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3140:, and fermentation. These allow for ohmic heating to pasteurize particulate foods for hot filling, pre-heat products prior to canning, and aseptically process ready-to-eat meals and refrigerated foods. Prospective examples are outlined in Table 2 as this food processing method has not been commercially approved by the FDA. Since there is currently insufficient data on electrical conductivities for solid foods, it is difficult to prove the high quality and safe process design for ohmic heating. Additionally, a successful
2741:(also called "high-temperature short-time" (HTST)) aseptic process that runs an alternating current of 50–60 Hz through food. Heat is generated through the food's electrical resistance. As the product heats, electrical conductivity increases linearly. A higher electrical current frequency is best as it reduces oxidation and metallic contamination. This heating method is best for foods that contain particulates suspended in a weak salt-containing medium due to their high resistance properties.
62:
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products. A food product's electrical conductivity is a function of temperature, frequency, and product composition. This may be increased by adding ionic compounds, or decreased by adding non-polar constituents. Changes in electrical conductivity limit ohmic heating as it is difficult to model the thermal process when temperature increases in multi-component foods.
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1123:. When the charged particles collide with the quasi-particles in the conductor (i.e. the canonically quantized, ionic lattice oscillations in the harmonic approximation of a crystal), energy is being transferred from the electrons to the lattice (by the creation of further lattice oscillations). The oscillations of the ions are the origin of the radiation ("
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The generator creates the electrical current which flows to the first electrode and passes through the food product placed in the electrode gap. The food product resists the flow of current causing internal heating. The current continues to flow to the second electrode and back to the power source to
974:
equipment may make use of Joule heating: running current through food material (which behave as an electrical resistor) causes heat release inside the food. The alternating electrical current coupled with the resistance of the food causes the generation of heat. A higher resistance increases the heat
3128:
Ohmic heating is limited by viscosity, electrical conductivity, and fouling deposits. The density of particles within the suspension liquid can limit the degree of processing. A higher viscosity fluid will provide more resistance to heating, allowing the mixture to heat up quicker than low viscosity
2700:
is placed between the lines and consumption. When a high-voltage, low-intensity current in the primary circuit (before the transformer) is converted into a low-voltage, high-intensity current in the secondary circuit (after the transformer), the equivalent resistance of the secondary circuit becomes
1900:
3427:
The definition of the efficiency of a heating process requires defining the boundaries of the system to be considered. When heating a building, the overall efficiency is different when considering heating effect per unit of electric energy delivered on the customer's side of the meter, compared to
2870:
and resistance factors. In particulate foods, the particles heat up faster than the liquid matrix due to higher resistance to electricity and matching conductivity can contribute to uniform heating. This prevents overheating of the liquid matrix while particles receive sufficient heat processing.
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properties of food. Heat transfer is uniform to reach areas of food that are harder to heat. Less fouling accumulates on the electrodes as compared to other heating methods. Ohmic heating also requires less cleaning and maintenance, resulting in an environmentally cautious heating method.
2242:
4764:. In: V.P.Singh and B.Kumar (eds.), Subsurface-Water Hydrology, Vol.2 of the Proceedings of the International Conference on Hydrology and Water Resources, New Delhi, India. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp. 153–160.
1725:
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1179:, or ring mains, used in UK homes are another example, where power is delivered to outlets at lower currents (per wire, by using two paths in parallel), thus reducing Joule heating in the wires. Joule heating does not occur in
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results in cell death. In membrane rupture, cells swell due to an increase in moisture diffusion across the cell membrane. Pronounced disruption and decomposition of cell walls and cytoplasmic membranes causes cells to lyse.
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increases, and this is the key process parameter that affects heating uniformity and heating rate. This heating method is best for foods that contain particulates suspended in a weak salt containing medium due to their high
2613:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} P}{\mathrm {d} V}}={\frac {1}{2}}{\hat {\mathbf {J} }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {E} }}^{*}={\frac {1}{2}}{\hat {\mathbf {J} }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {J} }}^{*}/\sigma ={\frac {1}{2}}J^{2}\rho ,}
3196:
Food reheating and waste sterilization. Less energy consumption for heating food to serving temperature, products in reusable pouches with long shelf life. Additive free foods with good keeping quality of 3 years.
975:
generated. Ohmic heating allows for fast and uniform heating of food products, which maintains quality. Products with particulates heat up faster (compared to conventional heat processing) due to higher resistance.
3065:. Volumetric heating allows internal heating instead of transferring heat from a secondary medium. This results in the production of safe, high quality food with minimal changes to structural, nutritional, and
3219:
To improve food safety and enhance shelf life, increased stability and energy efficiency, Reduced time for inactivation of lipoxygenase and polyphenol oxidase, inactivation of enzymes without affecting flavor
4527:
Luong, Duy X.; Bets, Ksenia V.; Algozeeb, Wala Ali; Stanford, Michael G.; Kittrell, Carter; Chen, Weiyin; Salvatierra, Rodrigo V.; Ren, Muqing; McHugh, Emily A.; Advincula, Paul A.; Wang, Zhe (January 2020).
