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draw a line between acceptable shifts and problematic changes. This becomes even harder when dealing with neurotechnologies aimed at influencing psychological processes—such as those designed to recude the symptoms of depression or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by modulating emotional states or saliency of memories to ease a patient's pain. Even helping a patient remember, which would seemingly help preserve identity, can be a delicate question: "Forgetting is also important to how a person navigates the world, since it allows the opportunity for both losing track of embarrassing or difficult memories, and focusing on future-oriented activity. Efforts to enhance identity through memory preservation thus run the risk of inadvertently damaging a valuable, if less consciously-driven cognitive process."
506:). Current improvements such as "brain fingerprinting" or lie detection using EEG or fMRI could give rise to a set fixture of loci/emotional relationships in the brain, although these technologies are still years away from full application. It is important to consider how all these neurotechnologies might affect the future of society, and it is suggested that political, scientific, and civil debates are heard about the implementation of these newer technologies that potentially offer a new wealth of once-private information. Some ethicists are also concerned with the use of TMS and fear that the technique could be used to alter patients in ways that are undesired by the patient.
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480:, agency is commonly understood as the individual's ability to consciously make and communicate a decision or choice. While identity and agency are distinct, an impairment in agency can in turn undermine personal identity: the subject may no longer be able to substantially modify their own self-narrative, and may therefore lose their ability to contribute to the dynamic process of identity formation.
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328:(MEG) is another method of measuring activity in the brain by measuring the magnetic fields that arise from electrical currents in the brain. The benefit to using MEG instead of EEG is that these fields are highly localized and give rise to better understanding of how specific loci react to stimulation or if these regions over-activate (as in epileptic seizures).
283:, hallucinations, and other disorders. Currently, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation is being researched to see if positive behavioral effects of TMS can be made more permanent. Some techniques combine TMS and another scanning method such as EEG to get additional information about brain activity such as cortical response.
336:. Similarly, real-time fMRI is being researched as a method for pain therapy by altering how people perceive pain if they are made aware of how their brain is functioning while in pain. By providing direct and understandable feedback, researchers can help patients with chronic pain decrease their symptoms.
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The interplay between agency and neurotechnology can have implications for moral responsibility and legal liability. As with identity, devices aimed at treating some psychiatric conditions like depression or anorexia may work by modulating neural function linked with desire or motivation, potentially
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assessment of brain electric activity during TDCS promise to advance understanding of these mechanisms. Research into using TDCS on healthy adults have demonstrated that TDCS can increase cognitive performance on a variety of tasks, depending on the area of the brain being stimulated. TDCS has been
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tools. Because these devices often operate by interpreting sensory inputs or the user's neural data in order to estimate the individual's intention and respond according to it, estimation margins can lead to inaccurate or undesired responses that may threaten agency: "If the agent's intent and the
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but can have side effects that touch on the concept of identity, such as loss of voice modulation, increased impulsivity or feelings of self-estrangement. In the case of neural prostheses and brain-computer interfaces, the shift may take the form of an extension of one's sense of self, potentially
331:
There are potential uses for EEG and MEG such as charting rehabilitation and improvement after trauma as well as testing neural conductivity in specific regions of epileptics or patients with personality disorders. EEG has been fundamental in understanding the resting brain during sleep. Real-time
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Part of the difficulty in determining which changes constitute a threat to identity is rooted in its dynamic nature: since one's personality and concept of self is expected to change with time as a result of emotional development and lived experience, it is not easy to identify clear criteria and
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act as chemical modulators in the brain, and they allow for normal activity in many people whose brains cannot act normally under physiological conditions. While pharmaceuticals are usually not mentioned and have their own field, the role of pharmaceuticals is perhaps the most far-reaching and
267:
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a technique for applying magnetic fields to the brain to manipulate electrical activity at specific loci in the brain. This field of study is currently receiving a large amount of attention due to the potential benefits that could come out of better
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Finally, when these technologies are being developed society must understand that these neurotechnologies could reveal the one thing that people can always keep secret: what they are thinking. While there are large amounts of benefits associated with these technologies, it is necessary for
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Tecchio F, Cancelli A, Pizzichino A, L'Abbate T, Gianni E, Bertoli M, Paulon L, Zannino S, Giordani A, Lupoi D, Pasqualetti P, Mirabella M, Filippi MM (2022). "Home treatment against fatigue in multiple sclerosis by a personalized, bilateral whole-body somatosensory cortex stimulation".
