810:
strong as a potential enemy; there is security only in being a little stronger. There is no possibility of action if one's strength is fully checked; there is a chance for a positive foreign policy only if there is a margin of force which can be freely used. Whatever the theory and rationalization, the practical objective is the constant improvement of the state's own relative power position. The balance desired is the one which neutralizes other states, leaving the home state free to be the deciding force and the deciding voice."
853:"The facts of location do not change. The significant of such facts changes with every shift in the means of communication, in routes of communication, in the technique of war, and in the centers of world power, and the full meaning of a given location can be obtained only by considering the specific area in relations to two systems of reference: a geographic system of reference from which we derive the facts of location, and a historical system of reference by which we evaluate those facts."
25:
823:" political equilibrium is neither a gift of the gods nor an inherently stable condition. It results from the active intervention of man, from the operation of political forces. States cannot afford to wait passively for the happy time when a miraculously achieved balance of power will bring peace and security. If they wish to survive, they must be willing to go to war to preserve a balance against the growing
615:
The
Rimland has great importance because of its demographic weight, natural resources, and industrial development. Spykman sees that its importance to be the reason that the Rimland will be crucial to containing the Heartland, but Mackinder had believed that the Outer or Insular Crescent would be the
408:
neither does the entire foreign policy of a country lie in geography, nor does any part of that policy lie entirely in geography. The factors that condition the policy of states are many; they are permanent and temporary, obvious and hidden; they include, apart from the geographic factor, population
607:
The
Rimland's defining characteristic is that it is an intermediate region, lying between the Heartland and the marginal sea powers. As the amphibious buffer zone between the land powers and sea powers, it must defend itself from both sides, the cause of its fundamental security problems. Spykman's
809:
to limit their own strength. States are always engaged in curbing the force of some other state. The truth of the matter is that states are interested only in a balance which is in their favor. Not an equilibrium, but a generous margin is their objective. There is no real security in being just as
465:
geographer. Spykman's work is based on assumptions similar to
Mackinder, the unity of world politics and the unity of the world sea, but extends it to include the unity of the air. The exploration of the entire world means that the foreign policy of any nation will affect more than its immediate
413:
According to
Spykman, topography affected the unity and internal coherence of states, and climate affected the economic structure of the state. Spykman argued that the "comparative size of states" was a rough indication of the comparative strength of states (provided that there was political and
671:
Again, Spykman differs from
Mackinder, who sees Eurasian wars as historically pitting the Heartland against the sea powers for control of the rimland, establishing a land power-sea power opposition. Spykman states that historically, battles have pitted either Britain and Rimland allies against
409:
density, the economic structure of the country, the ethnic composition of the people, the form of government, and the complexes and pet prejudices of foreign ministers; and it is their simultaneous action and interaction that create the complex phenomenon known as "foreign policy."
404:. Since geography was "the most fundamentally conditioning factor because of its relative permanence," it is of primary relevance in analyzing a state's potential foreign policy. However, Spykman rejected that geography had a "deterministic, causal role in foreign policy, arguing,
727:
strong after World War II to be able to counter Russia's power. Strategically, there was no difference between
Germany dominating all the way to the Ural or Russia controlling all the way to Germany, and as both scenarios were equally threatening to the US.
133:
676:
and its
Rimland allies or Britain and Russia together against a dominating Rimland power. In other words, the Eurasian struggle was not the sea powers containing the Heartland but the prevention of any power from ruling the Rimland.
735:
and that China and Russia would remain to struggle against each other over boundaries. He also forecast the rise of China, becoming the dominant power in Asia and that the US would thus take responsibility for Japan's defense.
378:" or "quarter defense"), was bound to fail. His object was to prevent another US retreat, as what occurred after World War I. The book was praised as an important contribution. The book got a laudatory front-page review in the
344:, where he was an assistant professor of international relations. He became a full professor in 1928 and the chair of the university's department of international relations in 1935. Also in 1935, he was a co-founder of the
389:
should be read in not less than a million
American homes. Every government official responsible for policy should read it once a year for the next twenty years—even if he may not agree with some of the remedies proposed."
