1438:
businesses were still very willing to continue to seek new, and even cheaper forms of labor. High volatility in employment for those on the island was a direct result. This led to mass unemployment across the island, with the countryside seeing the largest effect. Residents were forced to either move to bigger cities like San Juan or immigrate to the United States for better financial opportunities and higher wages. In the 1950s (the peak of Puerto Rican emigration from the island), as ~470,000 Puerto Ricans emigrated from their country, they went to cities like New York City (where 85% of which people settled), Philadelphia, and others along the East Coast. Through the 60's and 70's, emigration from Puerto Rico declined dramatically.
678:; of the 516,730 jobs on the island in 1940, almost half of them were agriculture-based, with 124,076 of these based on sugar-cane farms. However, Esteban Bird described in detail the misgivings of the sugarcane industry and the monoculture economy in general. By the middle of the twentieth century it remained one of the poorest in the Caribbean. After possession of the island was transferred to the United States in 1898 after the Spanish-American War, it remained mostly neglected. Conditions in Puerto Rico worsened during the world wars, after years of neglect. Pressure grew in the U.S. to address the worsening situation, influenced by journalists like John Gunther who described the island in 1941 as such:
1388:
1447:
this was labeled as partly the reason for the unemployment and high poverty rates on the island. Luis Muñoz Marín was concerned that the perceived overpopulation problem could derail
Operation Bootstrap, so his administration was in support. Across the island, the sterilization procedure was referred to as 'la operación." According to Antonia Darder, "By 1969, 35% of all Puerto Rican women of child-bearing age had undergone la operación."
727:(PRIDCO) — encouraged the establishment of factories. Following the Elective Governor Act of 1947 (also known as the Crawford-Butler Act), Muñoz was elected the first governor of Puerto Rico while under U.S. control, paving the way for the full establishment of Operation Bootstrap across the island. According to Virginia Sanchez Korrol from the Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Operation Bootstrap was based on 3 essential elements:
1372:
1354:
1336:
1318:
1300:
1282:
1259:
1241:
1223:
1205:
1187:
1169:
1146:
1128:
1110:
1092:
1074:
1056:
1033:
1015:
997:
979:
961:
943:
920:
902:
884:
866:
848:
830:
748:. The manufacturing sector has shifted from the original labor-intensive industries, such as the manufacturing of food, tobacco, leather, and apparel products, to more capital-intensive industries, such as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, machinery, and electronics. Through this project, a rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class.
451:
1437:
Mass emigration from Puerto Rico was a result of
Operation Bootstrap. The growth of the industrial sector could not match the rapid decline of monocultural plantation jobs that characterized the economy of Puerto Rico Pre-World War II. Also, while U.S. businesses sought Puerto Ricans for labor, these
1572:
While the total sum of employment in fishing, agriculture, and manufacturing did experience a net loss, the industrialization process created jobs in other sectors. The net loss portrayed in this table only takes into account direct jobs associated within these industries without taking into account
1577:
and government. The financial sector grew from 10% of GNP in 1950 to 14.4% in 1980, and the governmental sector grew from 10% in 1950 to 17.1% in 1980. Regardless of all this, Puerto Rico did experience an overall net loss due to
Bootstrap. The data show that the new economic model generated growth
688:
passed the
Industrial Incentives Act eliminating all corporate taxes, to encourage U.S. investment in industry. The initiative granted private and foreign investment a ten year period of exemption from taxes on many of the expenses for businesses involved in the industrial economy. These exemptions
1446:
Throughout the 1940s and to the 1960s, programs supported by the United States encouraged sterilization and birth control for the women on the island. These programs were birthed out of a perceived "overpopulation" problem on the island. Puerto Rican families averaged 5 to 6 people per family, and
1424:
era. As a result, Operation
