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increased height, increased aboveground biomass, and increased total leaf mass. This is not to say that
Oriental bittersweet outperformed American bittersweet in all criteria: in comparison to Oriental bittersweet, "American bittersweet had increased stem diameter, single leaf area, and leaf mass to stem mass ratio", suggestive that American bittersweet focused growth on ulterior portions of the plant rather than plant characteristics emphasized by Oriental bittersweet such as stem length. This is significant as height plays a major role in allowing Oriental bittersweet to outcompete surrounding vegetation. Focusing growth on stem length allows it to be in a strong position to absorb light, while also negatively impacting surrounding plant life by creating shade-like conditions.
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growth and biomass. This study used layers of woven cloth to control the percentage of available sunlight. In this experiment, the total living length (TLL, the living length of stems on each plant) increased when
Oriental bittersweet was exposed to higher amounts of sunlight. If Oriental bittersweet was exposed to 2% sunlight, then the TLL ratio decreased. Oriental bittersweet can increase in biomass by 20% when exposed to 28% sunlight rather than 2%. The plant's strong response to sunlight parallels its role as an invasive species, as it can outcompete other species by fighting for and receiving more sunlight. Although growth ratios decrease when Oriental bittersweet is exposed to 2% sunlight (due to a decrease in
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slightly toxic to some species of fish, but it has a half-life of less than a day in water, making it safe and effective for field use. Mechanical methods have also been used, but they are not as effective due to the difficulty of completely removing the root. There is also no biological control agent available in helping control this species. Mechanical and chemical methods are being used, but they are only temporarily fixing the situation.
506:
Oriental bittersweet to act as an effective invasive species as it is able to allocate more energy to its aboveground biomass instead of its belowground biomass; a significant point regarding this plant's invasiveness relies on photosynthetic ability and reproductive capacity. The symbiotic relationship established with fungi only occurs with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, while no such relationship has been observed with
419:
415:, and parts of the Appalachians. The organism grows primarily in the perimeter of highly vegetative areas, allowing it to readily access the frontier of resources. Oriental bittersweet's ability to grow in a variety of environments has proven to be detrimental to many plant species along the Appalachian mountains and is moving more towards the West as time progresses.
501:. In a recent study, growth was found to be greater when arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were present in soil with low phosphorus concentrations, compared to when the plant was placed in an environment with high soil phosphorus concentrations with no arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were present. The results from this study show the importance of
448:". In comparison to its congener American bittersweet, when placed in habitats with little light, Oriental bittersweet was found to have increased height, increased aboveground biomass, and increased total leaf mass. Oriental bittersweet, in comparison to many other competing species, is the better competitor in attaining sunlight.
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communities in the soil surrounding not only their own roots, but also the roots of neighboring plants, thereby altering competitive interactions among the plant species". This may be a key invasive trait for
Oriental bittersweet, as it allows the plant to negatively affect surrounding plant life by
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Compared to other invasive species analyzed in a recent study, Oriental bittersweet was more prevalent in landscapes dominated by developed areas. Open and abandoned habitats were also found to positively influence the spread of the plant compared to other invasive species. Additionally the species
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The introduction of
Oriental bittersweet into new areas threatens the local flora because the native plants then have a strong competitor in the vicinity. The species is native to Eastern Asia, but was introduced to the US for aesthetic purposes. It has been used in floral arrangements, and because
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Due to systematic disturbances to eastern forests for wood production and recreation, Oriental bittersweet has naturalized to landscapes, roadsides, and woodlands of eastern North
America. In the United States, it can be found as far south as Louisiana, as far north as Maine, and as far west as the