358:
Neurotechnological implants can be used to record and utilize brain activity to control other devices which provide feedback to the user or replace missing biological functions. The most common neurodevices available for clinical use are deep brain stimulators implanted in the
318:(EEG) is a method of measuring brainwave activity non-invasively. A number of electrodes are placed around the head and scalp and electrical signals are measured. Clinically, EEGs are used to study epilepsy as well as stroke and tumor presence in the brain.
521:
of individuals to control their own mental processes, cognition, and consciousness including by the use of various neurotechnologies and psychoactive substances. This perceived right is relevant for reformation and development of associated laws.
681:
Cook MJ, O'Brien TJ, Berkovic SF, Murphy M, Morokoff A, Fabinyi G, et al. (June 2013). "Prediction of seizure likelihood with a long-term, implanted seizure advisory system in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy: a first-in-man study".
158:
revolutionized the field, allowing researchers to directly monitor the brain's activities during experiments. Practice in neurotechnology can be found in fields such as pharmaceutical practices, be it from drugs for depression, sleep,
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Cathodal tDCS (compared with sham) decreased learning rates during training and resulted in poorer performance which lasted over 24 h after stimulation. Anodal tDCS showed an operation-specific improvement for subtraction
248:
Transcrancial ultrasound stimulation (TUS) is a technique using ultrasound to modulate neural activity in the brain. It is an emerging technique that has shown therapeutic promise in a variety of neurological diseases.
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used to enhance language and mathematical ability (though one form of TDCS was also found to inhibit math learning), attention span, problem solving, memory, coordination and relieve depression and chronic fatigue.
502:
scientists, citizens and policy makers alike to consider implications for privacy. This term is important in many ethical circles concerned with the state and goals of progress in the field of neurotechnology (see
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While disruption of identity is not a common goal for neurotechnologies, some techniques can create unwanted shifts that range in severity. For instance, deep brain stimulation is commonly used as treatment for
423:. While experts agree that these core features of the human experience stand to benefit from the ethical use of neurotechnology, they also make a point of emphasizing the importance of preventively establishing
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device's output can come apart (think of how the auto-correct function in texting sometimes misinterprets the user's intent and sends problematic text messages), the user's sense of agency may be undermined."
1152:"Risk and safety of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: report and suggested guidelines from the International Workshop on the Safety of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, June 5-7, 1996"
268:
understanding this technology. Transcranial magnetic movement of particles in the brain shows promise for drug targeting and delivery as studies have demonstrated this to be noninvasive on brain physiology.
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We found that stimulation of dlPFC significantly increased recollection accuracy, relative to a no-stimulation sham condition and also relative to active stimulation of a comparison region in left parietal
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which uses constant, low current delivered via electrodes placed on the scalp. The mechanisms underlying TDCS effects are still incompletely understood, but recent advances in neurotechnology allowing for
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Many in the field aim to control and harness more of what the brain does and how it influences lifestyles and personalities. Commonplace technologies already attempt to do this; games like
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compromising the user's agency. This can also be the case, paradoxically, for those neurotechnologies designed to restore agency to patients, such as neural prostheses and BCI-mediated
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perception. Advances in the field promise many new enhancements and rehabilitation methods for patients with neurological problems. The neurotechnology revolution has given rise to the
322:(ECoG) relies on similar principles but requires invasive implantation of electrodes on the brain's surface to measure local field potentials or action potentials more sensitively.
416:, neurotechnologies have the potential for profound social and legal repercussions, and as such their development and introduction to society raise a series of ethical questions.
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commonplace in modern society. Movement of magnetic particles to targeted brain regions for drug delivery is an emerging field of study and causes no detectable circuit damage.
1906:
Hochberg LR, Serruya MD, Friehs GM, Mukand JA, Saleh M, Caplan AH, et al. (July 2006). "Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia".
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Pharmaceuticals play a vital role in maintaining stable brain chemistry, and are the most commonly used neurotechnology by the general public and medicine. Drugs like
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a relatively new method of studying how the brain functions and is used in many research labs focused on behavioral disorders,
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incorporating the device as an integral part of oneself or expanding the range of sensory and cognitive channels available to the user beyond the traditional
1600:
Tecchio F, Bertoli M, Gianni E, L'Abbate T, Sbragia E, Stara S, Inglese M (2020). "Parietal dysfunctional connectivity in depression in multiple sclerosis".
2612:"Restoration of reaching and grasping movements through brain-controlled muscle stimulation in a person with tetraplegia: a proof-of-concept demonstration"
1461:
Gray SJ, Brookshire G, Casasanto D, Gallo DA (December 2015). "Electrically stimulating prefrontal cortex at retrieval improves recollection accuracy".
