1697:
alliance with
England or Russia, noted that, "We should be quite clear as to France's attitude. She is following a policy of annihilation pure and simple, which she must follow in pursuance of the unshakable principles of her policy. The hope that economic decisions may divert French policy into another course can be discounted altogether, quite apart from the fact that it is doubtful whether in any case, the economic strengthening of Germany would be in the interests of the ruling industrial circles of France. The contrary appears to be the case, and the French economic interests have the same object as the purely political, that is, the annihilation of Germany. This aim is not affected by the consideration that the debtor, already insolvent, will become even less able to pay up. France no longer expects payment, and in fact, does not want it as it would upset her political plans.... The whole policy of reconciliation and appeasement towards France ... is hopeless in as far as it aims at political success. The question of orientation towards the West, as far as France is concerned, is ruled out. French policy is not quite indifferent as to whether we ally ourselves with Russia or not, for in either case the complete destruction of Germany, not yet fully brought about, remains her objective, and this aim would be more difficult to achieve if Germany were supported by Russia."
1705:
Russia, nor perhaps anywhere else.... Germany today is certainly not in a position to resist France. Our policy should be to prepare the means of doing so in the future.... The German nation, with its
Socialist majority, would be averse from a policy of action, which has to reckon with the possibility of war. It must be admitted that the spirit surrounding the Peace Delegation at Versailles has not yet disappeared, and that the stupid cry of 'No more war! ' is widely echoed. It is echoed by many bourgeois-pacifist elements, but among the workers and also among the members of the official Social Democrat Party there are many who are not prepared to eat out of the hands of France and Poland. It is true that there is a widespread and understandable need for peace among the German people. The clearest heads, when considering the pros and cons of war, will be those of the military, but to pursue a policy means to take the lead. In spite of everything, the German people will follow the leader in the struggle for their existence. Our task is to prepare for this struggle, for we shall not be spared it. If it comes to war – and that seems to be already within measurable distance – it will not be the duty of our leading statesmen to keep Germany out of war – that would be either impossible or suicidal – but to come in on the right side with all possible strength." After meeting
2479:, a classless society which would balance individual achievement with group solidarity, cooperation with competition, as the individual fulfilled their potential within the framework of the broader community, was an immensely powerful vision to many German soldiers, to the extent they were willing to overlook its racist and anti-Semitic essence. This vision allowed Hitler to maintain popular support amongst German soldiers right up until the end of the war and inspired fierce devotion and loyalty. Fritz argues that the concept was appealing to the German military even before Hitler assumed power, as they saw it as a way to create a more cohesive and effective combat force. Since the military envisioned any future war as a total one that would require the complete mobilisation of German society, military leaders pursued the volksgemeinschaft as a means of realising national unity. According to Fritz, it was not simply rhetoric – the officer corp began to become the least snobbish in German history, opening up positions based on talent and had a general sympathy to the volksgemeinschaft; Hitler spoke proudly of this process. Hitler and his generals shared a vision in which the spirit of the Frontgemeinschaft of the First World War would become a permanent state of affairs.
3115:, Bishop Rarkowski used the occasion to blame the Jews not only for the war but for every problem in German history. Perhaps more typical was the case of a Catholic chaplain named Ernst Tewes serving on the Eastern Front, known not to be a supporter of the regime, who had led the protests against the massacre at Belaya Tserkov in August 1941, who in 1967-68 gave evidence against eleven members of Sonderkommando 4a for the massacre of thousands of Jews in the southern USSR., and yet in 1942 wrote in his diary concerning the "anti-partisan" massacres of 1942 that "the furies of war had been unleashed". Another Catholic chaplain serving on the Eastern Front was deeply shocked when another Catholic chaplain told him "There is a curse upon this people ever since the crucifixion of Jesus when they cried: "Let his blood be on our heads and the heads of our children", and as such, the Jews were only getting what they deserved.
2609:
requisitions" against civilians were always disapproved of, whereas massive violence against civilians provided that it took place in a context that was "disciplined" and pseudo-legal were considered to be acceptable. This was especially the case with Jews in the occupied areas of the Soviet Union, where it was official policy to generally not prosecute those soldiers who murdered Soviet Jews, and even in those cases, where prosecutions did occur, claiming that one hated Jews and killed out of a desire for "revenge" for the
November Revolution of 1918 was allowed as a defence (though in fact, the Soviet Jewish population had nothing to do with the November Revolution). German military courts always gave very light sentences to those soldiers who murdered Soviet Jews, even in an "undisciplined" way, and even then, Hitler usually intervened to pardon the accused.
