Neurobiological effects of physical exercise

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cognition in healthy young and middle-aged adults have concluded that information processing speed and a number of executive functions – including attention, working memory, problem solving, cognitive flexibility, verbal fluency, decision making, and inhibitory control – all improve for a period of up to 2 hours post-exercise. A systematic review of studies conducted on children also suggested that some of the exercise-induced improvements in executive function are apparent after single bouts of exercise, while other aspects (e.g., attentional control) only improve following consistent exercise on a regular basis. Other research has suggested immediate performative enhancements during exercise, such as exercise-concurrent improvements in processing speed and accuracy during both visual attention and working memory tasks.

963: 1415: 2334:, among other cognitive domains), faster information processing speed, and better memory. Parent-teacher ratings of behavioral and socio-emotional outcomes in response to regular aerobic exercise include: better overall function, reduced ADHD symptoms, better self-esteem, reduced levels of anxiety and depression, fewer somatic complaints, better academic and classroom behavior, and improved social behavior. Exercising while on stimulant medication augments the effect of stimulant medication on executive function. It is believed that these short-term effects of exercise are mediated by an increased abundance of 454:

participating in regular aerobic exercise increased the volume of the left hippocampus by 2.12% and the right hippocampus by 1.97% over a one-year period. Subjects in the low intensity stretching group who had higher fitness levels at baseline showed less hippocampal volume loss, providing evidence for exercise being protective against age-related cognitive decline. In general, individuals that exercise more over a given period have greater hippocampal volumes and better memory function. Aerobic exercise has also been shown to induce growth in the

41: 1203: 1504: 649: 715:, higher peripheral BDNF synthesis also increases BDNF signaling in the brain. Exercise-induced increases in BDNF signaling are associated with improved cognitive function, improved mood, and improved memory. Furthermore, research has provided a great deal of support for the role of BDNF in hippocampal neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and neural repair. Engaging in moderate-high intensity aerobic exercise such as running, swimming, and cycling increases BDNF 9234: 728:

implications for exercise as a mechanism to reduce stress since stress is closely linked with decreased levels of BDNF in the hippocampus. In fact, studies suggest that BDNF contributes to the anxiety-reducing effects of antidepressants. The increase in BDNF levels caused by exercise helps reverse the stress-induced decrease in BDNF which mediates stress in the short term and buffers against stress-related diseases in the long term.

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exercise routines with regular frequency and duration is pivotal. Cultivating beneficial exercise habits and sustaining adequate physical activity may support the overall physical and mental well-being of young individuals. Therefore, identifying factors that either impede or encourage exercise behaviors could be a significant strategy in promoting the development of healthy exercise habits among children and adolescents.

1594: 1686: 1754:(DRD2) signaling (increased DRD2 density) to those induced by pathological stimulant use (decreased DRD2 density). Consequently, consistent aerobic exercise may lead to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment for drug addiction. As of 2016, more clinical research is still needed to understand the mechanisms and confirm the efficacy of exercise in drug addiction treatment and prevention. 629:

moderate intensity. Individuals who have a sedentary lifestyle tend to have impaired executive functions relative to other more physically active non-exercisers. A reciprocal relationship between exercise and executive functions has also been noted: improvements in executive control processes, such as attentional control and inhibitory control, increase an individual's tendency to exercise.

10221: 10209: 2523:, immobility, and frequent falls. Some evidence suggests that physical exercise may lower the risk of Parkinson's disease. A 2017 study found that strength and endurance training in people with Parkinson's disease had positive effects lasting for several weeks. A 2023 Cochrane review on the effects of physical exercise in people with Parkinson's disease indicated that 2504:. Two reviews found evidence for possible positive effects of physical exercise on cognitive function, the rate of cognitive decline, and the ability to perform activities of daily living in individuals with Alzheimer's disease. A subsequent review found higher levels of physical activity may be associated with reduced risk of dementia and cognitive decline. 1704:

perhaps due to the parameters used to determine exactly what academic achievement is. This area of study has been a focus for education boards that make decisions on whether physical education should be implemented in the school curriculum, how much time should be dedicated to physical education, and its impact on other academic subjects.