988:
644:
and the "Asiatic
Mediterranean." Neither has ever been the seat of significant power; chaos prevents Africa from harnessing the resources of its regions, and Australia has too little arable territory.
417:
He wrote that all states tend towards expansion, "Other things being equal, all states have a tendency to expand." Even small states seek to expand, but are limited in doing so by various barriers.
743:
and argued that US interests favored balanced power in Europe, rather than integrated power. The US was fighting a war against
Germany to prevent Europe's conquest, and it would not make sense to
414:
economic integration of the state). He also argued that "Size is of primary importance as an element of defense, particularly if the vital centers of a country are far removed from the border."
324:, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1921, a master's degree in 1922, and a Ph.D. in 1923. The subject of his dissertation, which he subsequently revised for publication, was
922:
Methods of Approach to the Study of International Relations, in: Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of Teachers of International Law and Related Subjects, Washington 1933
919:
International Relations from the Point of View of Teaching, in: Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of Teachers of International Law and Related Subjects, Washington 1930
496:
At the same time, even if he gives credit to the strategic importance of maritime space like Mackinder, he does not see it as a region that will be unified by powerful
523:
as well. Since the political and material center of gravity was in the Western part of the USSR, Spykman sees little possibility of the Soviets exerting much power in
273:
of International Relations, teaching as part of the Institute for International Studies at Yale University, one of his prime concerns was making his students
715:
Therefore, British, Russian, and US power would play the key roles in controlling the European litoral and there the essential power relations of the world.
1413:
840:"Nations which renounce the power struggle and deliberately choose impotence will cease to influence international relations either for evil or good."
263:
1431:
1082:
519:
remained in a small portion of its territory, mostly in the West. Indeed, the Soviet's raw materials were largely located to the West of the
367:
132:
1491:
1471:
1466:
305:
He worked as a journalist in various parts of the world during much of the 1910s and also served as a diplomatic assistant for the
89:
1486:
345:
758:
and the founders of the containment strategy would borrow heavily from Spykman, as well as Mackinder, when forging the American
61:
1461:
1401:
1181:
581:
While Spykman accepts the first two as defined, he rejects the simple grouping the Asian countries into one "monsoon land."
1274:
1216:
68:
42:
878:
508:. Spykman agrees that the Heartland offers a uniquely-defensive position, but that is all Spykman grants its occupier.
321:
1055:
1481:
248:
108:
75:
1476:
396:
was published the year after Spykman's death. He explained his geostrategy and argued that the balance of power in
1331:
640:. Spykman sees both continents' geopolitical status as determined respectively by the state of control over the
328:. He then was an instructor in political science and sociology there from 1923 to 1925. He became a naturalized
57:
1369:
1350:
530:
Still, the Soviet Union was to remain the greatest land power in Asia and could be a peacekeeper or a problem.
46:
1441:
329:
400:
directly affected US security. In his writings on geography and foreign policy, Spykman was somewhat of a
1446:
899:
806:
1394:
The Revenge of Geography: What the Maps Tell Us About the Coming Conflicts and the Battle Against Fate
348:
and was its first director. He held that position until 1940, when he became ill and relinquished it.
1380:
401:
1436:
82:
35:
426:
176:
771:"Geography is the most fundamental factor in foreign policy because it is the most permanent."
1153:
504:
infrastructure in the near future. As such, it will not be in a position to compete with US
1456:
1451:
740:
200:
1364:
1345:
8:
609:
294:
240:
1310:
1302:
1252:
1244:
1125:
1024:
1016:
801:"There are not many instances in history which show great and powerful states creating
755:
454:
375:
270:
886:
1397:
1314:
1294:
1256:
1236:
1177:
1117:
1028:
1008:
894:
802:
641:
458:
314:
466:
neighbors; it will affect the alignment of nations throughout the world's regions.