1701:
disappear and will do so through her own inner weakness and through Russia - with our help. Poland is more intolerable for Russia than for ourselves; Russia can never tolerate Poland. With Poland collapses one of the strongest pillars of the Peace of
Versailles, France's advance post of power. The attainment of this objective must be one of the firmest guiding principles of German policy, as it is capable of achievement – but only through Russia or with her help. Poland can never offer Germany any advantage, either economically, because she is incapable of development, or politically, because she is a vassal state of France. The restoration of the frontier between Russia and Germany is a necessary condition before both sides can become strong. The 1914 frontier between Russia and Germany should be the basis of any understanding between the two countries."
2315:
22:
2645:
the punishment would be. After the sentence was passed, there was no right of judicial appeal, and the case went up to the commander of the fleet, army or air fleet that the defendant was serving in, who could either confirm the sentence or order a new trial if he believed the sentence to be either too harsh or too lenient. All commanders received advice from a panel of judges which was not binding, but usually acted upon. The system served to deflect responsibility; commanders who upheld death sentences claimed that they were only following the advice of the judges while the judges claimed that their opinions were purely advisory, and the actual responsibility to uphold the death sentences rested with the commander.
3009:, chaplains were required to serve at the front under fire. This regulation was introduced by the Nazi regime, which expressed strong and barely veiled anti-Christian tendencies out of the hope that it would lead to the most of the chaplaincy getting killed in battle. Protestant chaplains carried firearms, were required to undergo military training, were expected to fight if necessary and those Protestant clergymen who were World War I veterans were given preference in recruiting chaplains. Catholic chaplains, by contrast, were unarmed, did not receive military training and were not expected to fight. All chaplains, Catholic and Protestant had to know first-aid because of their role in ministering at the front.
2110:(air force) was heavily Nazi-influenced, as were the navy and army to a lesser degree, though that was only relative. Caitlin Talmadge explains that Prussian martial tradition gave Hitler an advantage when it came to his officer corps. While most dictatorships had to make a trade-off between competence and loyalty when selecting their officers (due to the risk of facing a coup), Hitler found he had an ample supply of men who possessed both attributes, significantly reducing the coup risk Hitler faced from building an effective army. However, as the successor to a conventionally oriented imperial army of the German Empire, the
60:
2471:
Western fronts. After the war, German generals claimed that neither they nor their troops had taken ideological instruction seriously, but the evidence suggests otherwise. Not only letters and diaries of combat soldiers indicate that ideology was a considerable factor in German combat effectiveness, but unit commanders from the division level on down consistently picked highly decorated combat officers to serve as "leadership" officers in charge of troop indoctrination. Such assignments underline the seriousness with which the army as a whole was taking ideological motivation.
2047:
laws-which included the
Versailles Treaty. It was considered desirable, even honourable, to break this oath as often as possible, and anyone who wanted to keep it was despised. After World War II, a substantial number of the military leaders were called on to testify under oath. Anyone who has studied their sworn testimony carefully will have noticed that many took this oath very lightly indeed. If of all the oaths generals and field marshals took, only the one to Hitler is so often cited, that may reveal more about their attitude toward Hitler than towards oaths.
2182:
2423:"were participants in, if not executioners of, unparalleled mass murder." Using transcriptions of secret records of conversations among POWs, they conclude that most soldiers were not interested in ideology and politics. In reality, being a Nazi, supporting anti-Semitism, and possessing the willingness to kill and commit unnecessary violence usually had nothing to do with each other: many hated the Jews but were shocked at mass extermination by firing squads, while some "anti-Nazis" supported anti-Jewish policies.
2489:, an elite secondary-school leaving certificate, by the second half of the war this fell to 44% and 12% of officers had only primary education, while candidates from lower-class backgrounds had risen from 5% in 1937 to 20% in 1942. By removing the institutional social restrictions on who could become an officer, Hitler instead made rank dependent upon combat ability and Ă©lan, thus encouraging soldiers to fight even harder to earn the prospect of a swift rise through the ranks. The
2370:
persuade Kiev's Jews that they were moving for resettlement. On numerous occasions, troop commanders ordered their men to participate in "special actions" against Jews and
Communists. The repetitive nature of such orders suggests the level of cooperation between SS and Army that occurred throughout the German advance. Everywhere the Germans advanced, the tide of murder, violence, and destruction followed, on Jews above all, but on the Soviet population in general.