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nearby trees, creating an overall negative effect on the trees such as making them more susceptible to ice damage or damaging branches due to the weight of the plant. Additionally, studies have suggested that
Oriental bittersweet is capable of siphoning away nutrients from surrounding plants. The
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relationships in allowing
Oriental bittersweet to effectively uptake nutrients from its surroundings. Additionally, the symbiotic relationship with mycorrhizae allows this invasive species to utilize less of its energy in root biomass to absorb necessary nutrients. This may be crucial in allowing
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Temperature is another variable that plays a role in
Oriental bittersweet's growth and development as an invasive species. Unlike other invasive species, high summer temperatures have been shown to inhibit plant growth. Oriental bittersweet has also been shown to be positively favored in habitats
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Sunlight is one of the most vital resources for
Oriental bittersweet. As demonstrated by controlled experiments, Oriental bittersweet grows more rapidly in environments that fare a higher amount of sunlight. In a study where populations received above 28% sunlight, it exhibited a higher amount of
524:
One of
Oriental bittersweet's invasive characteristics is its effective utilization of energy to increase plant height, thus giving it a competitive advantage over similar plants. A study conducted in 2006 showed that, in comparison to its congener American bittersweet, Oriental bittersweet had
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is another chemical method of control. These two herbicides are usually sprayed directly on the plants in late fall to prevent other plants from being targeted. These steps must be repeated annually, or whenever regrowth is observed. Triclopyr is non-toxic to most animal and insect species and
575:
To minimize the effects of Oriental bittersweet's invasion into North American habitats, its growth and dispersal must be tightly managed. Early detection is essential for successful conservation efforts. To reduce further growth and dispersal, above-ground vegetation is cut and any foliage is
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with American bittersweet. Hybridization occurs readily between American bittersweet females and Oriental bittersweet males, though the opposite is known to occur to a lesser extent. The resulting hybrid species is fully capable of reproduction. In theory, if the Oriental bittersweet invasion
537:
One study observed that the presence of Oriental bittersweet increases the alkalinity of the surrounding soil, a characteristic of many successful invasive plant species. This alters the availability of essential nutrients and hinders the nutrient uptake ability of native plants. Though the
426:
Oriental bittersweet employs multiple invasive and dispersal strategies allowing it to outcompete the surrounding plant species in non-native regions. This is a strong reason why the control of the species presents difficulties to manage. The plant's invasion has created diverse ecological,
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plant is its vines: they are thin, spindly, and have silver to reddish brown bark. They are generally between 1 and 4 cm (0.4 and 1.6 in) in diameter. However, if growth is not disturbed, vines can exceed 10 cm (3.9 in) and when cut, will show
343:; when it is near a tree the vines twist themselves around the trunk as high as 40 feet. The encircling vines have been known to strangle the host tree to death or break branches from the excess weight, which is also true of the slower-growing American species,
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has endangered the survival of several other species. One attribute that contributes to the success of this species is having attractively colored fruit. As a result, it is eaten by mammals and birds, which excrete the seeds to different locations.
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Despite the modest toxicity of its fruit, some livestock browse on the leaves without effect. Its vines, which are durable and tough, are a good source of weaving material for baskets. The fibrous inner bark can be used to make strong
538:
relationship between Oriental bittersweet and the alkalinity of the soil is consistent, there are a number of proposed mechanisms for this observation. The plant's significant above-ground biomass demands the preferential uptake of
510:
fungi. These studies have shown that suitable mycorrhizae are a strong determining factor regarding whether a plant can survive in its environment. Studies have also shown evidence that "introduced plant species can modify
528:
The species' vine-like morphology has also been shown to have negative effects on surrounding plant life. For example, evidence suggests that this morphological characteristic facilitates its ability to
1091:
Albright, Thomas P.; Anderson, Dean P.; Keuler, Nicholas S.; Pearson, Scott M.; Turner, Monica G. (2009). "The spatial legacy of introduction:Celastrus orbiculatusin the southern Appalachians, USA".