3184:
The cooking time could be reduced significantly. The centre temperature rises much faster than in conventional heating, improving the final sterility of the product, less power consumption and safer product
4691:
Chen, Weiyin; Li, John Tianci; Wang, Zhe; Algozeeb, Wala A.; Luong, Duy Xuan; Kittrell, Carter; McHugh, Emily A.; Advincula, Paul A.; Wyss, Kevin M.; Beckham, Jacob L.; Stanford, Michael G. (2021-07-27).
2685:. In order to minimize transmission losses, the resistance of the lines has to be as small as possible compared to the load (resistance of consumer appliances). Line resistance is minimized by the use of
3518:
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Table 1 shows the electrical conductivity values of certain foods to display the effect of composition and salt concentration. The high electrical conductivity values represent a larger number of
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transfer electrical energy from electricity producers to consumers. Those power lines have a nonzero resistance and therefore are subject to Joule heating, which causes transmission losses.
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3249:, including graphene and diamond. Heating various solid carbon feedstocks (carbon black, coal, coffee grounds, etc.) to temperatures of ~3000 K for 10-150 milliseconds produces
2806:, in direct contact with food, pass electric current through the matrix. The distance between the electrodes can be adjusted to achieve the optimum electrical field strength.
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There are different configurations for continuous ohmic heating systems, but in the most basic process, a power supply or generator is needed to produce electrical current.
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The split of power between transmission losses (Joule heating in transmission lines) and load (useful energy delivered to the consumer) can be approximated by a
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1895:{\displaystyle P_{\rm {avg}}=U_{\text{rms}}I_{\text{rms}}\cos \phi =(I_{\text{rms}})^{2}\operatorname {Re} (Z)=(U_{\text{rms}})^{2}\operatorname {Re} (Y^{*})}
1987:
Joule heating can also be calculated at a particular location in space. The differential form of the Joule heating equation gives the power per unit volume.
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Assuming the element behaves as a perfect resistor and that the power is completely converted into heat, the formula can be re-written by substituting
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Microbial inactivation in ohmic heating is achieved by both thermal and non-thermal cellular damage from the electrical field. This method destroys
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2237:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} P}{\mathrm {d} V}}=\mathbf {J} \cdot \mathbf {E} =\mathbf {J} \cdot \mathbf {J} {\frac {1}{\sigma }}=J^{2}\rho }
3176:
Cauliflower florets, soups, stews, fruit slices in syrups and sauces, ready to cook meals containing particulates, milk, juices, and fruit purees
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installations could use transformers to reduce line losses by Joule heating, at the cost of higher voltage in the transmission lines, compared to
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Joule-heating or resistive-heating is used in multiple devices and industrial process. The part that converts electricity into heat is called a
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due to the removal of active metallic groups in enzymes by the electrical field. Similar to other heating methods, ohmic heating causes
3125:. Water-soluble nutrients are maintained in the suspension liquid allowing for no loss of nutritional value if the liquid is consumed.
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Decreased processing times in ohmic heating maintains nutritional and sensory properties of foods. Ohmic heating inactivates
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suspended in the product, which is directly proportional to the rate of heating. This value is increased in the presence of
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are usually introduced for the current density and the electric field intensity, respectively. The Joule heating then reads
484:
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can have a coefficient of more than 1.0 since it moves additional thermal energy from the environment to the heated item.
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of the soil (m/day), the hydraulic conductivity is inversely proportional to the hydraulic resistance which compares to
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systems is specifically designed to reduce such losses in cabling by operating with commensurately lower currents. The
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The efficiency by which electricity is converted to heat depends upon on salt, water, and fat content due to their
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of starch. Density, pH, and specific heat of various components in a food matrix can also influence heating rate.
3265:, concentric carbon (carbon shell around a nanodiamond core), and fluorinated flash graphene can be synthesized.
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Sterilisation, heating liquid foods containing large particulates and heat sensitive liquids, aseptic processing
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Deng, Bing; Wang, Xin; Luong, Duy Xuan; Carter, Robert A.; Wang, Zhe; Tomson, Mason B.; Tour, James M. (2022).
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993:, suggesting that heat could be generated by an electrical current. Joule immersed a length of wire in a fixed
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Potato slices, vegetable purees extraction of sucrose from sugar beets, extraction of soy milk from soy beans
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of 1.0, meaning that every joule of electrical energy supplied produces one joule of heat. In contrast, a
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In 1841 and 1842, subsequent experiments showed that the amount of heat generated was proportional to the
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1720:{\displaystyle P_{\rm {avg}}=U_{\text{rms}}I_{\text{rms}}=(I_{\text{rms}})^{2}R=(U_{\text{rms}})^{2}/R}
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17:
3985:"This Month Physics History: December 1840: Joule's abstract on converting mechanical power into heat"
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the overall efficiency when also considering the losses in the power plant and transmission of power.