1420:
3163:, Poland), where two local Catholic chaplains, disgusted by atrocities that one had seen while serving in Poland in 1939, formed an oppositional group, the "Wednesday Circle" for Catholic soldiers, where they provided detailed information about the "Final Solution" and predicted God would punish Germany with the most terrible defeat for the Holocaust. Betrayed when one of the soldiers they had recruited to the "Wednesday Circle" denounced them, Fathers
2671:"It went like this: an act of treason might have endangered the lives of other German soldiers, therefore we can't absolve you. But what I say is, if only more soldiers had committed treason so many millions of lives could have been saved, in the concentration camps and so on. You can't place the lives of some soldiers above all those millions who died. And until Germany recognizes this, it will not have broken with its Nazi past."
1432:
1730:
where the
Defence/War ministry was located) in turn further weakened the already weak civilian control of the military, and also led to further politicization of the military since through their representative in the Cabinet the military become involved in issues that had nothing to do with military matters (though that the fact that Cabinet virtually stopped meeting after 1934 did weaken this venue of exercising power).
1571:", concentrating all political and military power into his hands in order to win the war. Though the Tirpitz plan was not implemented, the very fact it was mooted showed the extent of military dissatisfaction with the existing leadership, and the strength of the "state within the state" in that Tirpitz was not punished despite having essentially called for deposing the Kaiser. In August 1916, Germany became a
2141:. The Blomberg-Fritsch Affair marked the moment when the leadership of the military began to change from the leaders of a more or less autonomous "state within the state" to that of a merely functional, technocratic elite that existed only to execute the FĂĽhrer's plans. In one of the last demonstrations of the power of the "state within the state", the Army again vetoed Hitler's plans to appoint
2310:
infernal, of the personified insane hatred of everything that is noble in humanity. In the shape of these commissars we witness the revolt of the subhuman against noble blood. The masses whom they are driving to their deaths with every means of icy terror and lunatic incitement would have brought about an end of all meaningful life, had the incursion not been prevented at the last moment" .
2066:
Rommel, Doenitz and
Kesselring, Milch and Udet cannot be described as mere soldiers strictly devoted to their profession, rearmament and the autonomy of the military establishment while remaining indifferent to and detached from Nazi rule and ideology. The many points of contact between Hitler and his young generals were thus important elements in the integration of the
2301:. The objective of this battle must be the demolition of present-day Russia and must, therefore, be conducted with unprecedented severity. Every military action must be guided in planning and execution by an iron resolution to exterminate the enemy remorselessy and totally. In particular no adherents of the contemporary Russian Bolshevik system are to be spared.
1944:'s desire to have the SA, a force of over 3 million men, absorb the much smaller German Army into its ranks under his leadership. Further, reports of a huge cache of weapons in the hands of SA members gave the army commanders great concern. Matters came to a head in June 1934 when President von Hindenburg, who had the complete loyalty of the
2770:. Senior officers were given a life-time exemption from paying income tax (up to 65 per cent by 1939); they also received spending allowances for food, medical care, clothing, and housing. By way of contrast, infantrymen were given the task of clearing landmines, were given one RM a day danger pay supplement. The money from
3130:, any priest who had done or said anything "pro-Jewish" in the past was instantly disqualified from becoming a chaplain. The American historian Doris Bergen wrote that a great number of Lutheran and Catholic priests must have been either anti-Semitics or at least not done anything "pro-Jewish" as the
2572:
During World War II, the German military had thousands of its members executed, often for the most trivial violations of discipline. In World War I, the German Army had executed only 48 of its soldiers; in World War II between 13,000 and 15,000 German soldiers were executed for violations of military
2426:
From 1943 onwards, the influx of officers and conscripts who had been mainly educated under the Nazis began to further increase the influence of Nazism in the army. Political influence in the military command began to increase later in the war when Hitler's flawed strategic decisions began showing up
2383:
wrote that junior officers in the Army were inclined to be especially zealous Nazis with a third of them having joined the Nazi Party by 1941. Reinforcing the work of the junior leaders were the
National Socialist Leadership Guidance Officers, which were created with the purpose of indoctrinating the
2065:
The combined gratification of personal ambitions, technological obsessions and nationalist aspirations greatly enhanced their identification with Hitler's regime as individuals, professionals, representatives of a caste and leaders of a vast conscript army. Men such as Beck and
Guderian, Manstein and
1729:
as the new Defence minister. Gessler was the last civilian Defence minister of the Weimar Republic, and until the abolition of the War ministry by Hitler in 1938, every Defence/War minister was a serving general. The practice of having active duty generals run the Bendlerstrasse (the street in Berlin
1704:
The memo then goes on to cite the necessity of war: "The man who still lives in the days of Versailles, and maintains that Germany has permanently abjured all 'imperialist and military aims', that is, stripped of its demogogic jargon, all policy of action, is not fit to represent German interests in
1583:, who ruled Germany until 1918. During the rule of the "silent dictatorship" of Hindenburg and Ludendorff, the German government advocated a set of imperialist war aims calling for the annexation of most of Europe and Africa that in many ways were a prototype for the war aims of the Second World War.