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ability), it still exhibited a 90% survival rate. Experimental data has indicated that Oriental bittersweet has a strong ability to tolerate low light conditions "ranging on average from 0.8 to 6.4%
1425:
Leicht-Young, Stacey A.; O'Donnell, Hillary; Latimer, Andrew M.; Silander, John A. (2009). "Effects of an Invasive Plant Species, Celastrus orbiculatus, on Soil Composition and Processes".
1339:
Ibáñez, Inés; Silander, John A.; Wilson, Adam M.; Lafleur, Nancy; Tanaka, Nobuyuki; Tsuyama, Ikutaro (2009). "Multivariate forecasts of potential distributions of invasive plant species".
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Small green flowers are borne on axillary cymes. The fruit is a three-valved capsule, which dehisces to reveal bright red arils that cover the seeds. All parts of the plant are poisonous.
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altering their underground symbiotic microbial relationships. However, further experimentation is necessary to determine whether this organism employs this trait as an invasive strategy.
554:, which also supports the larger biomass. Either of these functions could explain the increased alkalinity, but further experimentation is needed to pinpoint the exact mechanism.
1482:
1243:
Leicht SA, Silander JA (July 2006). "Differential responses of invasive Celastrus orbiculatus (Celastraceae) and native C. scandens to changes in light quality".
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study found this to occur in a variety of environments, suggestive of both the plant's increased relative plasticity as well as increased nutrient uptake.
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continues to worsen, widespread hybridization could genetically disrupt the entire American bittersweet population, possibly rendering it extinct.
1895:
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Ellsworth, J.W.; Harrington, R.A.; Fownes, J.H (2004). "Survival, growth and gas exchange of Celastrus orbiculatus seedlings in sun and shade".
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48:
347:. The leaves are round and glossy, 2–12 cm (0.8–4.7 in) long, have toothed margins and grow in alternate patterns along the vines.
1983:
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which have been shown to have a decreased probability of establishment when placed in environments experiencing high annual precipitation.
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422:
This map shows the identified locations of the Oriental bittersweet as of 2012 (provided by the United States Department of Agriculture).
2058:
1385:
Lett, Carly N.; Dewald, Laura E.; Horton, Jonathan (2011). "Mycorrhizae and soil phosphorus affect growth of Celastrus orbiculatus".
1028:"Probability of occurrence and habitat features for oriental bittersweet in an oak forest in the southern Appalachian mountains, USA"
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experiencing high annual precipitation. This is noteworthy as it contrasts sharply with other common invasive species such as
1949:
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1611:"(M)- and (P)-bicelaphanol A, dimeric trinorditerpenes with promising neuroprotective activity from Celastrus orbiculatus"
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1488:. United States Geological Survey, Lake Michigan Ecological Research Station, Great Lakes Science Center. Archived from
993:
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A determining factor regarding Oriental bittersweet's ability to outcompete native plant species is its ability to form
1565:. Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Areas. National Park Service and U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. p. 82.
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of improper disposal the plant has been recklessly introduced into areas, affecting the ecology of over 33 states from
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Leicht-Young, Stacey A.; Pavlovic, Noel B.; Grundel, Ralph; Frohnapple, Krystalynn J. (2007). "Distinguishing Native (
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731:
82:
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1988:
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2011:
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1149:"Fruit fate, seed germination and growth of an invasive vine- an experimental test of 'sit and wait' strategy"
1970:
1812:
1799:
778:
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1908:
1535:. Environmental Monitoring and Pest Management Branch, Department of Pesticide Regulation. Archived from
1462:"Distinguishing an alien invasive vine from the native congener: morphology, genetics, and hybridization"
794:
379:
472:. This ability to live in various environmental conditions raises the concern of the plant's dispersal.
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Shrubs and woody vines of Indiana and the Midwest: Identification, wildlife values, and landscaping use
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Ly, Wang; J, Wu; Z, Yang; Xj, Wang; Y, Fu; Sz, Liu; Hm, Wang; Wl, Zhu; Hy, Zhang (26 April 2013).