781:; consequently, one review noted that IGF-1 is a key mediator of exercise-induced adult neurogenesis, while a second review characterized it as a factor which links "body fitness" with "brain fitness". The amount of IGF-1 released into blood plasma during exercise is positively correlated with exercise intensity and duration. 2371:(i.e., treatments that are used together) with antidepressant medication; the other two indicated that physical exercise has marked antidepressant effects and recommended the inclusion of physical activity as an adjunct treatment for mild–moderate depression and mental illness in general. One systematic review noted that 1397:), in turn producing euphoria. It has been shown that aerobic exercise causes an increase in plasma anandamide levels, where the magnitude of this increase is highest at moderate exercise intensity (i.e., exercising at ~⁠70⁠–⁠80⁠% maximum heart rate). Increases in plasma anandamide levels are associated with 1695:

Engaging in active physical pursuits has demonstrated positive effects on the mental health of children and adolescents, enhances their academic performance, boosts cognitive function, and diminishes the likelihood of obesity and cardiovascular diseases among this demographic. Establishing consistent

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in the brain. These effects collectively contribute to the reduction of brain infarction and edema, leading to potential improvements in neurological and functional outcomes. The neuroprotective properties of physical activity in relation to haemorrhagic strokes are less studied. Pre-stroke physical

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for depression noted that, based upon limited evidence, it is more effective than a control intervention and comparable to psychological or antidepressant drug therapies. Three subsequent 2014 systematic reviews that included the Cochrane review in their analysis concluded with similar findings: one

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concentration among participants following just 30 minutes of intense exercise increased by 77% relative to baseline concentrations in resting control subjects; the reviews suggest that phenethylamine synthesis sharply increases while an individual is exercising, during which time it is rapidly

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mouse models". The mediator and its regulatory system is therefore being investigated for potential interventions to improve – or further improve – cognitive function or alleviate Alzheimer's disease in humans. Experiments indicate irisin may be linked to regulation of BDNF and neurogenesis in mice.

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Another study found that sixth-graders who participated in vigorous physical activity at least three times a week had the highest scores compared to those who participated in moderate or no physical activity at all. Children who participated in vigorous physical activity scored three points higher,

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and BDNF levels; exercise intensity is positively correlated with the magnitude of increased BDNF biosynthesis and expression. A meta-analysis of studies involving the effect of exercise on BDNF levels found that consistent exercise modestly increases resting BDNF levels as well. This has important

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Neuroimaging studies indicate that exercise may influence changes in brain structure and function. Some investigations have linked low levels of aerobic fitness in children with impaired executive function when older as adults, but lack of selective attention, response inhibition, and interference

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of improvements in cognitive function are largest for indices of executive functions and small to moderate for aspects of memory and information processing speed. It may be that in older adults, individuals benefit cognitively by taking part in both aerobic and resistance type exercise of at least

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and is an effective adjunct treatment for drug addiction, and psychostimulant addiction in particular. Consistent aerobic exercise magnitude-dependently (i.e., by duration and intensity) may reduce drug addiction risk, which appears to occur through the reversal of drug-induced, addiction-related

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A 2010 meta-analysis of the effect of activity on children's executive function found that aerobic exercise may briefly aid children's executive function and also influence more lasting improvements to executive function. Other studies suggested that exercise is unrelated to academic performance,

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Concordant with the functional roles of the brain structures that exhibit increased gray matter volumes, regular exercise over a period of several months has been shown to persistently improve numerous executive functions and several forms of memory. In particular, consistent aerobic exercise has

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Regular exercise has been shown to counter the shrinking of the hippocampus and memory impairment that naturally occurs in late adulthood. Sedentary adults over age 55 show a 1–2% decline in hippocampal volume annually. A neuroimaging study with a sample of 120 adults revealed that