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is the instantaneous active power being converted from electrical energy to heat. Far more often, the
1190:. There is an intimate relationship between Johnson–Nyquist noise and Joule heating, explained by the
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Flash joule heating (transient high-temperature electrothermal heating) has been used to synthesize
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3762: – Phenomenon of non-ideal fluids changing temperature while being forced through small spaces
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Benefits of Ohmic heating include: uniform and rapid heating (>1°Cs), less cooking time, better
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871:(also known as resistive, resistance, or Ohmic heating) is the process by which the passage of an
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3807: – Regulation of the temperature of electronic circuitry to prevent inefficiency or failure
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Attractive appearance, firmness properties, pasteurization of milk without protein denaturation
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deposits. Although ohmic heating has not yet been approved by the Food and Drug
Administration (
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period. By varying the current and the length of the wire he deduced that the heat produced was
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and the square of the current. Joule heating affects the whole electric conductor, unlike the
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materials, as these materials have zero electrical resistance in the superconducting state.
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Voltage can be increased in DC circuits by connecting batteries or solar panels in series.
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are used as a safety, breaking the circuit by melting if enough current flows to melt them.
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2039:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} P}{\mathrm {d} V}}=\mathbf {J} \cdot \mathbf {E} }
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that accelerates charge carriers in the direction of the electric field, giving them
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The most fundamental formula for Joule heating is the generalized power equation:
4507:"Kinetics of Microbial Inactivation for Alternative Food Processing Technologies"
4188:
Varghese, K. Shiby; Pandey, M. C.; Radhakrishna, K.; Bawa, A. S. (October 2014).
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Varghese, K. Shiby; Pandey, M. C.; Radhakrishna, K.; Bawa, A. S. (October 2014).
3847:, 3-е изд., гл. ред. А. М. Прохоров. Москва: Советская энциклопедия, 1972. Т. 8 (
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In the harmonic case, where all field quantities vary with the angular frequency
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2791:) for commercial use, this method has many potential applications, ranging from
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Varghese, K. Shiby; Pandey, M. C.; Radhakrishna, K.; Bawa, A. S. (2014-10-01).
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Electric power transmission § Advantage of high-voltage power transmission
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Heat is generated rapidly and uniformly in the liquid matrix as well as in
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The potential applications of ohmic heating range from cooking, thawing,
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properties. Ohmic heating is beneficial due to its ability to inactivate
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4472:"Nutritional impact of ohmic heating on fruits and vegetables A review"
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caps around the electrodes controls the environment within the system.
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4694:"Ultrafast and Controllable Phase Evolution by Flash Joule Heating"
4415:"Technology, applications and modelling of ohmic heating: a review"
4190:"Technology, applications and modelling of ohmic heating: a review"
3926:"Technology, applications and modelling of ohmic heating: a review"
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vaporize propylene glycol and vegetable glycerine by Joule heating.
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2748:, producing a higher quality sterile product that is suitable for
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The ideal foods for ohmic heating are viscous with particulates.
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4668:"New method converts carbon into graphene or diamond in a flash"
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is the current travelling through the resistor or other element,
3801: – Welding by passing electric current through work pieces
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Electrical energy is linearly translated to thermal energy as
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rise due to a known current flowing through the wire for a 30
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which transfers heat from one electrical junction to another.
3849:
A. M. Prokhorov; et al., eds. (1972). "Joule–Lenz law".
2825:
are the key process parameters which affect heat generation.
1063:
998:
4057:(4th ed.). Kent: Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science.
3792: – wire with high resistivity used to create a resistor
3208:
Thawing without increase in moisture content of the product
4326:. Varzakas, Theodoros,, Tzia, Constantina. Boca Raton, FL.
4110:. Ramaswamy, Hosahalli S. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 2014.
3410:
3154:
Table 2. Applications of Ohmic
Heating in Food Processing
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928:
glows when the filament is heated by Joule heating, due to
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higher and transmission losses are reduced in proportion.
2092:
is the electric field. For a material with a conductivity
1744:. If the reactance is nonzero, the formulas are modified:
1740:
These formulas are valid for an ideal resistor, with zero
1032:
that generated the template. This led Joule to reject the
4526:
4055:
Food processing technology : principles and practice
3513:{\displaystyle {\frac {dE}{dx}}={\frac {(v_{x})^{2}}{K}}}
3090:
1604:
power is of more interest than the instantaneous power:
1151:. However, in applications where heating is an unwanted
3855:(in Russian). Vol. 8. Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia.
3813: – Chemical element, symbol W and atomic number 74
3764:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
3780: – Family of alloys of mainly nickel and chromium
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Varzakas, Theodoros; Tzia, Constantina (2015-10-22).
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Energy dissipated per charge passing through resistor
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first published in
December 1840, an abstract in the
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Handbook of food processing : food preservation
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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
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Multiple heating devices use Joule heating, such as
4755:R.J.Oosterbaan, J.Boonstra and K.V.G.K.Rao (1996).
4608:
3786: – Elevated temperature in an electric circuit
3599:-direction per unit of time (m/day), comparable to
3231:Enhanced moisture loss and increase in juice yield
2891:Table 1. Electrical conductivity of selected foods
1036:(at that time the dominant theory) in favor of the
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1163:) the diversion of energy is often referred to as
4010:Electric power systems: a conceptual introduction
2768:through thermal and non-thermal cellular damage.
2693:specifications of consumer appliances are fixed.