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945:. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station
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Invasive plants of the upper Midwest: An illustrated guide to their identification and control
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966:"Using map algebra to determine the mesoscale distribution of invasive plants: the case of
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White, Orland E.; Wray M. Bowden (1947). "Oriental and American Bittersweet Hybrids".
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Bicelaphanol A is a neuroprotective dimeric-trinorditerpene isolated from the bark of
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1594:. Wildland Weeds Management & Research Program, Weeds on the Web. Archived from
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in eastern North America. It closely resembles the native North American species,
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1062:"Challenges in predicting the future distributions of invasive plant species"
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1467:. United States Geological Survey, Ecosystem Health and Restoration Branch.
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271:
203:
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2024:
1190:
1957:
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1483:"To Burn or Not to Burn Oriental Bittersweet: A Fire Manager's Conundrum"
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Archana Pande; Carol L. Williams; Christopher L. Lant; David J. Gibson.
851:
County-level distribution map from the North American Plant Atlas (NAPA)
106:
1825:
1561:
Swearingen, J., Reshetiloff, K., Slattery B., & Zwicker, S (2002).
1481:
Pavlovic, N. Leicht-Young, S., Morford, D, & Mulcorney, N. (2011).
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497:. Oriental bittersweet growth is highly dependent on the absorption of
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1669:. Lists general information and resources for Oriental Bittersweet.
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Thunb.) Bittersweet Species Using Morphological Characteristics".
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managerial, and agricultural complications making it a focus of
1763:
905:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 336–337.
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It is native to China, where it is the most widely distributed
183:
942:
An Assessment of Oriental Bittersweet in Northern U.S. Forests
901:
Uva, Richard H.; Neal, Joseph C.; Ditomaso, Joseph M. (1997).
863:
1090:
131:
1459:
1338:
1205:
10.1674/0003-0031(2004)151[0233:SGAGEO]2.0.CO;2
918:"Vegetation Management Guideline: Round-leaved bittersweet"
611:
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woods, where it has been known to eclipse native plants.
726:. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press. p. 392.
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species, and to Japan and Korea. It was introduced into
1136:. Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team.
756:. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 45.
562:
Another major threat posed by Oriental bittersweet is
1147:
Greenberg, C. H.; Smith, L. M.; Levey, D. J. (2001).
1592:"Oriental Bittersweet: Element Stewardship Abstract"
1527:
924:. Illinois Natural History Survey. Archived from
2150:
1665:, National Invasive Species Information Center,
1384:
722:Weeks, Sally S.; Weeks, Harmon P. (Jr.) (2011).
1589:
900:
853:. Biota of North America Program (BONAP). 2014.
647:(3). Missouri Botanical Garden Press: 215–302.
1563:"Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Areas"
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434:
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45:The examples and perspective in this article
1575:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1513:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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1667:United States National Agricultural Library
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1293:The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society
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674:Lee, Sangtae; Chang, Kae Sun, eds. (2015).
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83:Learn how and when to remove this message
1659:Species Profile – Oriental Bittersweet (
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789:. Vol. 11 – via eFloras.org,
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315:, with which it will readily hybridize.
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641:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden
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1460:Pavlovic, N. B.; Young, S. L. (2007).
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677:English Names for Korean Native Plants
475:
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1134:The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov)
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1016:
986:
975:. Biol Invasions:2006. Archived from
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880:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a105705
1999:689906eb-b588-41eb-996f-6a748a984e53
1367:
1026:McNab, W. H.; Loftis, D. L. (2002).
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305:in 1879, and is considered to be an
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1111:
777:Zhang, Zhixiang; Funston, Michele.
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323:The defining characteristic of the
24:
25:
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1652:
1530:"Environmental Fate of Triclopyr"
592:
394:Oriental bittersweet is a strong
2077:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:927512-1
1105:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01707.x
752:Czarapata, Elizabeth J. (2005).