3158:
attached to 295th Infantry Division made strenuous efforts first to save the children, and when that failed, to protest the massacre. In 1968 Father Tewes was a leading witness for the prosecution at the trial of the SS leaders who had ordered the massacre at Belaya Tserkov, where he noted that "All
3138:
created by the return of conscription, which was maintained right to the end of 1945. Only a "handful" of potential chaplains were excluded by the Gestapo for "pro-Jewish" actions in the past. Moreover, the energetic activities of the German Christian pastors together with the general anti-Christian
2482:
MacGregor Knox explains that traditionally, the German officer corp had been dominated by the German nobility and upper-classes. During his rule, Hitler broke down this institutional preference and created a "people's officer corps" – Knox observes that in 1937, 14% of lieutenants had
2452:
to continue to fight, despite enormous losses. Bartov argued that the claim that it was "primary group loyalty", by which men are motivated to fight by loyalty towards their comrades in their unit with little thought to the cause that one is fighting for, cannot possibly have been what motivated the
1700:
Seeckt's memo goes on to cite the unacceptability of the creation of Poland by the Treaty of Versailles as another reason for the coming war: "With Poland we come now to the core of the Eastern problem. The existence of Poland is intolerable and incompatible with Germany's vital interests. She must
1680:
by depriving the government of the means of defending itself. The position of the military as "state within the state" led to only those few officers and soldiers who had attempted to defend the republic being dismissed, and the officers led by Seeckt who had done nothing to defend the republic were
2666:
deserters still alive, the vast majority having been either executed or killed in penal battalions during the war, and the few who survived the war were shunned as traitors and cowards by the German public after the war. One of the surviving deserters, a sailor who attempted to desert in 1942 named
2493:
thus became a "soldier's community" fused by shared ambition, fanaticism, and crime. The Nazi "pursuit of happiness" thus immunised both the military and German society at large from a repeat of 1918 and while incapable of delaying the defeat of the regime, ensured many soldiers held out far longer
2334:
Having encountered these Bolshevik hordes and having seen how they live has made a lasting impression on me. Everyone, even the last doubter knows today, that the battle against these sub-humans, who've been whipped into a frenzy by the Jews, was not only necessary but came in the nick of time. Our
2037:
to Hitler, who was most surprised at the offer; the popular view that Hitler imposed the oath on the military is false. The intention of Blomberg and Reichenau in having the military swear an oath to Hitler was to create a personal special bond between Hitler and the military, which was intended to
2702:
in October 1942 together with the promise that Kluge could bill the German treasury for improvements to his estate. Such was the success of Hitler's bribery system that by 1942 many officers had come to expect "gifts" from Hitler and generally lost their willingness to disobey or sleight him. When
2644:
The abrogation of the rights of the accused was part of the "simplified operating procedure", which as its name implied stripped away rights from the defendant, and turned the courts-martial into a drumhead tribunal that was not concerned with questions of innocence and guilt, but rather how harsh
2470:
The explanation seems to be that at every level German officers inculcated their troops with the values and assumptions of Nazi ideology and the mortal menace of the racial-Communist threat. By early 1944, ideological indoctrination was playing a major role in combat preparation on the Eastern and
2369:
outside of Kiev, SS-Sonderkommando 4a murdered 33,771 Jews and other Soviet citizens in a two-day orgy of violence in revenge for Soviet destruction of Kiev. The local army commander, Major General Kurt Eberhard, cooperated enthusiastically, even providing the SS with an army propaganda company to
2364:
A slogan about partisan war linked the treatment of both Russians and Jews in the great atrocities of 1941: "Where the partisan is, the Jew is, and where the Jew is, is the partisan". Across the breadth of European Russia, the invading Germans took matters into their own hands, as Hitler intended.