1924:is phase difference between current and voltage,
4783:
2138:{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} =\sigma \mathbf {E} }
1532:When current varies, as it does in AC circuits,
1096:Joule heating is caused by interactions between
38:from an electric toaster, showing red to yellow
4530:"Gram-scale bottom-up flash graphene synthesis"
4470:Kaur, Ranvir; Gul, Khalid; Singh, A.K. (2016).
3848:
3446:a hydraulic equivalent of Joule's law is used:
1115:) between two points of a conductor creates an
1047:Resistive heating was independently studied by
1127:") that one measures in a typical experiment.
3416:As a heating technology, Joule heating has a
1399:Charge passing through resistor per unit time
849:
4469:
4321:
3241:Materials synthesis, recovery and processing
1040:(according to which heat is another form of
27:Heat from a current in an electric conductor
3089:. In electroporation, excessive leakage of
2879:, like acids and salts, but decreased with
2654:
1975:For more details in the reactive case, see
1733:over one or more cycles, and "rms" denotes
4354:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1186:Resistors create electrical noise, called
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3413:, they are distinct physical quantities.
2733:General process for joule heating in food
2368:{\displaystyle e^{-\mathrm {i} \omega t}}
1074:, is equivalent to one joule per second.
890:), also known in countries of the former
4294:. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 831–38.
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3223:Process fish cake, orange juice, juices
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1070:. The commonly known unit of power, the
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3871:. Ohio State University. Archived from
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2779:. However, ohmic heating is limited by
1441:, into the generalized power equation:
1130:
1084:Electrical resistivity and conductivity
894:as the Joule–Lenz law, states that the
605:Electromagnetism and special relativity
14:
4784:
4758:The energy balance of groundwater flow
4419:Journal of Food Science and Technology
4408:
4406:
4404:
4379:
4377:
4375:
4373:
4371:
4369:
4367:
4365:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4194:Journal of Food Science and Technology
4102:
3930:Journal of Food Science and Technology
1521:
4501:
4499:
4100:
4098:
4096:
4094:
4092:
4090:
4088:
4086:
4084:
4082:
3979:
3977:
3866:
3829:
3827:
3390:
2433:{\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {E} }}}
2402:{\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {J} }}}
625:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime
4387:. CRC Press. 2014. pp. 93–102.
4238:
4146:
4048:
4046:
4044:
4042:
4003:
3919:
3917:
3891:
3889:
3352:used to remove wrinkles from clothes
3150:prevention has yet to be validated.
3136:, peeling, evaporation, extraction,
2775:thereby maintaining nutritional and
1982:
4401:
4362:
4308:
3216:Inactivation of spores and enzymes
1937:{\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} }
1500:{\displaystyle P=IV=I^{2}R=V^{2}/R}
920:Among the many practical uses are:
24:
4496:
4079:
3974:
3900:. MA: Elsevier. pp. 813–844.
3824:
3667:-direction (m/day), comparable to
3444:energy balance of groundwater flow
3121:of starches, melting of fats, and
2724:
2461:
2451:
2353:
2166:
2156:
2010:
2000:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1625:
1622:
1619:
25:
4828:
4666:Michael, Irving (June 22, 2021).
4514:U.S. Food and Drug Administration
4039:
3914:
3886:
3744: – Heating using radio waves
3085:, physical membrane rupture, and
1361:The explanation of this formula (
1202:
1104:) and the body of the conductor.
1017:of the current multiplied by the
4611:"Rare earth elements from waste"
4385:Ohmic Heating in food processing
4108:Ohmic heating in food processing
3805:Thermal management (electronics)
3409:. While intimately connected to
3401:Heat is not to be confused with
3372:
3357:
3342:
3330:
3318:
3299:
3283:
2771:This method can also inactivate
2557:
2539:
2506:
2488:
2420:
2389:
2314:" term of the macroscopic form.
2284:. This directly resembles the "
2204:
2196:
2188:
2180:
2131:
2120:
2078:
2056:
2032:
2024:
1255:{\displaystyle P=I(V_{A}-V_{B})}
1135:Joule heating is referred to as
990:Proceedings of the Royal Society
4748:
4684:
4659:
4602:
4584:
4520:
4463:
3325:Electric radiative space heater
3193:Space food and military ration
2783:, electrical conductivity, and
2719:
2273:{\displaystyle \rho =1/\sigma }
1395:Energy dissipated per unit time
1192:fluctuation-dissipation theorem
1143:because of its relationship to
4018:
3860:
3845:Большая советская энциклопедия
3495:
3481:
2899:Electrical Conductivity (S/m)
2561:
2543:
2510:
2492:
2424:
2393:
1889:
1876:
1861:
1847:
1841:
1835:
1820:
1806:
1700:
1686:
1671:
1657:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1550:
1544:
1249:
1223:
13:
1:
4489:10.1080/23311932.2016.1159000
4476:Cogent Food & Agriculture
4012:by Alexandra von Meier, p67,
3817:
3579:) due to friction of flow in
3181:Ohmic cooking of solid foods
1583:{\displaystyle P(t)=U(t)I(t)}
886:Joule's first law (also just
630:Relativistic electromagnetism
3559:= loss of hydraulic energy (
3253:. FJH has also been used to
3251:turbostratic graphene flakes
2640:{\displaystyle \bullet ^{*}}
2085:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} }
2070:is the current density, and
2063:{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} }
7:
3991:. American Physical society
3799:Electric resistance welding
3735:
3257:used in modern electronics
3255:recover rare-earth elements
1346:{\displaystyle V_{A}-V_{B}}
1197:
1173:electric power transmission
1062:was subsequently named the
898:of heating generated by an
10:
4833:
4292:Food processing technology
3898:Food Processing Technology
3435:
3418:coefficient of performance
3394:
3337:Electric tabletop hotplate
3294:'s filament emitting light
3275:Joule heating applications
3268:
2664:
2658:
1525:
1081:
979:
902:equals the product of its
355:Liénard–Wiechert potential
4554:10.1038/s41586-020-1938-0
4431:10.1007/s13197-012-0710-3
4206:10.1007/s13197-012-0710-3
3942:10.1007/s13197-012-0710-3
3852:Great Soviet Encyclopedia
3834:Джоуля — Ленца закон
3784:Overheating (electricity)
3771: – chemical compound
3228:Blanching and extraction
3164:
3161:
3158:
3095:intramolecular components
2984:Coffee (black with sugar)
2901:
2898:
2895:
2689:, but the resistance and
1038:mechanical theory of heat
620:Mathematical descriptions
330:Electromagnetic radiation
320:Electromagnetic induction
260:Magnetic vector potential
255:Magnetic scalar potential
3869:"Ohmic Heating of Foods"
2655:Electricity transmission
4710:10.1021/acsnano.1c03536
3867:Ramaswamy, Raghupathy.