557:
118:
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1427:The American Midland Naturalist
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378:. In the UK, it has gained the
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13:
1:
1066:Forest Ecology and Management
1044:10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00546-1
1032:Forest Ecology and Management
1004:. Royal Horticultural Society
617:
570:
1078:10.1016/j.foreco.2012.07.024
939:Kurtz, Cassandra M. (2018).
922:Vegetation Management Manual
813:– Oriental Bittersweet Vine"
495:arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
398:in its environment, and its
359:Rocky Mountains. It prefers
7:
1615:Journal of Natural Products
1528:Ganapathy, Carissa (1997).
1439:10.1674/0003-0031-161.2.219
1193:American Midland Naturalist
795:Harvard University Herbaria
435:Response to abiotic factors
380:Royal Horticultural Society
332:that can exceed 20 years.
59:, discuss the issue on the
10:
2175:
1093:Journal of Applied Ecology
970:in Southern Illinois, USA"
429:environmental conservation
339:grows by itself, it forms
1685:
1399:10.1007/s10530-011-0046-3
791:Missouri Botanical Garden
633:"A revision of the genus
242:
235:
115:Scientific classification
113:
104:
99:
1590:Dryer, Glenn D. (2003).
817:Conservation New England
685:Korea National Arboretum
552:cation-exchange capacity
520:Competitive interactions
481:Mutualistic interactions
288:round-leaved bittersweet
274:. It is commonly called
1341:Ecological Applications
1165:10.1023/A:1015857721486
1060:Jones, Chad C. (2012).
916:Hutchison, Max (1990).
604:
903:Weeds of The Northeast
793:, St. Louis, MO &
468:is heavily favored in
423:
390:As an invasive species
1717:Celastrus orbiculatus
1687:Celastrus orbiculatus
1661:Celastrus orbiculatus
1128:Celastrus orbiculatus
996:Celastrus orbiculatus
968:Celastrus orbiculatus
845:Celastrus orbiculatus
811:Celastrus orbiculatus
781:Celastrus orbiculatus
599:Celastrus orbiculatus
550:. It also has a high
421:
384:Award of Garden Merit
372:Celastrus orbiculatus
337:Celastrus orbiculatus
263:Celastrus orbiculatus
246:Celastrus orbiculatus
100:Oriental bittersweet
1387:Biological Invasions
1257:10.3732/ajb.93.7.972
1153:Biological Invasions
998:Hermaphrodite Group"
928:on 7 September 2005.
706:Korea Forest Service
374:is cultivated as an
276:Oriental bittersweet
65:create a new article
57:improve this article
47:may not represent a
18:Oriental bittersweet
1598:on 23 October 2008.
1305:10.3159/07-RA-028.1
867:Journal of Heredity
476:Biotic interactions
455:Berberis thunbergii
292:Asiatic bittersweet
280:Chinese bittersweet
270:vine of the family
228:C. orbiculatus
1287:L.) and Invasive (
1285:Celastrus Scandens
546:, leading to soil
489:associations with
424:
312:Celastrus scandens
2146:
2145:
2033:Open Tree of Life
1679:Taxon identifiers
1627:10.1021/np3008182
1353:10.1890/07-2095.1
694:978-89-97450-98-5
491:mycorrhizal fungi
354:Range and habitat
284:Asian bittersweet
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1099:(6): 1229–1238.
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982:on 12 June 2010.
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823:on 18 March 2016
819:. Archived from
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631:Hou, D. (1955).
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376:ornamental plant
307:invasive species
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27:Species of plant
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2096:
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2057:
2049:
2044:
2036:
2031:
2023:
2020:Observation.org
2018:
2010:
2005:
1997:
1995:
1987:
1982:
1974:
1969:
1961:
1956:
1948:
1943:
1935:
1934:MichiganFlora:
1933:
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1545:
1543:
1542:on 13 June 2009
1539:
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1505:
1498:
1496:
1495:on 9 March 2013
1492:
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1189:
1180:
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1119:
1112:
1089:
1085:
1058:
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1024:
1017:
1007:
1005:
992:
991:
987:
979:
972:
962:
958:
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933:
914:
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899:
895:
862:
858:
841:
840:
836:
826:
824:
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806:
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775:
771:
764:
750:
741:
734:
720:
713:
699:
697:
695:
687:. p. 402.