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Goering S, Klein E, Dougherty DD, Widge AS (2017-04-03). "Staying in the Loop: Relational Agency and
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Nitsche MA, Boggio PS, Fregni F, Pascual-Leone A (2009). "Treatment of depression with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a review".
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Currently, modern science can image nearly all aspects of the brain as well as control a degree of the function of the brain. It can help control
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The field of neurotechnology has been around for nearly half a century but has only reached maturity in the last twenty years. The advent of
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49:. In addition to their therapeutic or commercial uses, neurotechnologies also constitute powerful research tools to advance fundamental
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Brunoni AR, Moffa AH, Fregni F, Palm U, Padberg F, Blumberger DM, Daskalakis ZJ, Bennabi D, Haffen E, Alonzo A, Loo CK (2016).
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Deep brain stimulation is currently used in patients with movement disorders to improve the quality of life in patients.
1553:"Transcranial direct current stimulation for acute major depressive episodes: meta-analysis of individual patient data"
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Common design goals for neurotechnologies include using neural activity readings to control external devices such as
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Sellers EW, Vaughan TM, Wolpaw JR (October 2010). "A brain-computer interface for long-term independent home use".
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Farwell LA, Smith SS (January 2001). "Using brain MERMER testing to detect knowledge despite efforts to conceal".
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initiative, which was started in 2007. It also offers the possibility of revealing the mechanisms by which
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1409:"Transcranial direct current stimulation of the posterior parietal cortex modulates arithmetic learning"
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1250:"Movement of magnetic nanoparticles in brain tissue: mechanisms and impact on normal neuronal function"
38:
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1352:"In vivo assessment of human brain oscillations during application of transcranial electric currents"
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Veniero D, Bortoletto M, Miniussi C (July 2009). "TMS-EEG co-registration: on TMS-induced artifact".
185:, over-activation, sleep deprivation, and many other conditions. Therapeutically it can help improve
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727:"Neurotechnologies for Human Cognitive Augmentation: Current State of the Art and Future Prospects"
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that states a
Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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Ramaswamy B, Kulkarni SD, Villar PS, Smith RS, Eberly C, Araneda RC, et al. (October 2015).
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The Brain That
Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science
827:"Brain-computer interfaces for dissecting cognitive processes underlying sensorimotor control"
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and mental integrity and their persistence over time. In other words, it is the individual's
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42:
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Ajiboye AB, Willett FR, Young DR, Memberg WD, Murphy BA, Miller JP, et al. (May 2017).
2300:""I Am Who I Am": On the Perceived Threats to Personal Identity from Deep Brain Stimulation"
1196:"An ethics perspective on transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and human neuromodulation"
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Key concerns include the preservation of identity, agency, cognitive liberty and privacy as
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Pham U, Solbakk AK, Skogseid IM, Toft M, Pripp AH, Konglund AE, et al. (2015-01-29).
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Yuste R, Goering S, Arcas BA, Bi G, Carmena JM, Carter A, et al. (November 2017).
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Goering S, Klein E, Sullivan LS, Wexler A, y Arcas BA, Bi G, et al. (April 2021).
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Technology that interfaces with the nervous system to monitor or modify neural function
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876:"Integration of optogenetics with complementary methodologies in systems neuroscience"
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patients' motor coordination, improve brain function, reduce epileptic episodes (see
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1645:"tDCS randomized controlled trials in no-structural diseases: a quantitative review"
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925:"On the Use of TMS to Investigate the Pathophysiology of Neurodegenerative Diseases"
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1085:"What happened to posteroventral pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease and dystonia?"
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1849:"Control over brain activation and pain learned by using real-time functional MRI"
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The changing nervous system: neurobehavioral consequences of early brain disorders
580:"Recommendations for Responsible Development and Application of Neurotechnologies"
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and other mechanisms that protect against inappropriate or unauthorized uses.
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Gianni E, Bertoli M, Simonelli I, Paulon L, Tecchio F, Pasqualetti P (2021).
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2197:"I Miss Being Me: Phenomenological Effects of Deep Brain Stimulation"
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Transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS) is a form of
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that aim to improve brain function, are neurotechnologies.
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personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
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Although the nuances of its definition are debated in
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193:), improve patients with degenerative motor diseases (
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Electroencephalography and
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725:Cinel C, Valeriani D, Poli R (31 January 2019).
874:Kim CK, Adhikari A, Deisseroth K (March 2017).
2146:Pugh J, Maslen H, Savulescu J (October 2017).
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3625:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
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41:to repair or normalize function affected by
1997:International Journal of Law and Psychiatry
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56:Some examples of neurotechnologies include
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2664:Wolpe PR, Foster KR, Langleben DD (2005).