3382:, produces hot air flow
3292:incandescent light bulb
2844:Fruit in a syrup medium
2810:close the circuit. The
2773:antinutritional factors
2757:electrical conductivity
2330:{\displaystyle \omega }
2105:{\displaystyle \sigma }
1161:electrical transformers
1078:Microscopic description
926:incandescent light bulb
170:Electrostatic induction
165:Electrostatic discharge
4635:10.1126/sciadv.abm3132
4290:Fellows, P.J. (2017).
4138:: CS1 maint: others (
4026:"Transformer circuits"
3726:
3710:hydraulic conductivity
3702:
3681:
3661:
3641:
3613:
3593:
3573:
3553:
3514:
3259:from industrial wastes
3006:Starch solution (5.5%)
2859:Heat sensitive liquids
2734:
2641:
2614:
2434:
2403:
2369:
2331:
2308:
2307:{\displaystyle I^{2}R}
2274:
2238:
2139:
2106:
2086:
2064:
2040:
1938:
1918:
1896:
1721:
1584:
1501:
1435:
1384:
1347:
1305:
1279:
1256:
1155:of current use (e.g.,
1021:of the immersed wire.
600:Electromagnetic tensor
42:
4053:Fellows, P. (2017) .
3896:Fellows, P.J (2009).
3769:Molybdenum disilicide
3727:
3703:
3682:
3662:
3642:
3640:{\displaystyle v_{x}}
3614:
3594:
3574:
3554:
3552:{\displaystyle dE/dt}
3515:
3123:protein agglutination
2732:
2642:
2615:
2435:
2404:
2370:
2332:
2309:
2275:
2239:
2140:
2107:
2087:
2065:
2041:
1939:
1919:
1917:{\displaystyle \phi }
1897:
1722:
1585:
1502:
1436:
1385:
1348:
1306:
1280:
1257:
1188:Johnson–Nyquist noise
1066:and given the symbol
1019:electrical resistance
946:Electronic cigarettes
593:Covariant formulation
385:Synchrotron radiation
325:Electromagnetic pulse
315:Electromagnetic field
33:
4807:James Prescott Joule
3716:
3692:
3671:
3651:
3624:
3603:
3583:
3563:
3529:
3452:
3432:Hydraulic equivalent
3247:allotropes of carbon
2868:thermal conductivity
2739:flash pasteurization
2676:Overhead power lines
2624:
2444:
2413:
2382:
2341:
2321:
2288:
2250:
2149:
2116:
2096:
2074:
2052:
1993:
1928:
1908:
1750:
1729:where "avg" denotes
1610:
1538:
1445:
1434:{\displaystyle V=IR}
1416:
1383:{\displaystyle P=IV}
1365:
1317:
1295:
1269:
1211:
1131:Power loss and noise
985:James Prescott Joule
900:electrical conductor
635:Stress–energy tensor
560:Reluctance (complex)
305:Displacement current
4627:2022SciA....8M3132D
4546:2020Natur.577..647L
3647:= flow velocity in
3155:
3026:(b) with 0.55% salt
2892:
2737:Joule heating is a
2671:War of the currents
1522:Alternating current
1357:across the element.
934:blackbody radiation
550:Magnetomotive force
435:Electromotive force
405:Alternating current
340:Jefimenko equations
300:Cyclotron radiation
4817:Cooking techniques
4704:(7): 11158–11167.