Bootstrap focused on educational development to fuel economic development in Puerto Rico. In the 1950s, education was viewed as the cornerstone of Island development and was allocated more of the Islands budget than any other public sector. From 1932-1957 the number of
1407:
Manufacturing jobs also led to a shift in the job market as it pertains to gender. In 1940, women represented half of the total population of Puerto Rico, but represented less than 25% of the labor force. Women in
Operation Bootstrap were targeted as an important labor force, especially for the
739:
The US government in Puerto Rico enticed US companies by providing labor at costs below those on the mainland, access to US markets without import duties, and profits that could transfer to the mainland free from federal taxation. The
Administration of Economic Development invited investment of
783:
Those able to secure a stable job as a result of
Operation Bootstrap received higher wages than before, in fact, "The average real weekly salary in manufacturing increased from $ 18 for men and $ 12 for women in 1953 to $ 44 and $ 37 respectively in 1963." The increase in industrialization and
1686:
661:
set forth a series of ambitious economical projects that evolved Puerto Rico into an industrial high-income territory compared to the region. Bootstrap is still considered the economic model of Puerto Rico as the island has still not been able to evolve into a
744:, and exporting the finished products to the mainland. To entice participation, tax exemptions and differential rental rates were offered for industrial facilities. As a result, Puerto Rico's economy shifted labor from agriculture to manufacturing and
784:
manufacturing saw positive effects in other places, as new electric grids were built, new roads were paved in major cities, and major housing development was underway. As a result, life expectancy in Puerto Rico jumped almost 23 years.
681:"I saw, in short, misery, disease, squalor, filth. It would be lamentable enough to see this anywhere...to see it on American territory...is a paralyzing jolt to anyone who believes in American standards of progress and civilization."
1939:
222:
212:
139:
423:
129:
589:
187:
124:
574:
564:
197:
114:
192:
79:
767:. American industrialists influenced by eugenicists policies were concerned with "overpopulation" and a perceived lack of self-control on the part of the working class Puerto Ricans.
584:
569:
217:
149:
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428:
227:
159:
456:
446:
247:
300:
202:
1731:
290:
182:
84:
119:
267:
365:
232:
1403:
by showing how the salaried employees during
Operation Bootstrap significantly increased manufacturing jobs (green line) while decreasing agricultural jobs (blue line).
759:
and wages in Puerto Rico rose, manpower-intensive industries faced competition from outside the United States. It also faced criticism from civil rights groups and the
272:
207:
1429:
went from 5,700 to 110,000. The rise in vocational education was designed to prepare Puerto Rican's for work in factories newly developed by the
Bootstrap program.
617:
177:
242:
340:
770:
As of 2005 the continental United States remains Puerto Rico's major trading partner, received 86% of Puerto Rico's exports and providing 69% of its imports.
395:
380:
335:
2059:
730:“1) industrialization by invitation: the inducement of American corporations to relocate in Puerto Rico in exchange for lucrative tax benefits;
610:
390:
1563:
FPH (in Spanish) " nuestro actual modelo económico continúa fundamentado en los principios establecidos por Operación Manos a la Obra."
724:
658:
144:
716:
1897:
2203:
1824:
1456:
654:
603:
496:
466:
2149:
708:
471:
351:
262:
134:
2213:
579:
491:
375:
1662:
1710:
751:
Although initially touted as an economic miracle, by the 1960s, Operation Bootstrap was increasingly hampered by a growing
685:
531:
506:
501:
2073:
736:(3) proposed emigration of over a third of the island’s population, a security measure to insure the plan’s viability.”
370:
154:
1957:
1497:
1461:
252:
109:
1779:
330:
323:
723:
and into an industrial economy. The government's Administration of Economic Development — today known as the
2208:
1753:"Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954, United Nations Affairs, Volume III - Office of the Historian"
559:
295:
89:
34:
2179:
1387:
536:
413:
1578:
but no employment. New jobs created in manufacturing did not fully compensate for jobs lost in agriculture.
