3265: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3241:(6): 870–83. 3240: 3236: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3206:(4): 688–98. 3205: 3201: 3194: 3187: 3179: 3175: 3170: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3130: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3107:(2): 95–106. 3106: 3102: 3095: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3044: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3001: 2994: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2960: 2953: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2930:(2): 258–62. 2929: 2925: 2918: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2883: 2876: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2838:(2): 152–66. 2837: 2833: 2826: 2819: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2776: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2741: 2734: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2685: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2658: 2651: 2644: 2638: 2630: 2626: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2597: 2589: 2585: 2580: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2538: 2530: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2481: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2378: 2370: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2294: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2245: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2227:9781412815024 2223: 2219: 2212: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2177: 2169: 2165: 2160: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2120: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2068: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2001: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1950: 1948: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1924:(4): 149–55. 1923: 1919: 1912: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1890: 1887:(3): 349–68. 1886: 1882: 1878: 1871: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1806:(2): 204–32. 1805: 1801: 1794: 1787: 1785: 1776: 1770: 1762: 1756: 1747: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1712: 1705: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1678: 1671: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1630: 1621: 1612: 1603: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1568: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1545:(3): 97–104. 1544: 1540: 1533: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1498: 1491: 1489: 1487: 1477: 1475: 1468: 1464: 1458: 1451: 1445: 1438: 1434: 1428: 1421: 1417: 1411: 1409: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1373: 1365: 1363:9780195320510 1359: 1355: 1348: 1346: 1337: 1333: 1329: 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