1389:
1286:
1228:
1109:
1000:
593:
290:
252:
192:
989:"The Contribution of Nicholas John Spykman to the Study of International Politics"
1171:
784:"Plans for far-reaching changes in the character of international society are an
647:
Other than the two continents, the offshore islands of significance are Britain,
470:
mobility opened up the possibility of a new geopolitical structure: the overseas
341:
320:
He then came to the United States around 1920 to enter a doctoral program at the
244:
887:
America's Strategy in World Politics: The United States and the Balance of Power
612:'s "debated and debatable zone" than to Mackinder's Inner or Marginal Crescent.
1381:
Re-thinking Nicholas J. Spykman: from historical sociology to balance of power.
656:
561:
520:
497:
487:
the Offshore Islands & Continents (Mackinder's "outer or insular crescent")
462:
247:
from 1928 until his death in 1943. He was one of the founders of the classical
196:
1425:
1298:
1240:
1121:
1012:
660:
501:
438:
382:
219:
785:
597:
586:
524:
450:
371:
363:
325:
277:
literate, as geopolitics was impossible without geographic understanding.
747:
or to unify Europe after a war that had been fought to preserve balance.
732:
516:
306:
266:
259:
239:(pronounced "Speak-man", 13 October 1893 – 26 June 1943) was an American
188:
1306:
1248:
1129:
1097:
1020:
744:
467:
449:
He could be considered as a disciple and critic of both geostrategists
362:
was published in 1942, soon after the entry of the United States into
652:
637:
625:
505:
425:
He died of heart complications on 26 June 1943, at the age of 49, in
286:
274:
157:
1290:
1232:
1004:
477:
Spykman adopts Mackinder's divisions of the world but renames some:
24:
1113:
824:
759:
589:
484:
the Rimland (analogous to Mackinder's "inner or marginal crescent")
953:
with A. A. Rollins, Geographic Objectives in Foreign Policy, II,
724:
629:
574:
557:
539:
397:
946:
with A. A. Rollins, Geographic Objectives in Foreign Policy, I,
1173:
American Geography and Geographers: Toward Geographical Science
723:
Spykman thought that it was in the American interests to leave
673:
633:
564:
547:
471:
648:
601:
582:
550:
310:
374:, which relied on the oceans to protect the United States ("
571:
512:
1150:
Critical Geopolitics: The Politics of Writing Global Space
385:
commented in 1942, "On grounds of merit and public value
608:
conception of the Rimland bears greater resemblance to
710:
Who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the world.
690:
Who controls the Heartland rules the World Island; and
542:(Mackinder's "Inner or Marginal Crescent") sections:
960:
Frontiers, Security, and International Organization,
429:, a result of kidney disease contracted when young.
616:most important factor in containing the Heartland.
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1050:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
680:Spykman disagrees with Mackinder's famous dictum:
1423:
1273:Spykman, Nicholas J.; Rollins, Abbie A. (1939).
685:Who controls eastern Europe rules the Heartland;
251:school in American foreign policy, transmitting
243:who was Professor of International Relations at
1098:"In Memoriam: Nicholas John Spykman, 1893-1943"
1035:
356:Spykman published two books on foreign policy.
262:and geostrategy led him to be to known as the "
1272:
1147:
912:The Social Background of Asiatic Nationalism,
890:, New York, Harcourt, Brace and Company (1942)
882:, New York, Harcourt, Brace and Company (1944)
858:—from "Geography and Foreign Policy I",
1275:"Geographic Objectives in Foreign Policy, I"
731:Spykman predicted that Japan would lose the
695:Who rules the World Island rules the World.
1143:
1141:
1139:
862:, Vol XXXII, No. 1 (February 1938), p. 29.
437:He was married to the children's novelist
131:
515:encompassed a great expanse of land, its
255:political thought to the United States.
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1176:. Oxford University Press. p. 861.