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2350:Steinert S, Friedrich O (February 2020).
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1045:The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences
1041:"For an international decade of the mind"
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142:Learn how and when to remove this message
2152:Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics
1761:. Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 715.
163:, or anti-neurotics to cancer scanning,
30:to monitor or modulate neural activity.
2453:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
293:Transcranial direct current stimulation
287:Transcranial direct current stimulation
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1194:Illes J, Gallo M, Kirschen MP (2006).
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350:Surface chemistry of neural implants
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263:Pulsed electromagnetic field therapy
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435:Identity in this context refers to
332:EEG has been considered for use in
244:Transcranial ultrasound stimulation
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3605:Development of the nervous system
2670:The American Journal of Bioethics
1999:. Neuroscience, Law, and Ethics.
636:Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience
259:Transcranial magnetic stimulation
253:Transcranial magnetic stimulation
74:transcranial electric stimulation
70:transcranial magnetic stimulation
26:device which interfaces with the
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776:Wander JD, Rao RP (April 2014).
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2088:
2031:
1899:
1790:
1775:
1703:
1636:
1593:
1544:
1522:10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.03.038
1501:
1343:
1143:
1125:
1007:
831:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
782:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
731:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
517:refers to a suggested right to
205:), and can even help alleviate
37:, altering neural activity via
2356:Science and Engineering Ethics
1784:"Magnetoencephalography (MEG)"
1782:Hämäläinen M (November 2007).
1150:Wassermann EM (January 1998).
993:. Oxford University Press US.
987:Broman SH, Fletcher J (1999).
967:
916:
867:
818:
769:
674:
425:specific regulatory frameworks
47:augmenting cognitive abilities
1:
3446:Social cognitive neuroscience
2628:10.1016/s0140-6736(17)30601-3
2569:Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
2538:10.1080/21507740.2017.1320320
2417:10.1080/21507740.2019.1632964
2214:10.1080/21507740.2017.1320319
1168:10.1016/S0168-5597(97)00096-8
696:10.1016/s1474-4422(13)70075-9
552:
91:
3421:Molecular cellular cognition
1799:Journal of Forensic Sciences
1759:Neuroscience, Fourth Edition
1475:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.09.003
1311:10.1016/j.clinph.2009.04.023
880:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
60:, photostimulation based on
7:
3640:Neurodevelopmental disorder
3615:Neural network (biological)
3610:Neural network (artificial)
2446:Wilson G, Shpall S (2016).
1960:Al-Rodhan N (27 May 2021).
1725:10.1016/j.msard.2022.103813
630:MĂĽller O, Rotter S (2017).
525:
430:
339:
10:
3761:
3167:Computational neuroscience
2879:Computational neuroscience
2782:Intelligence amplification
2368:10.1007/s11948-019-00087-2
2009:10.1016/j.ijlp.2018.10.002
1669:10.1038/s41598-021-95084-6
1266:10.1016/j.nano.2015.06.003
1101:10.1016/j.nurt.2008.02.001
843:10.1016/j.conb.2015.12.005
794:10.1016/j.conb.2013.11.013
596:10.1007/s12152-021-09468-6
496:
401:
374:
343:
290:
256:
233:
22:encompasses any method or
3698:
3635:Neurodegenerative disease
3592:
3479:Evolutionary neuroscience
3454:
3394:
3269:
3258:
3130:
3112:
3040:
3004:
2928:
2902:
2861:
2834:
2823:
2744:
2682:10.1080/15265160590923367
2581:10.3109/17482961003777470
2485:10.1007/s11023-012-9298-7
2316:10.1007/s12152-011-9137-1
2250:Frontiers in Neuroscience
2164:10.1017/S0963180117000147
1569:10.1192/bjp.bp.115.164715
942:10.3389/fneur.2020.584664
467:
78:brain–computer interfaces
3600:Brain–computer interface
3549:Neuromorphic engineering
3474:Educational neuroscience
3381:Nutritional neuroscience
3286:Clinical neurophysiology
3182:Integrative neuroscience
2738:Brain–computer interface
2263:10.3389/fnins.2019.01177
1614:10.1177/1352458520964412
1299:Clinical Neurophysiology
744:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00013
649:10.3389/fnsys.2017.00093
346:Brain–computer interface
224:
3411:Behavioral neuroscience
2298:Baylis F (2013-12-01).
1874:10.1073/pnas.0505210102
1713:Mult Scler Relat Disord
1083:Gross RE (April 2008).
377:Neuropsychopharmacology
221:emerge from the brain.