3839:2014-12-30 at the
3760:Joule's Second Law
3742:Dielectric heating
3722:
3698:
3677:
3657:
3637:
3609:
3589:
3569:
3549:
3510:
3391:Heating efficiency
3153:
3055:aseptic processing
3015:(a) with 0.2% salt
2995:Coffee (with milk)
2890:
2881:nonpolar compounds
2777:sensory properties
2750:aseptic processing
2735:
2637:
2610:
2430:
2399:
2365:
2327:
2304:
2270:
2234:
2135:
2102:
2082:
2060:
2036:
1934:
1914:
1892:
1717:
1580:
1497:
1431:
1380:
1343:
1301:
1275:
1252:
398:Electrical network
235:Gauss magnetic law
200:Static electricity
160:Electric potential
43:
4771:978-0-7923-3651-8
4540:(7792): 647–651.
4425:(10): 2304–2317.
4394:978-1-4200-7109-2
4301:978-0-08-101907-8
4200:(10): 2304–2317.
4014:Google books link
3936:(10): 2304–2317.
3907:978-0-08-101907-8
3754:Induction heating
3725:{\displaystyle R}
3701:{\displaystyle K}
3680:{\displaystyle I}
3660:{\displaystyle x}
3612:{\displaystyle P}
3592:{\displaystyle x}
3572:{\displaystyle E}
3508:
3473:
3238:
3237:
3111:polyphenoloxidase
3051:energy efficiency
3047:
3046:
2902:Temperature (°C)
2821:strength and the
2687:copper conductors
2649:complex conjugate
2592:
2564:
2546:
2533:
2513:
2495:
2482:
2469:
2427:
2396:
2375:, complex valued
2216:
2174:
2018:
1983:Differential form
1962:complex conjugate
1954:complex impedance
1857:
1816:
1791:
1781:
1696:
1667:
1651:
1641:
1304:{\displaystyle I}
1278:{\displaystyle P}
1141:resistive heating
1001:and measured the
965:cartridge heaters
930:thermal radiation
866:
865:
565:Reluctance (real)
535:Gyrator–capacitor
480:Resonant cavities
370:Maxwell equations
16:(Redirected from
4824:
4792:Electric heating
4776:
4775:
4763:
4752:
4746:
4745:
4688:
4682:
4681:
4679:
4678:
4663:
4657:
4656:
4646:
4615:Science Advances
4606:
4600:
4599:
4588:
4582:
4581:
4524:
4518:
4517:
4511:
4503:
4494:
4493:
4491:
4467:
4461:
4460:
4450:
4410:
4399:
4398:
4381:
4360:
4359:
4353:
4345:
4319:
4306:
4305:
4287:
4236:
4235:
4225:
4185:
4144:
4143:
4137:
4129:
4104:
4077:
4076:
4050:
4037:
4036:
4034:
4032:
4022:
4016:
4007:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3996:
3981:
3972:
3971:
3961:
3921:
3912:
3911:
3893:
3884:
3883:
3881:
3880:
3864:
3858:
3856:
3831:
3795:
3774:
3765:
3731:
3729:
3728:
3723:
3707:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3686:
3684:
3683:
3678:
3666:
3664:
3663:
3658:
3646:
3644:
3643:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3618:
3616:
3615:
3610:
3598:
3596:
3595:
3590:
3578:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3550:
3542:
3519:
3517:
3516:
3511:
3509:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3493:
3492:
3479:
3474:
3472:
3464:
3456:
3405:or synonymously
3397:Electric heating
3376:
3361:
3346:
3334:
3322:
3303:
3287:
3200:Stew type foods
3156:
3152:
3037:(c) with 2% salt
2893:
2889:
2819:electrical field
2646:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2619:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2603:
2602:
2593:
2585:
2577:
2572:
2571:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2534:
2526:
2521:
2520:
2515:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2497:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2483:
2475:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2431:
2429:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2408:
2406:
2405:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2374:
2372:
2371:
2366:
2364:
2363:
2356:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2313:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2299:
2279:
2277:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2229:
2217:
2209:
2207:
2199:
2191:
2183:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2144:
2142:
2141:
2136:
2134:
2123:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2081:
2069:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2059:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2035:
2027:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1935:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1915:
1901:
1899:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1887:
1869:
1868:
1859:
1858:
1855:
1828:
1827:
1818:
1817:
1814:
1793:
1792:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1779:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1735:root mean square
1726:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1707:
1698:
1697:
1694:
1679:
1678:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1653:
1652:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1639:
1630:
1629:
1628:
1589:
1587:
1586:
1581:
1506:
1504:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1487:
1472:
1471:
1440:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1389:
1387:
1386:
1381:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1344:
1342:
1341:
1329:
1328:
1310:
1308:
1307:
1302:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1276:
1261:
1259:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1247:
1235:
1234:
1149:electric heating
957:electric heaters
873:electric current
858:
851:
844:
525:Electric machine
508:Magnetic circuit
470:Parallel circuit
460:Network analysis
425:Electric current
360:London equations
205:Triboelectricity
195:Potential energy
64:
54:Electromagnetism
45:
44:
21:
4832:
4831:
4827:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4822:
4821:
4812:Food processing
4782:
4781:
4780:
4779:
4772:
4761:
4753:
4749:
4689:
4685:
4676:
4674:
4664:
4660:
4621:(6): eabm3132.
4607:
4603:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4525:
4521:
4516:. May 30, 2018.