1214:
1136:
1095:
1066:
986:
705:Who controls the Rimland rules Eurasia;
346:Yale Institute of International Studies
285:Spykman was born on 13 October 1893 in
16:American political scientist, 1893–1943
1424:
1169:
1056:"Dr. N. J. Spykman of Yale Dies at 49"
619:
955:The American Political Science Review
948:The American Political Science Review
941:The American Political Science Review
934:The American Political Science Review
718:
444:
1432:Dutch emigrants to the United States
1268:
1266:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1165:
1163:
982:
980:
978:
847:America's Strategy in World Politics
834:America's Strategy in World Politics
817:America's Strategy in World Politics
795:America's Strategy in World Politics
666:
387:America’s Strategy in World Politics
360:America's Strategy in World Politics
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
13:
1325:
1073:""Nicholas J. Spykman 1893–1943".
939:Geography and Foreign Policy, II,
322:University of California, Berkeley
14:
1503:
1492:Deaths from cancer in Connecticut
1407:
1385:The International History Review.
1279:American Political Science Review
1263:
1221:American Political Science Review
1217:"Geography and Foreign Policy, I"
1203:
1160:
975:
932:Geography and Foreign Policy, I,
914:The American Journal of Sociology
895:The Social Theory of Georg Simmel
860:American Political Science Review
1472:University of California faculty
1196:"Political Geography of Power,"
432:
23:
1467:University of California alumni
925:States’ Rights and the League,
34:needs additional citations for
1487:20th-century Dutch journalists
1190:
1096:Teggart, Frederick J. (1943).
1089:
788:by-product of all great wars."
1:
1215:Spykman, Nicholas J. (1938).
1102:American Journal of Sociology
1075:Sociology and Social Research
968:
765:
280:
1462:20th-century Dutch diplomats
1370:Resources in other libraries
1351:Resources in other libraries
1170:Martin, Geoffrey J. (2015).
1062:. June 27, 1943. p. 33.
491:
335:
330:citizen of the United States
7:
906:
900:University of Chicago Press
380:New York Times Book Review.
10:
1508:
987:Furniss, Edgar S. (1952).
879:The Geography of the Peace
778:The Geography of the Peace
533:
394:The Geography of the Peace
1365:Resources in your library
1346:Resources in your library
750:
351:
300:
226:
215:
207:
184:
165:
139:
130:
123:
1482:Yale Sterling Professors
1396:New York: Random House.
871:
866:
420:
402:geographical determinist
1477:Yale University faculty
1379:Antero Holmila (2019) "
739:Spykman was opposed to
700:He refashions it thus:
624:There are two offshore
1359:By Nicholas J. Spykman
1200:, 32/1, (1942): p 350.
427:New Haven, Connecticut
411:
177:New Haven, Connecticut
1414:"Spykman's World" at
827:power of the period."
406:
366:. Concerned with the
237:Nicholas John Spykman
144:Nicholas John Spykman
58:"Nicholas J. Spykman"
1442:Military geographers
1148:Gearóid Ó Tuathail.
741:European integration
596:had a geography and
340:In 1925, he came to
43:improve this article
1337:Nicholas J. Spykman
1198:Geographical Review
962:Geographical Review
620:Offshore continents
610:Alfred Thayer Mahan
295:University of Cairo
241:political scientist
211:Political scientist
125:Nicholas J. Spykman
1447:Political realists
1416:American Diplomacy
1060:The New York Times
756:John Foster Dulles
719:US strategic goals
655:, buffered by the
600:separate from the
455:United States Navy
445:Geostrategic ideas
271:Sterling Professor
1402:978-1-4000-6983-5
1390:Kaplan, Robert D.