3406:Affective neuroscience
3187:Molecular neuroscience
3142:Behavioral epigenetics
2874:Cognitive neuroscience
2244:Hildt E (5 Nov 2019).
1039:Olds JL (April 2011).
929:Frontiers in Neurology
490:computer accessibility
414:disruptive innovations
398:Ethical considerations
326:Magnetoencephalography
316:Electroencephalography
236:Deep brain stimulation
230:Deep brain stimulation
122:by rewriting it in an
58:deep brain stimulation
43:neurological disorders
3469:Cultural neuroscience
3464:Consumer neuroscience
3306:Neurogastroenterology
3162:Cellular neuroscience
3022:Simulation hypothesis
2450:. In Zalta EN (ed.).
1356:Nature Communications
1200:Behavioural Neurology
684:The Lancet. Neurology
447:and concept of self.
165:stroke rehabilitation
3441:Sensory neuroscience
3281:Behavioral neurology
3252:Systems neuroscience
2842:Electrocorticography
2835:Scientific phenomena
2807:Sensory substitution
2622:(10081): 1821–1830.
488:like wheelchairs or
486:assistive technology
320:Electrocorticography
199:Huntington's disease
174:, and programs like
3584:Social neuroscience
3484:Global neurosurgery
3361:Neurorehabilitation
3331:Neuro-ophthalmology
3316:Neurointensive care
3147:Behavioral genetics
2817:Synthetic telepathy
2458:Stanford University
2114:10.1155/2015/490507
2101:Parkinson's Disease
2056:2017Natur.551..159Y
1967:Scientific American
1928:10.1038/nature04970
1920:2006Natur.442..164H
1865:2005PNAS..10218626D
1661:2021NatSR..1116311G
1368:2013NatCo...4.2032S
1213:10.1155/2006/791072
892:10.1038/nrn.2017.15
453:Parkinson's disease
437:personal continuity
365:Parkinson's disease
361:subthalamic nucleus
195:Parkinson's disease
3660:Neuroimmune system
3554:Neurophenomenology
3494:Neural engineering
3217:Neuroendocrinology
3197:Neural engineering
3032:Walk Again Project
2951:J. C. R. Licklider
2889:Neural engineering
2473:Minds and Machines
1649:Scientific Reports
1376:10.1038/ncomms3032
537:Neural engineering
519:self-determination
363:for patients with
211:Decade of the Mind
124:encyclopedic style
111:is written like a
3730:
3729:
3579:Paleoneurobiology
3514:Neuroepistemology
3489:Neuroanthropology
3455:Interdisciplinary
3341:Neuropharmacology
3301:Neuroepidemiology
3072:
3071:
3012:Human enhancement
2941:Douglas Engelbart
2869:Cognitive science
2526:AJOB Neuroscience
2405:AJOB Neuroscience
2201:AJOB Neuroscience
2050:(7679): 159–163.
1811:10.1520/JFS14925J
1768:978-0-87893-697-7
1757:Purves D (2007).
1428:10.1111/ejn.12947
1089:Neurotherapeutics
1025:978-0-670-03830-5
1014:Doidge N (2007).
1000:978-0-19-512193-3
515:Cognitive liberty
510:Cognitive liberty
311:Electrophysiology
152:
151:
144:
82:cochlear implants
66:photopharmacology
3750:
3718:
3717:
3706:
3705:
3620:Detection theory
3504:Neurocriminology
3431:Neurolinguistics
3346:Neuroprosthetics
3264:
3227:Neuroinformatics
3177:Imaging genetics
3099:
3092:
3085:
3076:
3075:
3060:
3059:
3048:
3047:
2971:Miguel Nicolelis
2910:Brain transplant
2829:
2792:Neuroprosthetics
2731:
2724:
2717:
2708:
2707:
2702:
2701:
2661:
2650:
2649:
2639:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2496:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2379:
2347:
2338:
2337:
2327:
2295:
2286:
2285:
2275:
2265:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2216:
2192:
2186:
2185:
2175:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2126:
2116:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2075:
2035:
2029:
2028:
1988:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1914:(7099): 164–71.
1903:
1897:
1896:
1886:
1876:
1859:(51): 18626–31.
1837:
1831:
1830:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1754:
1745:
1744:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1690:
1680:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1608:(9): 1468–1469.
1597:
1591:
1590:
1580:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1413:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1387:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1322:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1277:
1245:
1236:
1235:
1225:
1215:
1191:
1180:
1179:
1147:
1141:
1140:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1112:
1080:
1071:
1070:
1060:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1018:. Viking Adult.