4509:
4505:
4504:
4497:
4468:
4464:
4411:
4402:
4395:
4383:
4382:
4363:
4347:
4346:
4334:
4320:
4309:
4302:
4288:
4239:
4186:
4147:
4131:
4130:
4118:
4106:
4105:
4080:
4065:
4051:
4040:
4030:
4028:
4024:
4023:
4019:
4008:
4004:
3994:
3992:
3983:
3982:
3975:
3922:
3915:
3908:
3894:
3887:
3878:
3876:
3865:
3861:
3841:Wayback Machine
3832:
3825:
3820:
3793:
3790:Resistance wire
3772:
3763:
3748:Heating element
3738:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3631:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3564:
3561:
3560:
3538:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3498:
3494:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3478:
3465:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3449:
3440:
3434:
3403:internal energy
3399:
3393:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3383:
3377:
3368:
3362:
3353:
3347:
3338:
3335:
3326:
3323:
3314:
3313:of a light bulb
3304:
3295:
3288:
3277:
3276:
3271:
3243:
3103:antinutritional
3079:electroporation
2877:polar compounds
2873:ionic compounds
2727:
2725:Food processing
2722:
2716:installations.
2706:war of currents
2683:voltage divider
2673:
2663:
2657:
2631:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2621:
2598:
2594:
2584:
2573:
2567:
2556:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2525:
2516:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2487:
2485:
2484:
2474:
2460:
2459:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2295:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2262:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2225:
2221:
2208:
2203:
2195:
2187:
2179:
2165:
2164:
2155:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2130:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2049:
2031:
2023:
2009:
2008:
1999:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1883:
1879:
1864:
1860:
1854:
1850:
1823:
1819:
1813:
1809:
1788:
1784:
1778:
1774:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1709:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1689:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1660:
1648:
1644:
1638:
1634:
1618:
1617:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1530:
1524:
1489:
1483:
1479:
1467:
1463:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1417:
1414:
1413:
1406:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1337:
1333:
1324:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1243:
1239:
1230:
1226:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1200:
1181:superconducting
1133:
1098:charge carriers
1094:
1080:
1026:chemical energy
982:
972:food processing
961:soldering irons
953:electric stoves
915:heating element
862:
833:
832:
648:
640:
639:
595:
585:
584:
540:Induction motor
510:
500:
499:
415:Current density
400:
390:
389:
380:Poynting vector
290:
288:Electrodynamics
280:
279:
275:Right-hand rule
240:Magnetic dipole
230:Biot–Savart law
220:
210:
209:
145:Electric dipole
140:Electric charge
115:
36:heating element
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4830:
4820:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4802:Thermodynamics
4799:
4794:
4778:
4777:
4770:
4747:
4683:
4658:
4601:
4583:
4519:
4495:
4462:
4400:
4393:
4361:
4332:
4307:
4300:
4237:
4145:
4116:
4078:
4063:
4038:
4017:
4002:
3973:
3913:
3906:
3885:
3859:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3814:
3808:
3802:
3796:
3787:
3781:
3775:
3766:
3757:
3751:
3745:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3732:
3721:
3697:
3687:
3676:
3656:
3634:
3630:
3619:
3608:
3588:
3568:
3548:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3534:
3507:
3501:
3497:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3477:
3471:
3468:
3463:
3460:
3436:Main article:
3433:
3430:
3407:thermal energy
3395:Main article:
3392:
3389:
3385:
3384:
3378:
3371:
3369:
3365:Soldering iron
3363:
3356:
3354:
3348:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3317:
3315:
3305:
3298:
3296:
3289:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3225:
3224:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3212:
3211:Shrimp blocks
3209:
3206:
3205:Ohmic thawing
3202:
3201:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3189:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3177:
3174:
3171:
3167:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3119:gelatinization
3083:cell membranes
3075:microorganisms
3045:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3027:
3023:
3022:
3019:
3016:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3007:
3003:
3002:
2999:
2996:
2992:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2981:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2973:Coffee (black)
2970:
2969:
2966:
2963:
2959:
2958:
2955:
2952:
2948:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2937:
2936:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2925:
2922:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2911:
2908:
2904:
2903:
2900:
2897:
2885:gelatinization
2864:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2845:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2823:residence time
2766:microorganisms
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2659:Main article:
2656:
2653:
2634:
2630:
2609:
2606:
2601:
2597:
2591:
2588:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2570:
2563:
2559:
2551:
2545:
2541:
2532:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2512:
2508:
2500:
2494:
2490:
2481:
2478:
2473:
2467:
2463:
2457:
2453:
2426:
2422:
2395:
2391:
2362:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2326:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2258:
2255:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2215:
2212:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2158:
2145:and therefore
2133:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2101:
2080:
2058:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2016:
2012:
2006:
2002:
1984:
1981:
1933:
1913:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1787:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1764:
1761:
1756:
1731:average (mean)
1716:
1712:
1706:
1702:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1647:
1637:
1633:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1616:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1526:Main article:
1523:
1520:
1496:
1492:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1392:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1359:
1358:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1327:
1323:
1312:
1300:
1290:
1274:
1251:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1204:
1203:Direct current
1201:
1199:
1196:
1165:resistive loss
1132:
1129:
1125:thermal energy
1121:kinetic energy
1117:electric field
1088:Drift velocity
1079:
1076:
1034:caloric theory
981:
978:
977:
976:
968:
949:
943:
940:Electric fuses
937:
908:Peltier effect
864:
863:
861:
860:
853:
846:
838:
835:
834:
831:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
649:
646:
645:
642:
641:
638:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
615:Four-potential
612:
607:
602:
596:
591:
590:
587:
586:
583:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
530:Electric motor
527:
522:
517:
511:
506:
505:
502:
501:
498:
497:
492:
487:
485:Series circuit
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
455:Kirchhoff laws
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
420:Direct current
417:
412:
407:
401:
396:
395:
392:
391:
388:
387:
382:
377:
375:Maxwell tensor
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
345:Larmor formula
342:
337:
332:
327:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
295:Bremsstrahlung
291:
286:
285:
282:
281:
278:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
245:Magnetic field
242:
237:
232:
227:
221:
218:Magnetostatics
216:
215:
212:
211:
208:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
150:Electric field
147:
142:
137:
132:
127:
122:
120:Charge density
116:
113:Electrostatics
111:
110:
107:
106:
105:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
66:
65:
57:
56:
50:
49:
48:Articles about
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4829:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4789:
4787:
4773:
4767:
4760:
4759:
4751:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4687:
4673:
4669:
4662:
4654:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4605:
4597:
4596:New Scientist
4593:
4587:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4523:
4515:
4508:
4502:
4500:
4490:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4466:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4409:
4407:
4405:
4396:
4390:
4386:
4380:
4378:
4376:
4374:
4372:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4357:
4351:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4333:9781498721769
4329:
4325:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4303:
4297:
4293:
4286:
4284:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4274:
4272:
4270:
4268:
4266:
4264:
4262:
4260:
4258:
4256:
4254:
4252:
4250:
4248:
4246:
4244:
4242:
4233:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4184:
4182:
4180:
4178:
4176:
4174:
4172:
4170:
4168:
4166:
4164:
4162:
4160:
4158:
4156:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4141:
4135:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4117:9781420071092
4113:
4109:
4103:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4095:
4093:
4091:
4089:
4087:
4085:
4083:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4064:9780081019078
4060:
4056:
4049:
4047:
4045:
4043:
4027:
4021:
4015:
4011:
4006:
3990:
3986:
3980:
3978:
3969:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3920:
3918:
3909:
3903:
3899:
3892:
3890:
3875:on 2013-04-08
3874:
3870:
3863:
3854:
3853:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3835:
3830:
3828:
3823:
3812:
3809:
3806:
3803:
3800:
3797:
3791:
3788:
3785:
3782:
3779:
3776:
3770:
3767:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3752:
3749:
3746:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3719:
3711:
3695:
3688:
3674:
3654:
3632:
3628:
3620:
3606:
3586:
3566:
3546:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3525:
3524:
3523:
3520:
3505:
3499:
3489:
3485:
3475:
3469:
3466:
3461:
3458:
3447:
3445:
3439:
3429:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3381:
3375:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3340:
3333:
3328:
3321:
3316:
3312:
3311:thermal image
3308:
3302:
3297:
3293:
3286:
3281:
3280:
3266:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3233:
3230:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3192:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3180:
3179:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3159:Applications
3157:
3151:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3142:12D reduction
3139:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3105:factors like
3104:
3099:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3020:
3017:
3014:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3004:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2967:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2956:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2894:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2861:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2850:Ice cream mix
2849:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2815:
2813:
2807:
2805:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2742:
2740:
2731:
2717:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2702:
2699:
2694:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2679:
2677:
2672:
2668:
2662:
2652:
2650:
2632:
2628:
2607:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2589:
2586:
2581:
2578:
2574:
2568:
2549:
2530:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2498:
2479:
2476:
2471:
2465:
2455:
2378:
2360:
2357:
2349:
2345:
2324:
2315:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2283:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2253:
2244:
2231:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2210:
2200:
2192:
2184:
2176:
2170:
2160:
2127:
2124:
2099:
2046:
2028:
2020:
2014:
2004:
1988:
1980:
1978:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1931:
1911:
1902:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1870:
1865:
1851:
1844:
1838:
1832:
1829:
1824:
1810:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1785:
1775:
1771:
1754:
1745:
1743:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1690:
1683:
1680:
1675:
1661:
1654:
1645:
1635:
1631:
1614:
1605:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1574:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1553:
1547:
1541:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1494:
1490:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1411:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1356:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1313:
1298:
1291:
1288:
1272:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1227:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1177:ring circuits
1174:
1170:
1169:high voltages
1167:. The use of
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1137:ohmic heating
1128:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1049:Heinrich Lenz
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
991:
986:
973:
969:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
947:
944:
941:
938:
935:
932:(also called
931:
927:
923:
922:
921:
918:
916:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
884:
882:
878:
874:
870:
869:Joule heating
859:
854:
852:
847:
845:
840:
839:
837:
836:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
650:
644:
643:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
597:
594:
589:
588:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
512:
509:
504:
503:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
450:Joule heating
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
402:
399:
394:
393:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
365:Lorentz force
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
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