2218:
might still have had about the sort of regime that they were about to go to war for and the kind of people that they would be fighting for in this war, should have been clearly dispelled by Hitler's genocidal comments during the conference of August 22, 1939, and that the claims made after the war
2165:
The defensive battle against Jewry will continue, even if the last Jew has left Germany. Two big and important tasks remain: 1) the eradication of all Jewish influence, above all in the economy and in culture; 2) the battle against World Jewry, which tries to incite all people in the world against
1894:
leadership, Schleicher viewed democracy as a great impediment to military power, and firmly believed that only a dictatorship could make Germany a great military power again. Thus Schleicher worked to replace the democracy with a dictatorship headed by himself. In this way, Schleicher played a key
1696:
Right from the onset, Seeckt made it clear that he expected to see another world war based on the French political atmosphere concerning German failure to meet the Treaty of Versailles restitution payments. His famous "Memo on the Russian Question" of September 11, 1922, arguing the benefits of an
1591:
In October 1918, in order to avoid responsibility for losing the First World War, the military returned power to the civilians and transformed Germany into a democracy, largely because the Allies made it clear that they would never sign an armistice with the Hindenburg-Ludendorff duumvirate. After
3066:
bishop than what the able and vigorous Lonicier would ever be, and that anyhow Lonicier's plans for a military-backed Nazified Lutheran church under his leadership playing a major role in German public life conflicted directly with their plans to ultimately do away with Christianity altogether in
2829:
Every officer who started to receive the money always had a meeting first with Lammers, who informed them that the future payments would depend on how much loyalty they were willing to show Hitler, and what the FĂĽhrer gave with one hand, could just as easily be taken away with the other. Payments
2640:
men, usually a staff officer and another man, who was expected to be of the same rank as the defendant. In theory, the defendant had the automatic right to a defence lawyer for all charges that involved the death penalty and could be granted defence counsel in a non-capital case only if the court
2568:
had been that if only the High Seas Fleet mutiny of 1917 been followed up with more executions instead of just Reichpietsch and Köbis, then the much more serious mutiny of November 1918 would have been avoided. For this reason, all violations of the military code that hindered the war effort were
3024:
movement that sought to "de-Judize" Christianity, and even those chaplains who were not members of the "German Christian" movement were influenced by it in various ways. Because of their emphasis upon an aggressively "manly", militaristic and ultra-nationalistic interpretation of Christianity, a
2955:
outside of Kaunas. Leeb was described as being "moderately disturbed", and sent in mildly critical reports about the massacres. Leeb approved of the killing of Jewish men, claiming that this was justified by their supposed crimes during the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, but that the killing of
1562:
stated that the only thing that was keeping Germany from winning the war was the poor leadership of the Chancellor and the Emperor. His solution was a plan in which Bethmann Hollweg would be sacked and the office of Chancellor abolished; the Kaiser would "temporarily" abdicate; and Field Marshal
2465:
continued to be so aggressive and determined on the offensive, and so dogged and tenacious on the defence, despite often very high numbers of dead and wounded. The Bartov thesis was endorsed by American historians Alan Millet and Williamson Murray, who wrote that, by early 1944, "group cohesion
2271:
officers regarded the Russians as "subhuman"; were from the time of the invasion of Poland in 1939 telling their troops the war was caused by "Jewish vermin"; and explained to their troops that war with the Soviet Union was to wipe out the "Jewish Bolshevik subhumans", the "Mongol hordes", the
2160:
On December 8, 1938, the OKW had instructed all officers in all three services to be thoroughly versed in Nazism and to apply its values in all situations. Starting in February 1939, pamphlets were issued that were made required reading in the military. The content can be gauged by the titles:
2590:
personnel between 1939 and 1945. The only country that executed more of its own servicemen than Germany in World War II was the Soviet Union. By way of contrast, during all of World War II, Britain executed 40 of its servicemen, France executed 102 and the United States executed 146 while the
2309:
Anyone who has ever looked into the face of a Red commissar knows what the Bolsheviks are. There is no need here for theoretical reflections. It would be an insult to animals if one were to call the features of these, largely Jewish, tormentors of people beasts. They are the embodiment of the
2046:
The assertion that most felt bound by their oath of loyalty to Hitler should be seen in the context of prior oaths and subsequent oaths taken and broken by the same individuals, especially in the highest ranks. They had sworn to uphold the Weimar constitution, and many had sworn to uphold its
2608:
The exception towards the otherwise ferocious application of military justice was the widespread tolerance of war crimes against civilians and POWs, especially in Eastern Europe, provided that such actions took place in a "disciplined" and "orderly" way. So-called "wild shootings" and "wild
2209:
s senior military leaders, Hitler stated quite explicitly that the coming war against Poland was to be a "war of extermination" in which Hitler expressed his intention to "...to kill without pity or mercy all men, women and children of the Polish race or language". The British historian Sir
2093:
welcomed the coming of the Nazi regime in 1933, writing "I have wished for years for the political revolution, and now my wishes have come true. It is the first ray of hope since 1918.". (Beck was later executed for opposing Nazism.) In addition, many soldiers had previously been in the
3086:
chaplains preached in their sermons support for the Nazi regime, antisemitism, and the superiority of the "Aryan race" over all others. Owing to the fear of death and disfigurement faced by men in the chaos of battlefields everywhere together with the loss of friends and comrades, many
1505:
After the Nazis came to power, they sought to control all aspects of civil society and the state, including the military. Historically, the German armed forces had operated with a great deal of autonomy, which was steadily eroded until they were under the direct control of the Nazis.
3029:
to serve as chaplains. The requirement that Lutheran chaplains serve at the front with firearms served to attract German Christian pastors, most of whom were World War I veterans who saw a chance to practice what they preached by becoming figuratively "combat priests". Likewise, the
2284:", which began by declaring that "Judeo-Bolshevism" to be the most deadly enemy of the German nation and that "It is against this destructive ideology and its adherents that Germany is waging war". The "Guidelines" urged "ruthless and vigorous measures against Bolshevik inciters,
2329:
before and during Barbarossa, most Army officers and soldiers tended to regard the war against the Soviet Union in Nazi terms, seeing their Soviet opponents as so much sub-human trash deserving to be destroyed without mercy. One German soldier wrote home on August 4, 1941, that:
2726:
later that same year in exchange for a promise never to criticize the Nazi regime again in either public or private. The agreement mostly worked; Mackensen never criticized the Nazi regime in public again, through Hitler was offended in February 1940 when Mackensen mentioned to
2694:
called a "...a vast secret program of bribery involving practically all at the highest levels of command". Hitler routinely presented his leading commanders with "gifts" of free estates, cars, cheques made out for large sums of cash and lifetime exemptions from paying taxes.
3099:
than what chaplains do today in a more secular age. Despite their support for the Nazi regime, the anti-Christian tendencies of the regime meant that it did its utmost to restrict both the numbers and powers of chaplains including the German Christians throughout the war.
2918:; after receiving the estate, he apparently changed his mind. Instead of criticizing Zitadelle openly, Guderian approached Goebbels to ask him if he could somehow talk Hitler out of Zitadelle, behaviour that Goda described as very atypical for Guderian. During the 20 July
2926:, a duty that Guderian performed with considerable zeal. It was only after January 1945, when Guderian's estate fell behind Soviet lines that Guderian began to once more to disagree with Hitler, leading to Guderian being fired as Chief of the General Staff in March 1945.