1011:
1005:
1004:
984:
978:
971:
965:
964:
954:
944:
920:
914:
913:
903:
871:
865:
864:
854:
822:
816:
815:
805:
773:
767:
766:
756:
746:
722:
716:
715:
678:
672:
671:
661:
651:
627:
618:
617:
607:
575:
354:Neuroprosthetics
299:neurostimulation
147:
140:
136:
133:
127:
104:
103:
96:
86:retinal implants
35:neuroprosthetics
3760:
3759:
3753:
3752:
3751:
3749:
3748:
3747:
3743:Neurotechnology
3733:
3732:
3731:
3726:
3694:
3680:Neurotechnology
3675:Neuroplasticity
3670:Neuromodulation
3665:Neuromanagement
3588:
3559:Neurophilosophy
3456:
3450:
3436:Neuropsychology
3397:
3390:
3351:Neuropsychiatry
3311:Neuroimmunology
3296:Neurocardiology
3272:
3265:
3256:
3247:Neurophysiology
3237:Neuromorphology
3192:Neural decoding
3133:
3126:
3108:
3103:
3073:
3068:
3036:
3000:
2924:
2898:
2857:
2853:Neuroplasticity
2848:Neural ensemble
2830:
2821:
2797:Neurotechnology
2752:Biomechatronics
2740:
2735:
2705:
2662:
2653:
2608:
2604:
2565:
2561:
2522:
2518:
2469:
2465:
2444:
2440:
2397:
2393:
2348:
2341:
2296:
2289:
2242:
2238:
2193:
2189:
2144:
2140:
2093:
2089:
2064:10.1038/551159a
2036:
2032:
1989:
1982:
1972:
1970:
1958:
1951:
1904:
1900:
1838:
1834:
1795:
1791:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1755:
1748:
1708:
1704:
1641:
1637:
1598:
1594:
1557:Br J Psychiatry
1549:
1545:
1506:
1502:
1459:
1455:
1411:
1405:
1401:
1348:
1344:
1295:
1291:
1246:
1239:
1206:(3–4): 149–57.
1192:
1183:
1148:
1144:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1081:
1074:
1037:
1033:
1026:
1012:
1008:
1001:
985:
981:
975:Ryuta Kawashima
972:
968:
921:
917:
872:
868:
823:
819:
774:
770:
723:
719:
679:
675:
628:
621:
576:
559:
555:
528:
512:
499:
470:
439:, described as
433:
410:
400:
387:methylphenidate
379:
373:
371:Pharmaceuticals
356:
344:Main articles:
342:
313:
295:
289:
265:
257:Main articles:
255:
246:
238:
232:
227:
148:
137:
131:
128:
120:help improve it
117:
105:
101:
94:
39:neuromodulation
20:Neurotechnology
17:
12:
11:
5:
3758:
3757:
3746:
3745:
3728:
3727:
3725:
3724:
3712:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3690:Self-awareness
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3645:Neurodiversity
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3596:
3594:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3544:Neuromarketing
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3519:Neuroesthetics
3516:
3511:
3509:Neuroeconomics
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3460:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3402:
3400:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3356:Neuroradiology
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3336:Neuropathology
3333:
3328:
3326:Neuro-oncology
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3277:
3275:
3267:
3266:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3212:Neurochemistry
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3138:
3136:
3128:
3127:
3125:
3124:
3119:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3102:
3101:
3094:
3087:
3079:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3066:
3054:
3041:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3008:
3006:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2936:Charles Stross
2932:
2930:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2922:
2920:Mind uploading
2917:
2912:
2906:
2904:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2831:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2787:Isolated brain
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2748:
2746:
2742:
2741:
2734:
2733:
2726:
2719:
2711:
2704:
2703:
2651:
2602:
2559:
2516:
2479:(3): 405–418.
2463:
2438:
2411:(3): 122–124.
2391:
2362:(1): 351–367.
2339:
2310:(3): 513–526.
2287:
2236:
2187:
2158:(4): 640–657.
2138:
2087:
2030:
1980:
1949:
1898:
1832:
1789:
1774:
1767:
1746:
1702:
1635:
1592:
1563:(6): 522–531.
1543:
1500:
1453:
1422:(1): 1667–74.
1399:
1342:
1289:
1237:
1181:
1142:
1124:
1072:
1031:
1024:
1006:
999:
979:
966:
915:
886:(4): 222–235.
866:
817:
768:
717:
673:
619:
590:(3): 365–386.