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in response to consistent aerobic exercise. Three reviews indicate that marked improvements in prefrontal and hippocampal gray matter volume occur in healthy adults that regularly engage in medium intensity exercise for several months. Other regions of the brain that demonstrate moderate or less

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In addition to the persistent effects on cognition that result from several months of daily exercise, acute exercise (i.e., a single bout of exercise) has been shown to transiently improve a number of cognitive functions. Reviews and meta-analyses of research on the effects of acute exercise on

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states that clinicians should recommend regular exercise (two times per week) to individuals who have been diagnosed with this condition. This guidance is based upon a moderate amount of high-quality evidence which supports the efficacy of regular physical exercise (twice weekly over a 6-month

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Inhibitory control is the process of altering one's learned behavioral responses, sometimes called "prepotent responses", in a way that makes it easier to complete a particular goal. Inhibitory control allows individuals to control their impulses and habits when necessary or desired, e.g., to

425:; the most prominent gains in gray matter volume are seen in the prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, and hippocampus, which support cognitive control and memory processing, among other cognitive functions. Moreover, the left and right halves of the prefrontal cortex, the hippocampus, and the 190:

In healthy adults, aerobic exercise has been shown to induce transient effects on cognition after a single exercise session and persistent effects on cognition following consistent exercise over the course of several months. People who regularly perform an aerobic exercise (e.g., running,

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and act within the central nervous system. Thus, because anandamide is a euphoriant and aerobic exercise is associated with euphoric effects, it has been proposed that anandamide partly mediates the short-term mood-lifting effects of exercise (e.g., the euphoria of a runner's high) via

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Working memory is the form of memory used by an individual at any given moment for active information processing, such as when reading or writing an encyclopedia article. Working memory has a limited capacity and functions as an information buffer, analogous to a computer's

1455:(HPA axis). Short-term increases in cortisol levels are associated with adaptive cognitive improvements, such as enhanced inhibitory control; however, excessively high exposure or prolonged exposure to high levels of cortisol causes impairments in cognitive control and has 1466:

As a physical stressor, aerobic exercise stimulates cortisol secretion in an intensity-dependent manner; however, it does not result in long-term increases in cortisol production since this exercise-induced effect on cortisol is a response to transient negative

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volume in nearly all regions of the brain, with the most marked increases occurring in brain regions that give rise to executive functions. The brain structures that show the greatest improvements in gray matter volume in response to aerobic exercise are the

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A 2003 meta-analysis found a positive effect of exercise in children on perceptual skills, intelligence quotient, achievement, verbal tests, mathematic tests, and academic readiness. The correlation was strongest for the age ranges of 4–7 and 11–13 years.

2322:), although the best intensity and type of aerobic exercise for improving symptoms are not currently known. In particular, the long-term effects of regular aerobic exercise in ADHD individuals include better behavior and motor abilities, improved 2459:

activity has been associated with improved outcomes after intracerebral haemorrhages. Furthermore, physical activity may reduce the volume of intracerebral haemorrhages. Being physically active after stroke also enhance the functional recovery.

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Gunnes M, Indredavik B, Langhammer B, Lydersen S, Ihle-Hansen H, Dahl AE, Askim T (December 2019). "Associations Between Adherence to the Physical Activity and Exercise Program Applied in the LAST Study and Functional Recovery After Stroke".

2434:(NO). The increase in NO production may lead to improved post-stroke cerebral blood flow, ensuring a sufficient oxygen and nutrient supply to the brain. Physical activity has been associated with increased expression and activation of 8269:

Jia J, Hu YS, Wu Y, Liu G, Yu HX, Zheng QP, et al. (April 2009). "Pre-ischemic treadmill training affects glutamate and gamma aminobutyric acid levels in the striatal dialysate of a rat model of cerebral ischemia".

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O'Donnell MJ, Xavier D, Liu L, Zhang H, Chin SL, Rao-Melacini P, et al. (July 2010). "Risk factors for ischaemic and intracerebral haemorrhagic stroke in 22 countries (the INTERSTROKE study): a case-control study".