1332:Library resources
1183:978-0-19-533602-3
667:Eurasian dynamics
642:Mediterranean Sea
459:Halford Mackinder
370:, he argued that
315:Dutch East Indies
234:
233:
119:
118:
111:
93:
1499:
1319:
1318:
1270:
1261:
1260:
1212:
1201:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1167:
1158:
1157:
1145:
1134:
1133:
1093:
1087:
1086:
1070:
1064:
1063:
1052:
1033:
1032:
984:
594:culture of India
368:balance of power
291:Delft University
253:Eastern European
222:(marriage, 1931)
172:
153:
151:
135:
121:
120:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
1507:
1506:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1422:
1421:
1410:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1356:
1355:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1328:
1326:Further reading
1323:
1322:
1291:10.2307/1948794
1271:
1264:
1233:10.2307/1949029
1213:
1204:
1195:
1191:
1184:
1168:
1161:
1146:
1137:
1094:
1090:
1072:
1071:
1067:
1054:
1053:
1036:
1005:10.2307/2009129
985:
976:
971:
927:The Yale Review
909:
874:
869:
768:
753:
721:
669:
622:
536:
494:
447:
435:
423:
354:
342:Yale University
338:
303:
283:
245:Yale University
180:
174:
170:
161:
155:
154:13 October 1893
149:
147:
146:
145:
126:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1505:
1495:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1437:Geopoliticians
1434:
1420:
1419:
1409:
1408:External links
1406:
1405:
1404:
1387:
1373:
1372:
1367:
1361:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1285:(3): 391–410.
1262:
1202:
1189:
1182:
1159:
1135:
1114:10.1086/219311
1088:
1065:
1034:
999:(3): 382–401.
993:World Politics
973:
972:
970:
967:
966:
965:
958:
951:
944:
937:
930:
923:
920:
917:
908:
905:
904:
903:
891:
883:
873:
870:
868:
865:
864:
863:
855:
854:
850:
849:
842:
841:
837:
836:
829:
828:
820:
819:
812:
811:
798:
797:
790:
789:
781:
780:
773:
772:
767:
764:
752:
749:
720:
717:
713:
712:
707:
698:
697:
692:
687:
668:
665:
657:Atlantic Ocean
621:
618:
579:
578:
568:
562:Middle Eastern
554:
535:
532:
521:Ural Mountains
498:transportation
493:
490:
489:
488:
485:
482:
446:
443:
434:
431:
422:
419:
353:
350:
337:
334:
302:
299:
289:. He attended
282:
279:
275:geographically
232:
231:
228:
224:
223:
217:
213:
212:
209:
205:
204:
186:
182:
181:
175:
173:(aged 49)
167:
163:
162:
156:
143:
141:
137:
136:
128:
127:
124:
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1504:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1418:
1417:
1412:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1360:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1269:
1267:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1199:
1193:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1166:
1164:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1092:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
983:
981:
979:
974:
964:1942, issue 3
963:
959:
957:1939, issue 4
956:
952:
950:1939, issue 3
949:
945:
943:1938, issue 2
942:
938:
936:1938, issue 1
935:
931:
929:1934, issue 2
928:
924:
921:
918:
916:1926, issue 3
915:
911:
910:
901:
897:
896:
892:
889:
888:
884:
881:
880:
876:
875:
861:
857:
856:
852:
851:
848:
844:
843:
839:
838:
835:
831:
830:
826:
822:
821:
818:
814:
813:
808:
807:organizations
804:
800:
799:
796:
792:
791:
787:
783:
782:
779:
775:
774:
770:
769:
763:
761:
757:
748:
746:
742:
737:
734:
729:
726:
716:
711:
708:
706:
703:
702:
701:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
682:
681:
678:
675:
664:
662:
661:Pacific Ocean
658:
654:
650:
645:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
617:
613:
611:
605:
603:
599:
595:
591:
588:
584:
576:
573:
569:
566:
563:
559:
555:
552:
549:
545:
544:
543:
541:
531:
528:
526:
522:
518:
514:
509:
507:
503:
502:communication
499:
486:
483:
481:the Heartland
480:
479:
478:
475:
473:
469:
464:
460:
456:
452:
442:
440:
439:E. C. Spykman
433:Personal life
430:
428:
418:
415:
410:
405:
403:
399:
395:
391:
388:
384:
383:Isaiah Bowman
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
349:
347:
343:
333:
331:
327:
323:
318:
316:
312:
308:
298:
296:
292:
288:
278:
276:
272:
268:
265:
261:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
229:
225:
221:
220:E. C. Spykman
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
187:
183:
178:
168:
164:
160:, Netherlands
159:
142:
138:
134:
129:
122:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
1415:
1393:
1384:
1358:
1336:
1282:
1278:
1227:(1): 28–50.