556:
554:
551:
550:
549:
544:
539:
534:
527:
524:
511:
508:
498:
495:
469:
466:
445:self-narrative
432:
429:
399:
396:
375:Main article:
372:
369:
341:
338:
312:
309:
291:Main article:
288:
285:
254:
251:
245:
242:
234:Main article:
231:
228:
226:
223:
150:
149:
108:
106:
99:
93:
90:
28:nervous system
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3756:
3755:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3738:
3723:
3722:
3713:
3711:
3710:
3701:
3700:
3697:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3591:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3574:Neurotheology
3572:
3570:
3569:Neurorobotics
3567:
3565:
3564:Neuropolitics
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3529:Neuroethology
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3453:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3426:Motor control
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3416:Chronobiology
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3399:
3393:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3376:Neurovirology
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3274:
3268:
3263:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3222:Neurogenetics
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3157:Brain-reading
3155:
3153:
3152:Brain mapping
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3129:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3111:
3107:
3100:
3095:
3093:
3088:
3086:
3081:
3080:
3077:
3065:
3064:
3055:
3053:
3052:
3043:
3042:
3039:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3027:Transhumanism
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3003:
2997:
2996:Edward Boyden
2994:
2992:
2991:Yoky Matsuoka
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2966:Merlin Donald
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2956:Kevin Warwick
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2927:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2828:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2757:Brain implant
2755:
2753:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2727:
2725:
2720:
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2643:
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2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2606:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2575:(5): 449–55.
2574:
2570:
2563:
2555:
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2539:
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2527:
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2259:
2255:
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2247:
2240:
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2228:
2224:
2220:
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2207:(2): 96–109.
2206:
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2169:
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2161:
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2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
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2045:
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2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
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1998:
1994:
1987:
1985:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1956:
1954:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
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1913:
1909:
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1894:
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1854:
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1846:
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1836:
1828:
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1820:
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1812:
1808:
1805:(1): 135–43.
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1800:
1793:
1785:
1778:
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1760:
1753:
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1742:
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1734:
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1726:
1722:
1718:
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1346:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1305:(7): 1392–9.
1304:
1300:
1293:
1285:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1260:(7): 1821–9.
1259:
1255:
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1244:
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1137:BiomedCentral
1134:
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1116:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1095:(2): 281–93.
1094:
1090:
1086:
1079:
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1068:
1064:
1059:
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1050:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1027:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1002:
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970:
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930:
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911:
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902:
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877:
870:
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840:
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828:
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804:
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791:
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783:
779:
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750:
745:
740:
736:
732:
728:
721:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
690:(6): 563–71.
689:
685:
677:
669:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
641:
637:
633:
626:
624:
615:
611:
606:
601:
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572:
570:
568:
566:
564:
562:
557:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
532:Biotechnology
530:
529:
523:
520:
516:
507:
505:
494:
491:
487:
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475:
465:
461:
459:
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428:
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409:
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395:
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384:
378:
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366:
362:
355:
351:
347:
337:
335:
334:lie detection
329:
327:
323:
321:
317:
308:
305:
300:
294:
284:
282:
278:
274:
269:
264:
260:
250:
241:
237:
222:
220:
219:consciousness
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
168:
166:
162:
157:
156:brain imaging
146:
143:
135:
125:
121:
115:
114:
109:This section
107:
98:
97:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
31:
29:
25:
21:
3719:
3707:
3679:
3655:Neuroimaging
3650:Neurogenesis
3534:Neurohistory
3499:Neurobiotics
3498:
3398:neuroscience
3366:Neurosurgery
3291:Epileptology
3273:neuroscience
3242:Neurophysics
3232:Neurometrics
3207:Neurobiology
3202:Neuroanatomy
3172:Connectomics
3106:Neuroscience
3062:
3049:
3017:Neurohacking
2986:Vernor Vinge
2976:Peter Kyberd
2894:Neuroscience
2802:Optogenetics
2796:
2745:Technologies
2676:(2): 39–49.
2673:
2669:
2619:
2615:
2605:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2532:(2): 59–70.
2529:
2525:
2519:
2476:
2472:
2466:
2451:
2441:
2408:
2404:
2394:
2359:
2355:
2307:
2303:
2253:
2249:
2239:
2204:
2200:
2190:
2155:
2151:
2141:
2104:
2100:
2090:
2047:
2043:
2033:
2000:
1996:
1971:. Retrieved
1965:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1856:
1852:
1835:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1777:
1758:
1716:
1712:
1705:
1655:(1): 16311.
1652:
1648:
1638:
1605:
1601:
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1560:
1556:
1546:
1516:(1): 14–19.