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Cox EP, O'Dwyer N, Cook R, Vetter M, Cheng HL, Rooney K, O'Connor H (August 2016). "Relationship between physical activity and cognitive function in apparently healthy young to middle-aged adults: A systematic review".

660: with: an introduction about myokines and how this concept relates to BDNF, IGF-1, VEGF, and other neuroactive biomolecules that penetrate the blood–brain or blood–CSF barriers. General references:. You can help by 7938:

Rezaei R, Nasoohi S, Haghparast A, Khodagholi F, Bigdeli MR, Nourshahi M (August 2018). "High intensity exercise preconditioning provides differential protection against brain injury following experimental stroke".

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Grimaldi G, Argyropoulos GP, Bastian A, Cortes M, Davis NJ, Edwards DJ, Ferrucci R, Fregni F, Galea JM, Hamada M, Manto M, Miall RC, Morales-Quezada L, Pope PA, Priori A, Rothwell J, Tomlinson SP, Celnik P (2014).

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levels showed that irisin confers beneficial cognitive effects of physical exercise and that it can serve an exercise mimetic in mice in which it could "improve both the cognitive deficit and neuropathology in

2410:. Engaging in physical activity before experiencing a stroke has been found to have a positive impact on the severity and outcomes of stroke. Exercise has the potential to increase the expression of VEGF, 242:. Aerobic exercise may affect both self-esteem and overall well-being (including sleep patterns) with consistent, long term participation. Regular aerobic exercise may improve symptoms associated with 7982:

Gao Y, Zhao Y, Pan J, Yang L, Huang T, Feng X, et al. (October 2014). "Treadmill exercise promotes angiogenesis in the ischemic penumbra of rat brains through caveolin-1/VEGF signaling pathways".

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Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, Basak C, Szabo A, Chaddock L, Kim JS, Heo S, Alves H, White SM, Wojcicki TR, Mailey E, Vieira VJ, Martin SA, Pence BD, Woods JA, McAuley E, Kramer AF (February 2011).

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and exercise noted that an individual's mood improves for the remainder of the day following physical exercise and that one's mood is positively correlated with overall daily physical activity level.

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Ding YH, Luan XD, Li J, Rafols JA, Guthinkonda M, Diaz FG, Ding Y (December 2004). "Exercise-induced overexpression of angiogenic factors and reduction of ischemia/reperfusion injury in stroke".

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Heinonen I, Kalliokoski KK, Hannukainen JC, Duncker DJ, Nuutila P, Knuuti J (November 2014). "Organ-Specific Physiological Responses to Acute Physical Exercise and Long-Term Training in Humans".

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Ruscheweyh R, Willemer C, Krüger K, Duning T, Warnecke T, Sommer J, Völker K, Ho HV, Mooren F, Knecht S, Flöel A (July 2011). "Physical activity and memory functions: an interventional study".

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involved in many aspects of brain function, including learning and memory. Based upon animal models, exercise appears to normalize the excessive levels of glutamate neurotransmission into the

3608:"Practice guideline update summary: Mild cognitive impairment – Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology" 8117:

Hafez S, Khan MB, Awad ME, Wagner JD, Hess DC (August 2020). "Short-Term Acute Exercise Preconditioning Reduces Neurovascular Injury After Stroke Through Induced eNOS Activation".

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However, humans studies showed that pharmacological blockade of endogenous endorphins does not inhibit a runner's high, while blockade of endocannabinoids may have such an effect.

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that give rise to cognitive control. Exercise-induced neurogenesis (i.e., the increases in gray matter volume) in the hippocampus is associated with measurable improvements in

8409:"Pre-ischemic exercise reduces apoptosis in hippocampal CA3 cells after cerebral ischemia by modulation of the Bax/Bcl-2 proteins ratio and prevention of caspase-3 activation" 7608:"Comparative effectiveness of three exercise types to treat clinical depression in older adults: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials" 7848:"Pre-stroke physical activity in relation to post-stroke outcomes - linked to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF): A scoping review" 7419:

Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, Curtis J, Ward PB (2014). "Physical activity interventions for people with mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis".