1224:
1220:
1197:
1192:
1172:
1149:
1105:
1101:
1091:
1078:
1074:
1068:
1059:
996:
992:
961:
954:
947:
940:
933:
926:
913:
893:
885:
877:
859:
846:
845:—from
833:
832:—from
816:
815:—from
794:
793:—from
786:intellectual
777:
754:
738:
730:
722:
714:
709:
704:
699:
694:
689:
684:
679:
670:
646:
623:
614:
606:
598:civilization
587:Indian Ocean
580:
537:
529:
525:Central Asia
510:
495:
476:
451:Alfred Mahan
448:
436:
424:
416:
412:
407:
393:
392:
386:
379:
372:isolationism
364:World War II
359:
358:
355:
339:
326:Georg Simmel
319:
304:
284:
264:godfather of
258:His work on
257:
236:
235:
171:(1943-06-26)
169:26 June 1943
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1457:1943 deaths
1452:1893 births
898:, Chicago,
733:Pacific War
517:arable land
376:hemispheric
307:Netherlands
267:containment
260:geopolitics
230:2 daughters
189:UC Berkeley
1426:Categories
1152:. p.
969:References
766:Quotations
762:strategy.
745:federalize
626:continents
592:, and the
567:land; and,
511:While the
281:Early life
208:Occupation
150:1893-10-13
69:newspapers
1315:145371343
1299:0003-0554
1257:140190815
1241:0003-0554
1122:0002-9602
1108:(1): 60.
1029:154518113
1013:1086-3338
902:(c. 1925)
825:hegemonic
803:alliances
653:New World
638:Australia
628:flanking
506:sea power
492:Heartland
453:, of the
336:Professor
332:in 1928.
287:Amsterdam
216:Spouse(s)
185:Education
158:Amsterdam
99:June 2020
907:Articles
760:Cold War
659:and the
651:and the
590:littoral
548:European
468:Maritime
313:and the
293:and the
227:Children
1392:(2012)
1307:1948794
1249:1949029
1130:2770708
1021:2009129
725:Germany
630:Eurasia
604:lands.
602:Chinese
575:monsoon
572:Asiatic
558:Arabian
540:Rimland
534:Rimland
463:British
398:Eurasia
249:realist
83:scholar
1400:
1334:about
1313:
1305:
1297:
1255:
1247:
1239:
1180:
1128:
1120:
1027:
1019:
1011:
776:—from
751:Legacy
674:Russia
634:Africa
585:, the
565:desert
472:empire
461:, the
457:, and
352:Author
301:Career
179:, U.S.
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
1311:S2CID
1303:JSTOR
1253:S2CID
1245:JSTOR
1126:JSTOR
1025:S2CID
1017:JSTOR
872:Books
867:Works
649:Japan
583:India
577:land.
553:land;
551:coast
421:Death
311:Egypt
269:." A
90:JSTOR
76:books
1398:ISBN
1295:ISSN
1237:ISSN
1178:ISBN
1118:ISSN
1009:ISSN
805:and
636:and
570:the
556:the
546:the
538:The
513:USSR
166:Died
140:Born
62:news
1287:doi
1229:doi
1110:doi
1083:312
1001:doi
500:or
309:in
201:PhD
45:by
1428::
1383:"
1309:.
1301:.
1293:.
1283:33
1281:.
1277:.
1265:^
1251:.
1243:.
1235:.
1225:32
1223:.
1219:.
1205:^
1162:^
1154:50
1138:^
1124:.
1116:.
1106:49
1104:.
1100:.
1081::
1079:28
1077:.
1058:.
1037:^
1023:.
1015:.
1007:.
995:.
991:.
977:^
663:.
632::
527:.
474:.
441:.
317:.
297:.
199:,
197:MA
195:,
193:BA
1317:.
1289::
1259:.
1231::
1186:.
1156:.
1132:.
1112::
1085:.
1031:.
1003::
997:4
560:-
203:)
191:(
152:)
148:(
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