680:
672:
668:
653:10.2307/2394657
629:
625:
620:
607:
595:
573:
560:
522:
508:ectomycorrhizal
493:, specifically
483:
478:
461:Euonymus alatus
437:
392:
369:
356:
321:
255:
250:
244:
231:
117:
89:
78:
72:
69:
54:
41:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2172:
2162:
2161:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2140:
2136:wfo-0000592852
2127:
2117:
2107:
2094:
2081:
2068:
2055:
2042:
2029:
2016:
2003:
1993:
1980:
1967:
1954:
1941:
1931:
1918:
1905:
1892:
1879:
1869:
1856:
1843:
1830:
1817:
1804:
1791:
1781:
1768:
1755:
1742:
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1707:
1691:
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1654:
1653:External links
1651:
1648:
1647:
1601:
1582:
1553:
1520:
1470:
1452:
1412:
1366:
1326:
1289:C. Orbiculatus
1270:
1226:
1199:(2): 233–240.
1178:
1159:(4): 364–372.
1139:
1110:
1083:
1049:
1038:(1–3): 45–54.
1015:
985:
956:
931:
908:
893:
874:(4): 125–128.
856:
834:
800:
787:Flora of China
769:
762:
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732:
711:
693:
666:
622:
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593:Phytochemicals
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51:of the subject
49:worldwide view
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1994:
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1347:(2): 359–75.
1346:
1342:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1299:(4): 441–50.
1298:
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763:9780299210540
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733:9781557536105
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627:
623:
615:
613:
602:
600:
590:
587:
583:
579:
576:sprayed with
568:
565:
564:hybridization
558:Hybridization
555:
553:
549:
548:nitrification
545:
541:
535:
532:
526:
517:
514:
509:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
473:
471:
470:edge habitats
465:
463:
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457:
456:
449:
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446:transmittance
443:
432:
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331:
326:
316:
314:
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308:
304:
303:North America
300:
295:
293:
289:
285:
281:
278:, as well as
277:
273:
269:
265:
264:
254:
249:
247:
241:
238:
237:Binomial name
234:
230:
229:
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145:Tracheophytes
143:
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133:
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127:
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121:
116:
112:
108:
103:
98:
95:
87:
84:
76:
73:December 2010
66:
62:
58:
52:
50:
43:
34:
33:
30:
19:
2159:Celastraceae
1686:
1660:
1640:16 September
1638:. Retrieved
1621:(4): 745–9.
1618:
1614:
1604:
1596:the original
1585:
1556:
1544:. Retrieved
1537:the original
1523:
1497:. Retrieved
1490:the original
1455:
1430:
1426:
1393:(10): 2339.
1390:
1386:
1344:
1340:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1251:(7): 972–7.
1248:
1244:
1196:
1192:
1156:
1152:
1142:
1133:
1127:
1096:
1092:
1086:
1069:
1065:
1035:
1031:
1006:. Retrieved
1001:
995:
988:
977:the original
967:
959:
947:. Retrieved
941:
934:
926:the original
921:
911:
902:
896:
871:
865:
859:
850:
844:
837:
825:. Retrieved
821:the original
816:
810:
803:
786:
780:
772:
753:
723:
704:– via
698:. Retrieved
676:
669:
644:
640:
634:
626:
608:
598:
596:
574:
561:
536:
527:
523:
484:
466:
459:
453:
450:
438:
425:
405:
393:
371:
370:
357:
349:
344:
336:
334:
322:
310:
298:
296:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
272:Celastraceae
262:
261:
260:
245:
243:
227:
226:
214:
204:Celastraceae
177:
164:
151:
138:
94:
79:
70:
46:
29:
2051:kew-2707630
1958:NatureServe
1860:iNaturalist
1711:Wikispecies
949:20 November
683:. Pocheon:
580:, a common
487:mutualistic
367:Cultivation
345:C. scandens
319:Description
194:Celastrales
158:Angiosperms
2120:WisFlora:
2046:Plant List
1433:(2): 219.