1400:
102:
1997:""Puerto Rico Can Teach So Much": The Hemispheric and Imperial Origins of the Educational War on Poverty"
1973:
1855:
1598:
1396:
511:
484:
385:
237:
74:
310:
305:
56:
1752:
733:(2) a cheap labor pool, educated in the English language and under a U.S. imposed curriculum;
1858:. Fundación Puertorriqueña de las Humanidades & National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH.GOV)
764:
418:
541:
524:
1467:
1392:
646:
642:
257:
42:
1635:
Bird, Esteban A; Picó, Rafael; Cordero, Rafael de J; Puerto Rico; Legislature; Senate (1937).
693:"license fees, excises, or other municipal taxes levied by any ordinance of any municipality,"
2124:
2053:
1941:
Transformation and Relocation: Puerto Rico's Operation Bootstrap - North Carolina Scholarship
1530:
1516:
704:
1876:
1489:
1473:
1426:
1417:
2096:
8:
1923:
Development Strategies as Ideology: Puerto Rico's Export-Led Industrialization Experience
1901:
1637:
Report on the sugar industry in relation to the social and economic system of Puerto Rico
24:
2026:
1832:
2106:
2030:
2018:
1953:
1780:"History of Puerto Ricans In the US - PART FOUR | Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños"
1640:
1493:
1408:
garment and apparel industry, which represented a share of the manufacturing market.
663:
650:
2008:
1945:
1652:
John Gunther, Inside Latin America (New York: Harper & Bros. Press, 1941), 423.
1527:
The Disenchanted Island: Puerto Rico and the United States in the Twentieth Century
756:
634:
2183:
760:
720:
1949:
1513:
Economic History of Puerto Rico: Institutional Change and Capitalist Development
715:
economic relief reforms and infrastructure provided by the programs such as the
2110:
2197:
2022:
1687:"§ 10001. Exemptions, P.R. Laws tit. 13, § 10001 | Casetext Search + Citator"
741:
20:
2171:
2098:
1828:
752:
2097:
Puerto Rico; Planning Board; Puerto Rico; Office of the Governor (1952).
1533:
2013:
1996:
1850:
1848:
763:, who perceived the government promoting birth control, and engaging in
1520:
2176:
1856:"Operación "Manos a la Obra" (1947): Industrialización y crecimiento"
1845:
1543:
675:
1823:
1421:
712:
2188:
641:) is the name given to a series of projects which transformed the
1803:
1420:
was the driving force behind American program development in the
745:
719:, Operation Bootstrap intended to move Puerto Rico away from its
457:
Authority for the Financing of the Infrastructure of Puerto Rico
2150:"Colonized Wombs? Reproduction Rights and Puerto Rican Women |"
1540:
Factories and Food Stamps: The Puerto Rico Model of Development
461:
16:
Series of projects which transformed the economy of Puerto Rico
1639:. San Juan: Bureau of Supplies, Printing, and Transportation.
1624:
Sixteenth census of the United States taken in the year 1940.
1366:
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1276:
1253:
1235:
1217:
1199:
1181:
1163:
1140:
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1086:
1068:
1050:
1027:
1009:
991:
973:
955:
937:
914:
896:
878:
860:
842:
824:
793:
Salaried employees in Puerto Rico during Operation Bootstrap
699:"income tax on income from industrial development," and more.
1573:
the indirect jobs associated with them such as those in the
1879:. Center for History and New Media, George Mason University
1774:
1772:
1601:(in Spanish). Fundación Puertorriqueña para las Humanidades
711:, and became known as Operation Bootstrap. Based on 1930s
1503:
Las campañas de control de la natalidad contra las mujeres
1976:(in Spanish). Fundación Puertorriqueña de las Humanidades
1769:
1626:
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1941-1943.