1513:
1509:
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1494:
1466:
1462:
1456:
1447:
1419:
1415:
1402:
1359:
1355:
1345:
1320:11572/145615
1302:
1298:
1292:
1257:
1254:Nanomedicine
1253:
1203:
1199:
1159:
1155:
1145:
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1127:
1092:
1088:
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969:
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830:
820:
785:
781:
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734:
730:
720:
687:
683:
676:
639:
635:
587:
583:
547:Neuroscience
542:Neuroimaging
513:
500:
482:
471:
462:
449:
434:
418:
411:
380:
357:
330:
324:
314:
303:
296:
270:
266:
247:
239:
207:phantom pain
180:
176:Fast ForWord
169:
153:
138:
132:October 2021
129:
110:
62:optogenetics
55:
51:neuroscience
32:
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18:
3524:Neuroethics
3371:Neurotology
2903:Speculative
2862:Disciplines
2494:2066/116450
2304:Neuroethics
1843:, Maeda F,
1841:deCharms RC
1162:(1): 1–16.
584:Neuroethics
504:neuroethics
421:neurorights
412:Like other
404:Neuroethics
53:knowledge.
3685:Neurotoxin
3386:Psychiatry
2981:Steve Mann
2961:Matt Nagle
2107:: 490507.
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1719:: 103813.
1602:Mult Scler
1510:Exp Neurol
1469:: 188–94.
1051:(2): 1–2.
935:: 584664.
553:References
474:philosophy
402:See also:
383:sertraline
183:depression
92:Background
80:, such as
24:electronic
3630:Neurochip
3396:Cognitive
3321:Neurology
2946:Hugh Herr
2812:Stentrode
2777:Exocortex
2772:Cyberware
2767:Brainport
2762:BrainGate
2698:219640810
2546:2150-7740
2503:1572-8641
2433:198982833
2223:2150-7740
1845:Glover GH
1741:248967047
1630:224829189
1449:learning.
837:: 53–58.
478:sociology
3737:Category
3709:Category
3593:Concepts
3539:Neurolaw
3271:Clinical
3051:Category
2690:16036700
2646:28363483
2589:20583947
2448:"Action"
2425:31361197
2386:30868377
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2231:55652038
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1936:16838014
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1827:45516709
1819:11210899
1733:35597081
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1587:27056623
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812:24709603
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712:33908839
704:23642342
668:29326561
614:33942016
526:See also
431:Identity
391:zolpidem
340:Implants
281:migraine
273:epilepsy
191:epilepsy
172:BrainAge
3721:Commons
3134:science
3122:History
3117:Outline
3063:Commons
2637:5516547
2597:4713118
2554:6176406
2511:7199782
2377:6978299
2325:3825414
2273:6849447
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2124:4325225
2073:8021272
2052:Bibcode
1944:4347367
1916:Bibcode
1884:1311906
1861:Bibcode
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1657:Bibcode
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1496:cortex.
1385:4892116
1364:Bibcode
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497:Privacy
304:in vivo
167:, etc.
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468:Agency
458:senses
441:bodily
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352:, and
187:stroke
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2593:S2CID
2550:S2CID
2507:S2CID
2429:S2CID
2227:S2CID
2021:S2CID
1940:S2CID
1823:S2CID
1737:S2CID
1626:S2CID
1534:S2CID
1487:S2CID
1440:S2CID
1412:(PDF)
1333:S2CID
1133:"TUS"
708:S2CID
225:Types
45:, or
2884:NBIC
2686:PMID
2642:PMID
2585:PMID
2542:ISSN
2499:ISSN
2421:PMID
2382:PMID
2330:PMID
2278:PMID
2219:ISSN
2178:PMID
2129:PMID
2105:2015
2078:PMID
2013:PMID
1975:2021
1932:PMID
1889:PMID
1815:PMID
1763:ISBN
1729:PMID
1693:PMID
1618:PMID
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1526:PMID
1479:PMID
1432:PMID
1390:PMID
1325:PMID
1280:PMID
1228:PMID
1172:PMID
1115:PMID
1063:PMID
1020:ISBN
995:ISBN
957:PMID
906:PMID
857:PMID
808:PMID
759:PMID
700:PMID
664:PMID
610:PMID
476:and
406:and
277:PTSD
261:and
217:and
215:mind
161:ADHD
84:and
76:and
64:and
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2632:PMC
2624:doi
2620:389
2577:doi
2534:doi
2489:hdl
2481:doi
2413:doi
2372:PMC
2364:doi
2320:PMC
2312:doi
2268:PMC
2258:doi
2209:doi
2168:PMC
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2109:doi
2068:PMC
2060:doi
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594::
145:)
139:(
134:)
130:(
126:.
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