1245:Am. J. Bot
1122:USDA, NRCS
827:31 October
618:References
586:Glyphosate
571:Management
499:phosphorus
396:competitor
1813:200012786
1800:200012786
1072:: 69–77.
635:Celastrus
582:herbicide
578:triclopyr
513:microbial
503:symbiotic
431:efforts.
413:Wisconsin
400:dispersal
330:age rings
325:deciduous
299:Celastrus
222:Species:
215:Celastrus
128:Kingdom:
61:talk page
2153:Category
2110:VASCAN:
2098:Tropicos
1963:2.131407
1901:10764774
1888:927512-1
1735:BioLib:
1696:Wikidata
1635:23421714
1571:cite web
1546:21 April
1509:cite web
1499:21 April
1447:12833005
1407:22309836
1361:19323195
1321:86456782
1313:20063940
1265:21642161
1221:85822380
1124:(n.d.).
1008:12 April
888:20242535
700:15 March
341:thickets
200:Family:
171:Eudicots
55:You may
2103:6600291
1945:MoBotPF
1826:3169169
1702:Q259033
1213:3566741
1173:6742817
1002:rhs.org
661:2394657
612:cordage
544:ammonia
540:nitrate
409:Georgia
210:Genus:
190:Order:
132:Plantae
2059:PLANTS
2025:136664
1996:NZOR:
1950:245538
1927:506068
1787:celorb
1784:FEIS:
1764:396516
1633:
1445:
1405:
1359:
1319:
1311:
1263:
1219:
1211:
1171:
886:
760:
730:
691:
659:
531:girdle
290:, and
253:Thunb.
184:Rosids
2064:CEOR7
2038:56757
2007:NZPCN
1989:85181
1914:12009
1896:IRMNG
1872:IPA:
1865:64540
1777:CELOR
1738:40387
1725:APA:
1540:(PDF)
1533:(PDF)
1493:(PDF)
1486:(PDF)
1465:(PDF)
1443:S2CID
1403:S2CID
1317:S2CID
1309:JSTOR
1217:S2CID
1209:JSTOR
1169:S2CID
980:(PDF)
973:(PDF)
681:(PDF)
657:JSTOR
542:over
361:mesic
335:When
268:woody
266:is a
178:Clade
165:Clade
152:Clade
139:Clade
63:, or
2123:3058
2113:4448
2090:3307
2072:POWO
2012:3642
1984:NCBI
1922:ITIS
1883:IPNI
1875:3012
1852:9719
1847:GRIN
1834:GISD
1821:GBIF
1772:EPPO
1751:S2YQ
1728:1479
1642:2020
1631:PMID
1577:link
1548:2013
1515:link
1501:2013
1357:PMID
1261:PMID
1010:2020
951:2018
884:PMID
829:2009
758:ISBN
728:ISBN
702:2019
689:ISBN
605:Uses
458:and
2131:WFO
2085:RHS
1971:NBN
1937:801
1909:ISC
1839:156
1808:FoC
1795:FNA
1759:EoL
1746:CoL
1623:doi
1435:doi
1431:161
1395:doi
1349:doi
1301:doi
1297:134
1253:doi
1201:doi
1197:151
1161:doi
1101:doi
1074:doi
1070:284
1040:doi
1036:155
876:doi
649:doi
411:to
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2100::
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2074::
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1973::
1960::
1947::
1924::
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