565:
Chamber of Marketing, Industry, and Distribution of Food
1966:
1486:
Teodoro Moscoso and Puerto Rico's Operation Bootstrap
1829:"Democracy at Work in Rural Puerto Rico (ca. 1940s)"
2172:Democracy at Work in Rural Puerto Rico (ca. 1940s)
1591:
674:The island's traditional economy was based around
2195:
2044:Porrata, Oscar, E. "Informe Annual, 1950-1951".
1817:
366:Department of Economic Development and Commerce
1618:
1616:
778:
611:
2058:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1937:
696:"property devoted to industrial development,
1613:
1546:, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985.
725:Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company
659:Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company
618:
604:
2125:"Women in World History : MODULE 16"
2012:
1938:Ayala, César J.; Bernabe, Rafael (2007).
717:Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration
657:together with what is known today as the
1441:
1386:
1933:
1931:
1825:United States Department of Agriculture
1796:
1457:United States Department of Agriculture
655:federal government of the United States
2196:
1974:"Aspectos sociales de Manos a la Obra"
1890:
1198:
1049:
936:
823:
787:
2074:"Puerto Rican Migration in the 1950s"
1994:
1869:
1492:: University Press of Florida, 1997.
1216:
1180:
1162:
1139:
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1103:
1085:
1067:
1008:
972:
859:
765:non-consensual surgical sterilization
396:Public–Private Partnerships Authority
1928:
1599:"Operación "Manos a la Obra" (1947)"
1252:
1234:
1026:
990:
954:
2043:
1732:"Puerto Rico's Operation Bootstrap"
1523:: Princeton University Press, 1986.
13:
2147:
1479:
801:Jobs in fishing & agriculture
14:
2225:
2165:
2099:"Economic report to the Governor"
1900:. about.geography. Archived from
1462:Commonwealth Oil Refining Company
1432:
913:
895:
877:
841:
1925:. Boulder: Lynee Rienner. p. 86.
1921:Pantojas-García, Emilio (1990).
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828:
740:external capital, importing the
585:Puerto Rico Products Association
2204:Economic history of Puerto Rico
2141:
2117:
2103:Economic Report to the Governor
2090:
2066:
2037:
1995:Lefty, Lauren (November 2021).
1988:
1915:
1745:
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391:Office of Management and Budget
2001:History of Education Quarterly
1724:
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1529:, by Ronald Fernández. 2ª ed.
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1:
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703:This was proposed by Senator
381:Government-owned corporations
336:Government-owned corporations
2214:Manufacturing in Puerto Rico
1411:
1391:Chart demonstrating how the
7:
2189:Young Lords in Lincoln Park
1950:10.5149/9780807895535_ayala
1622:U.S. Bureau of the Census.
1450:
502:Bonds issued by Puerto Rico
467:Government Development Bank
341:Public–private partnerships
10:
2230:
816:Employment net loss ratio
779:Increased living standards
773:
669:
512:Public debt of Puerto Rico
472:Municipal Financing Agency
18:
810:Decade-over-decade ratio
804:Decade-over-decade ratio
639:Operación Manos a la Obra
580:Manufacturers Association
376:Economic Development Bank
1877:"Women in World History"
1784:centropr.hunter.cuny.edu
1550:
1542:, by Richard Weisskoff.
709:Popular Democratic Party
686:Puerto Rican legislature
424:Public Improvements Fund
331:Companies of Puerto Rico
2177:A Puerto Rican resource
590:United Retailers Center
542:Taxation in Puerto Rico
2209:Economy of Puerto Rico
1505:, by Gloria Arimón en
1468:Progress Island U.S.A.
1404:
1393:economy of Puerto Rico
807:Jobs in manufacturing
643:economy of Puerto Rico
638:
371:Department of Treasury
43:Economy of Puerto Rico
2046:Facultad de Pedagogia
1898:"Operation Bootstrap"
1711:"Operation Bootstrap"
1663:"Operation Bootstrap"
1515:, by James L. Dietz.