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McMorris T, Hale BJ (December 2012). "Differential effects of differing intensities of acute exercise on speed and accuracy of cognition: a meta-analytical investigation".

2500:, representing approximately 65% of all cases of dementia; it is characterized by impaired cognitive function, behavioral abnormalities, and a reduced capacity to perform 962: 2446:(BDNF). These factors play crucial roles in promoting cellular survival, neuroprotection, and repair processes in the brain following a stroke. Exercise also inhibit 834:, aerobic exercise has been shown to increase VEGF biosynthesis in peripheral tissue which subsequently crosses the blood–brain barrier and promotes neurogenesis and 1545:

that occurs in drug addiction. A review of the effects of exercise on neurocardiac function in preclinical models noted that exercise-induced neuroplasticity of the

842:. Exercise-induced increases in VEGF signaling have been shown to improve cerebral blood volume and contribute to exercise-induced neurogenesis in the hippocampus. 3606:

Petersen RC, Lopez O, Armstrong MJ, Getchius T, Ganguli M, Gloss D, Gronseth GS, Marson D, Pringsheim T, Day GS, Sager M, Stevens J, Rae-Grant A (January 2018).

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Attentional control allows an individual to focus their attention on a specific source and ignore other stimuli that compete for one's attention, such as in the

8070:"Physical activity improves long-term stroke outcome via endothelial nitric oxide synthase-dependent augmentation of neovascularization and cerebral blood flow" 6392:

Siebers M, Biedermann SV, Bindila L, Lutz B, Fuss J (April 2021). "Exercise-induced euphoria and anxiolysis do not depend on endogenous opioids in humans".

3139:"Exercise improves physical and psychological quality of life in people with depression: A meta-analysis including the evaluation of control group response" 1665: 417:

volume in nearly all regions of the brain, with more pronounced increases occurring in brain regions associated with memory processing, cognitive control,

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Endres M, Gertz K, Lindauer U, Katchanov J, Schultze J, Schröck H, et al. (November 2003). "Mechanisms of stroke protection by physical activity".

6715:"(In)activity-related neuroplasticity in brainstem control of sympathetic outflow: unraveling underlying molecular, cellular, and anatomical mechanisms" 4301:"Effect of aerobic exercise on cognition, academic achievement, and psychosocial function in children: a systematic review of randomized control trials" 8203:

Dornbos D, Ding Y (February 2012). "Mechanisms of neuronal damage and neuroprotection underlying ischemia/reperfusion injury after physical exercise".

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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

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Farina N, Rusted J, Tabet N (January 2014). "The effect of exercise interventions on cognitive outcome in Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review".

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In light of this observation, the original paper and both reviews suggest that phenethylamine plays a prominent role in mediating the mood-enhancing

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Mura G, Moro MF, Patten SB, Carta MG (2014). "Exercise as an add-on strategy for the treatment of major depressive disorder: a systematic review".

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Kim S, Choi JY, Moon S, Park DH, Kwak HB, Kang JH (March 2019). "Roles of myokines in exercise-induced improvement of neuropsychiatric function".

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adapt to a disturbance over time, and most often occurs in response to repeated exposure to stimuli. Aerobic exercise increases the production of

769:, plays a significant role in cognition, neurogenesis, and neuronal survival. Physical activity is associated with increased levels of IGF-1 in 2678:

In healthy individuals, this energy deficit resolves simply from eating and drinking a sufficient amount of food and beverage after exercising.

826:, or inadequate cellular oxygen supply, strongly upregulates VEGF expression and VEGF exerts a neuroprotective effect in hypoxic neurons. Like 2383:

supports the efficacy of physical exercise as a treatment for depression over a 2–4 month period. These benefits have also been noted in

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indicates that clinicians should recommend regular exercise (two times per week) to individuals who have been diagnosed with this condition.