2662:, final victory, Nazi Germany". German veterans have for the most part been opposed to this. Only in September 2009 did Germany pardon the men convicted of desertion under the grounds that to desert from a criminal war was not a crime. At the time, there were three
2657:
desertions were politically motivated out of disgust with the genocidal politics of the Nazi regime, and that "Whom were these military judges serving who sent soldiers to their deaths? In numerous judgments, this question is clearly answered: they were serving the
1854:
personnel should be allowed to join the Party. At the Leipzig trial of Ludin and Scheringer, Beck and other officers testified about the good character of the accused, described the Nazi Party as a positive force in German life, and proclaimed his belief that the
1773:
as a group of more technocratic officers were known, which saw Seeckt as too conservative as he was less willing to see the sort of radical reorganization of German society that the "modern" faction wanted. What the German military wanted to see above all was the
1546:
had been forbidden to attend meetings of the Supreme Council of War because as it was insultingly phrased "Lest this civilian might betray the secrets of the State". In the First World War, the military began to complain more and more that both the Chancellor
2901:
received a free estate of 937 hectares in Poland in the spring of 1943, that the doubts that he had been expressing since late 1941 about the Hitler's military leadership suddenly ceased, and he became one of Hitler's most ardent military supporters, or as
2057:" was to ultimately weaken such a status. At the same time, a new generation of technocratic officers was coming to the fore which was less concerned about maintaining the "state within a state", and more comfortable about being integrated into the Nazi
1990:
As part of an effort to preserve the "state within a state", starting in the mid-1930s, the military began to more and more Nazify itself in an effort to persuade Hitler that it was not necessary to end the traditional "state within a state", to prevent
2964:
5, and reminded him that his birthday was coming up, for which the FĂĽhrer was planning to give him a 250,000 R.M cheque for his loyalty. Leeb never again protested about the massacres, and duly received 250,000 R.M in September 1941. In the same month,
2296:
The war against Russia is an important chapter in the German nation's struggle for existence. It is the old battle of the Germanic against the Slavic people, of the defense of European culture against Muscovite-Asiatic inundation and of the repluse of
2272:"Asiatic flood" and the "red beast", language clearly intended to produce war crimes by reducing the enemy to something less than human. Such views helped to explain why 3,300,000 of the 5,700,000 Soviet POWs taken by the Germans died in captivity.
2243:
in which Hitler stressed that Barbarossa was to be a "war of extermination", that the German military was to disregard all the laws of war, and that he both expected and wanted to see the deaths of millions of people. With the exception of Admiral
2585:
abandoned even the pretence of holding trials, and simply executed extrajudicially so-called "defeatists". Messerschmidt and WĂĽllner contended that, if one takes into account extrajudicial executions, the real figure is about 30,000 executions of
2513:
and the military: "As both sides sent their orders over the teleprinters in Germany's last 'election' as a united country until 1990, most generals chose to support the Hitler regime and to reinforce rather than arrest the police." The July 20
1924:
Despite their sympathy and approval of the Nazi regime, the military leadership was in the early years of Nazi rule determined to defend their position as a "state within the state" against all rivals. In January 1934, when the Army commander
2635:
was so vaguely defined as to constitute anything from grumbling about the quality of food to making unflattering remarks about an officer. German military courts-martial consisted of three judges, one lawyer serving as a prosecutor, and two
1956:
leadership also pressured Hitler to act against the SA by threatening to block his plans for merging the offices of the Chancellorship and the Presidency after the soon to be expected death of the gravely ill Hindenburg. The result was the
3042:, Poland) who was also a senior Army chaplain, a leading German Christian and NSDAP member and the equally ardent German Christian and NSDAP member Friedrich Ronneberger, the Navy's chief Protestant chaplain had ambitions to become the
2906:
described him in his diary, "a glowing and unqualified follower of the FĂĽhrer". Before receiving the estate, Guderian as Inspector General for the Panzers had been opposed to the plans for Operation Zitadelle, which subsequently led to
2652:
men executed for desertion that they should be recognized as part of the resistance to Hitler under the grounds that by refusing to fight for the Nazi regime, they were also opposing it. Messerschmidt and WĂĽllner wrote that many of
2435:
to be the next FĂĽhrer, a man whose "...dedication to National Socialist ideas and his close identification with Hitler's strategy in the last stages of the war made him a logical, not surprising, choice by Hitler as his successor".
1912:
to crush popular opposition. In doing so, the military would have to kill hundreds, if not thousands of German civilians; any regime established in this way could never expect to build the national consensus necessary to create the
1676:, which committed the military to defend the republic. Seeckt ordered the military to disregard Ebert's orders to defend the republic, and instead assumed a stance of apparent neutrality, which in effect meant siding with the Kapp
1761:"...from the mid-1920s onwards the Army leaders had developed and propagated new social conceptions of a militarist kind, tending towards a fusion of the military and civilian sectors and ultimately a totalitarian military state (
2622:
who either attempted to influence others to not carry out orders fully and unconditionally and/or weakened the resolve of the German nation to continue the fight until total victory. About 20% of the death sentences imposed by
2996:
produced bank records showing otherwise. Weinberg commented that "the bribery system understandably does not figure prominently in the endless memoir literature of the recipients and has attracted little scholarly attention".