1442:Coerced sterilization
1425:students enrolled in
1390:
676:sugarcane plantations
532:Internal Revenue Code
1474:Puerto Rican Pottery
1427:vocational education
1418:modernization theory
813:Employment net loss
19:For other uses, see
2014:10.1017/heq.2021.44
1509:, número 233, 1984.
1488:by A.W. Maldonado.
794:
788:Shift in job market
631:Operation Bootstrap
570:Made in Puerto Rico
560:Chamber of Commerce
429:Special State Funds
25:Bootstrapping (law)
2182:2012-10-25 at the
1833:Prelinger Archives
1405:
792:
554:Trade associations
253:Telecommunications
2148:Darder, Antonia.
1757:history.state.gov
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103:Secondary sectors
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1536:: Praeger, 1996.
1507:Servir al pueblo
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172:Tertiary sectors
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2078:lcw.lehman.edu
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2007:(4): 423–448.
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183:Cooperativism
181:
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135:Pharmaceutics
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91:
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21:Bootstrapping
2153:. Retrieved
2143:
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2129:chnm.gmu.edu
2128:
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2081:. Retrieved
2077:
2068:
2054:cite journal
2045:
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1902:the original
1892:
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1836:. Retrieved
1819:
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1691:casetext.com
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753:unemployment
750:
738:
735:
732:
729:
702:
683:
680:
673:
630:
629:
441:Bond issuers
419:General Fund
130:Food service
120:Construction
1737:February 3,
1490:Gainesville
1397:agriculture
507:Debt crisis
485:Public debt
268:Warehousing
238:Real estate
125:Electronics
115:Automotives
80:Electricity
75:Agriculture
2198:Categories
2155:2021-05-02
2134:2021-05-02
2111:1068228661
2083:2021-05-02
1980:October 6,
1908:2009-08-08
1883:2009-08-08
1862:2010-07-15
1838:2010-07-15
1810:2010-07-15
1789:2021-05-02
1762:2021-05-02
1696:2021-05-02
1672:2021-05-02
1643:465408932.
1605:October 6,
1586:References
689:included:
352:Government
311:Television
306:News media
233:Recreation
198:Healthcare
155:Technology
57:Currencies
2031:240357510
2023:0018-2680
1544:Baltimore
1517:Princeton
1412:Education
653:one. The
651:developed
324:Companies
273:Wholesale
208:Insurance
188:Education
110:Aerospace
2180:Archived
1531:Westport
1451:See also
1422:Cold War
1341:135.71%
1287:162,000
1210:132,000
1061:125,000
948:216,000
835:230,000
713:New Deal
360:Agencies
218:Mortgage
160:Textiles
150:Research
35:a series
33:Part of
1377:30.07%
1359:86,000
1323:76,000
1305:70.43%
1228:62.96%
1192:45.60%
1174:68,000
1151:23.99%
1133:65,000
1115:47.27%
1097:81,000
1079:42.13%
1020:15,000
984:55,000
871:56,000
798:Decade
774:Effects
746:tourism
707:of the
670:History
635:Spanish
492:Balance
296:Filming
258:Tourism
193:Finance
178:Banking
90:Fishing
51:History
2109:
2029:
2021:
1956:
1716:May 3,
1496:
1273:Total
1264:2.91%
1246:6,000
1160:1970s
1047:1960s
1038:5.24%
1002:1.79%
966:6.08%
934:1950s
821:1940s
497:Budget
462:COFINA
408:Assets
243:Retail
145:PRIDCO
85:Energy
37:on the
2027:S2CID
1806:. NiN
1551:Notes
645:into
525:Taxes
452:AFICA
301:Music
203:Hotel
2107:OCLC
2060:link
2019:ISSN
1982:2013
1954:ISBN
1739:2020
1718:2017
1641:OCLC
1607:2013
1494:ISBN
925:N/A
907:N/A
889:N/A
853:N/A
649:and
575:MIDA
291:Arts
23:and
2009:doi
1946:doi
1399:to
447:AFI
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