8468:"Associations of Prestroke Physical Activity With Stroke Severity and Mortality After Intracerebral Hemorrhage Compared With Ischemic Stroke" 8240:"Exercise preconditioning reduces ischemia reperfusion-induced focal cerebral infarct volume through up-regulating the expression of HIF-1α" 1483:) reactivity and therefore reduces the biological response to psychological stress in humans (e.g., reduced cortisol release and attenuated 3554:"Sweat it out? The effects of physical exercise on cognition and behavior in children and adults with ADHD: a systematic literature review" 9392: 8951: 8623:

McKevitt C, Fudge N, Redfern J, Sheldenkar A, Crichton S, Rudd AR, et al. (May 2011). "Self-reported long-term needs after stroke".

4623:"Cerebellar Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (ctDCS): A Novel Approach to Understanding Cerebellar Function in Health and Disease" 1633: 1452: 1419: 7661:

Chaturvedi SK, Chandra PS, Issac MK, Sudarshan CY (September 1993). "Somatization misattributed to non-pathological vaginal discharge".

2387:, with a review conducted in 2019 finding that exercise is an effective treatment for clinically diagnosed depression in older adults. 4744:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

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from July 2016 concluded that physical exercise improves overall quality of life in individuals with depression relative to controls.

9673: 1553:; the review hypothesized that this neuroplasticity in the RVLM is a mechanism by which regular exercise prevents inactivity-related 5904:"Wired to run: exercise-induced endocannabinoid signaling in humans and cursorial mammals with implications for the 'runner's high'" 10311: 9159: 4226:

Batouli SH, Saba V (June 2017). "At least eighty percent of brain grey matter is modifiable by physical activity: A review study".

2311: 1515: 661: 573: 255: 8517:"Prestroke physical activity is associated with admission haematoma volume and the clinical outcome of intracerebral haemorrhage" 6983:"Effectiveness of interventions to promote physical activity in children and adolescents: systematic review of controlled trials" 8358:"Pre-ischemic treadmill training for prevention of ischemic brain injury via regulation of glutamate and its transporter GLT-1" 4009:"Does physical activity prevent cognitive decline and dementia?: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies" 3955:

Tomlinson CL, Patel S, Meek C, Herd CP, Clarke CE, Stowe R, Shah L, Sackley CM, Deane KH, Wheatley K, Ives N (September 2013).

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and that this secretion is correlated with improved mood states. Moderate intensity exercise produces the greatest increase in

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evidence and emerging clinical evidence supports the use of exercise as an adjunct therapy for the treatment and prevention of

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Hillman CH, Erickson KI, Kramer AF (January 2008). "Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition".

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Sibley BA, Etnier JL (August 2003). "The Relationship between Physical Activity and Cognition in Children: A Meta-Analysis".

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Valkanova V, Eguia Rodriguez R, Ebmeier KP (June 2014). "Mind over matter—what do we know about neuroplasticity in adults?".

2001: 778: 7176:"Effects of Physical Activity on Children's Executive Function: Contributions of Experimental Research on Aerobic Exercise" 6540:

Fuqua JS, Rogol AD (July 2013). "Neuroendocrine alterations in the exercising human: implications for energy homeostasis".

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are putative "signalling moieties released in response to acute and/or chronic exercise, which exert their effects through

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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 5: Excitatory and Inhibitory Amino Acids". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

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Gatti R, De Palo EF, Antonelli G, Spinella P (July 2012). "IGF-I/IGFBP system: metabolism outline and physical exercise".

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that contribute to improved blood supply to the stroke affected areas of the brain. Exercise may affect the activation of

1658: 1272:. Thirty minutes of moderate to high intensity physical exercise has been shown to induce an enormous increase in urinary 7369:"Protection from genetic diathesis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: possible complementary roles of exercise" 6259:

Berry MD (2007). "The potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases".

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signaling in the brain. Several systematic reviews have analyzed the potential for physical exercise in the treatment of

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metabolized due to its short half-life of roughly 30 seconds. In a resting state, phenethylamine is synthesized in

9883: 5451: 790: 329: 4877:"Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis" 1619: 7607: 6965: 6694: 6515: 5340: 4753: 4679: 4604: 4574: 4283: 4095: 4070: 3396: 3350: 2963: 2443: 1300: 692: 686: 321: 148: 1623: 10316: 9268: 9164: 9036: 5477: 1721: 1491:

expression and signaling in the brain, thereby acting as a buffer against stress-related diseases like depression.

243: 8771:"Association of Levels of Physical Activity With Risk of Parkinson Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis" 1731:

Clinical and preclinical evidence indicate that consistent aerobic exercise, especially endurance exercise (e.g.,

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The various functions of the brain structures that show exercise-induced increases in gray matter volume include:

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Boecker H, Sprenger T, Spilker ME, Henriksen G, Koppenhoefer M, Wagner KJ, Valet M, Berthele A, Tolle TR (2008).

9756: 4924:"Exercise interventions for cognitive function in adults older than 50: a systematic review with meta-analysis" 5700:"Electroencephalographic evidence for improved visual working memory performance during standing and exercise" 4086:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 8:Atypical Neurotransmitters". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

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Denham J, Marques FZ, O'Brien BJ, Charchar FJ (February 2014). "Exercise: putting action into our epigenome".

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Adult neurogenesis is the postnatal (after-birth) growth of new neurons, a beneficial form of neuroplasticity.

2468: 1546: 1278:, the primary metabolite of phenethylamine. Two reviews noted a study where the average 24 hour urinary 765:, to control tissue growth and remodeling. In the brain, IGF-1 functions as a neurotrophic factor that, like 708: 259: 152: 4776:"Effects of acute bouts of physical activity on children's attention: a systematic review of the literature" 3237:"Effects of Physical Exercise on Cognitive Functioning and Wellbeing: Biological and Psychological Benefits" 2757:"Protective Effects of Physical Exercise in Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson's Disease: A Narrative Review" 2656:, that permits the manipulation of information for comprehension, decision-making, and guidance of behavior. 10291: 9804: 9705: 9592: 4827:"High-intensity training enhances executive function in children in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial" 1944: 1250: 1177: 737: 325: 8466:

Viktorisson A, Buvarp D, Reinholdsson M, Danielsson A, Palstam A, Stibrant Sunnerhagen K (November 2022).

8307:"Pre-ischemic treadmill training induces tolerance to brain ischemia: involvement of glutamate and ERK1/2" 340:, and other forms of neuroplasticity. Consistent aerobic exercise over a period of several months induces 10251: 3301:"The Effects of Acute Exercise on Mood, Cognition, Neurophysiology, and Neurochemical Pathways: A Review" 2472: 1538: 1426: 1383: 605: 263: 82: 10306: 9930: 9855: 9688: 9237: 8937: 7790: 3235:

Mandolesi L, Polverino A, Montuori S, Foti F, Ferraioli G, Sorrentino P, Sorrentino G (27 April 2018).

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neuroplasticity. Moreover, aerobic exercise decreases psychostimulant self-administration, reduces the

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synthesis, while higher and lower intensity forms of exercise are associated with smaller increases in

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and feelings of profound contentment, elation, and well-being – which is colloquially known as a "

285: 8878:"Physical exercise for people with Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and network meta-analysis" 6506:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 14: Mood and Emotion". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

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Dinas PC, Koutedakis Y, Flouris AD (2011). "Effects of exercise and physical activity on depression".

5080:"Neuroprotective effects of physical activity on the brain: a closer look at trophic factor signaling" 2231: 691:

One of the most significant effects of exercise on the brain is increased synthesis and expression of

10256: 8576:"Mature Adult Mice With Exercise-Preconditioning Show Better Recovery After Intracerebral Hemorrhage" 4172:"Cerebral hemodynamics of the aging brain: risk of Alzheimer disease and benefit of aerobic exercise" 2476: 2407: 2355: 1612: 1191: 1184: 435: 366: 267: 251: 6035:

Lindemann L, Hoener MC (May 2005). "A renaissance in trace amines inspired by a novel GPCR family".

3724:"Exercise as a novel treatment for drug addiction: a neurobiological and stage-dependent hypothesis" 2535:, and multi-domain training (i.e., engaging in several types of exercise) may provide improvements. 1549:(RVLM) has an inhibitory effect on glutamatergic neurotransmission in this region, in turn reducing 10301: 10261: 9968: 9913: 9888: 9718: 9695: 9645: 9550: 6273: 4350:"Physical activity and cognitive function in individuals over 60 years of age: a systematic review" 2599: 1806: 758: 704: 296:. Regular exercise may be associated with a lower risk of developing neurodegenerative disorders. 63: 8668:"Physical Activity Trajectories and Functional Recovery After Acute Stroke Among Adults in Sweden" 8666:

Buvarp D, Viktorisson A, Axelsson F, Lehto E, Lindgren L, Lundström E, Sunnerhagen KS (May 2023).

6107:"Pharmacology of human trace amine-associated receptors: Therapeutic opportunities and challenges" 3107: 1708:

on average, on their academic test, which consisted of math, science, English, and world studies.

401:, are associated with better executive function, faster information processing speed, and greater 10321: 9655: 9421: 3552:

Den Heijer AE, Groen Y, Tucha L, Fuermaier AB, Koerts J, Lange KW, Thome J, Tucha O (July 2016).

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Cooney GM, Dwan K, Greig CA, Lawlor DA, Rimer J, Waugh FR, McMurdo M, Mead GE (September 2013).

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Lindemann L, Hoener MC (2005). "A renaissance in trace amines inspired by a novel GPCR family".

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Aberg D (2010). "Role of the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor 1 axis in neurogenesis".

773:, which is known to contribute to neuroplasticity in the brain due to its capacity to cross the 284:

Reviews of clinical evidence also support the use of exercise as an adjunct therapy for certain

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Aerobic exercise has both short and long term effects on mood and emotional states by promoting

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associated with cognitive control and memory. The effects of exercise on cognition may affect

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expression, which has detrimental effects on hippocampal volume and can lead to depression.

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effects of a runner's high, as both phenethylamine and amphetamine are potent euphoriants.

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period) for improving cognitive symptoms in individuals with mild cognitive impairment.

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activities, which are involved in neuronal death pathways. Additionally, it may promote

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A number of medical reviews have indicated that exercise has a marked and persistent

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in children and adults, particularly when combined with stimulant medication (i.e.,

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Reviews of neuroimaging studies indicate that consistent aerobic exercise increases

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Miller KJ, Gonçalves-Bradley DC, Areerob P, Hennessy D, Mesagno C, Grace F (2020).

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Broadley KJ (March 2010). "The vascular effects of trace amines and amphetamines".

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Broadley KJ (March 2010). "The vascular effects of trace amines and amphetamines".

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The runner's high describes an euphoric state resulting from long-distance running.

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might reduce severity of motor symptoms and improve quality of life. Furthermore,

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effects in the human brain. For example, chronic psychological stress decreases

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Physical exercise plays a significant role in the prevention and management of

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for these disorders. There is some evidence of exercise treatment efficacy for

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Viktorisson A, Buvarp D, Danielsson A, Skoglund T, Sunnerhagen KS (May 2023).

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cortices – required for the cognitive control of behavior, particularly:

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involve possible interrelated effects on brain structure, brain function, and

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memory, and structural and functional improvements in brain structures and

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Regular physical exercise, particularly aerobic exercise, is an effective

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symptoms reflect various functional impairments and limitations, such as

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is a cortical neurodegenerative disorder and the most prevalent form of

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significant gains in gray matter volume during neuroimaging include the

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if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and

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in children and college students, improve adult productivity, preserve

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effect in humans, an effect believed to be mediated through enhanced

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review found that exercise significantly increases the secretion of

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