1604:, where in return for saving the government, the military would be allowed to retain its traditional and informal "state within the state" status. To fulfil his side of the deal, Gröner created a new force of volunteers, the
2880:
5 since the money was given as a reward for loyalty to the FĂĽhrer, which Witzleben was evidently not. The illicit nature of these payments was underlined by Lammers who would warn an officer that was to receive money from
1716:
to obtain nitrate and that the navy had poured millions of Reichsmark to subsidize the financially struggling studio over the last few years. These disclosures of his knowledge of this matter forced the Defence Minister
3181:
Bergen wrote that such case was the exception, not the rule, and most chaplains loyally supported the regime. Only ten out of a thousand chaplains were known to protest genocide. Bergen wrote that by rationalizing the
1907:
to dismiss Schleicher and appoint Hitler as Chancellor. The reasons for this was by January 1933 that it was clear that the Schleicher government could only stay in power by proclaiming martial law, and by sending the
2522:
with no involvement from the SS. Stephen Fritz explains that the putsch was seen by soldiers at the front as the treacherous actions of an unrepresentative aristocratic clique and that by that point in the war, the
2754:. In addition, officers received as birthday presents cheques usually made out for the sum of 250,000 RM, which were exempt from income taxes. This money was on top of the official salary of 26,000 RM a year for
2238:
The war against the Soviet Union was presented as a war of extermination right from the start. On March 3, 1941, Hitler summoned the entire military leadership to hear a secret speech about the upcoming
3188:
as something the Jews had brought down on themselves, and by doing their utmost to maintain morale, the majority of military chaplains played an important role in maintaining the fighting spirit of the
2388:
obeyed Hitler's criminal orders for Barbarossa not because of obedience to orders, but because they, like Hitler, believed that the Soviet Union was run by Jews and that Germany must completely destroy
1307:
1886:
leadership were determined that Germany must end Versailles, and in the meantime saw the SA and the other right-wing paramilitary groups as the best substitute for conscription. Schleicher and other
2922:
of 1944, Guderian ordered Panzer units to Berlin to crush it, and then sat on the Court of Honor that had the responsibility of expelling officers involved so that they could be tried before the
2288:, saboteurs, Jews and the complete elimination of all active and passive resistance". Reflecting the influence of the guidelines, in a directive sent out to the troops under his command, General
2731:
that the army had disgraced itself by committing massacres during the recent campaign in Poland. Hitler felt that to be a violation of their agreement of 1935, though Mackensen kept his estate.
2605:
penal battalion was equivalent to a death sentence. Those sentenced to serve in the penal battalions called them "death battalions" given the fact that the chances for survival were almost nil.
2137:
as War Minister was the first Nazi attempt to undermine the position of the military as a "state within the state". At the same time, Hitler abolished the War Ministry and replaced it with the
3159:
those we wanted to save, were shot. Because of our initiative it just happened a few days later than planned". Even more dramatic was the case at a military base outside of Stettin (modern
2161:"Hitler's World Historical Mission", "The Battle for German Living Space", "Hands off Danzig!", and "The Final Solution of the Jewish Question in the Third Reich". The last essay included:
2789:(compensation for expenses) were made to Cabinet ministers and senior civil servants from April 1936 onwards. As part of the reorganization of the military command structure following the
3118:
A large part of the reason why most chaplains, both Protestant and Catholic supported the regime was due to the intense background checks performed on any priest who wanted to join the
1670:
to fight these people". Seeckt's actions were entirely illegal as under the Weimar constitution the President was the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, and moreover Seeckt had violated the
3122:
as a chaplain by their own churches (who did not want any "trouble-makers" becoming chaplains lest they strain an already fraught relationship with the regime), the Gestapo and the
1982:
wrote that most officers were Nazis "because they believed had it not been for they would never have been able to realize their dreams of a highly modern, total war of expansion".
1592:
the November Revolution of 1918, there were demands for the dissolution of the military that had led to such a defeat, but on December 23, 1918, the Provisional government under
2641:
decided to permit that privilege, but in practice, the right to defence counsel was rarely granted, even in cases that carried capital punishment where the law required it.
121:
2595:
executed 519 of its personnel during the first 13 months of the war alone. In addition, German courts-martial sentenced ten of thousands of German soldiers to service in
2581:
justice have argued that the figure of 15,000 executed is too low, as it only records verdicts handed down by military courts and that in the last months of the war, the
3062:. However, Bishop Lonicier's efforts created powerful opposition from the SS and other NSDAP elements who argued that the incompetent MĂĽller made for a far more pliable
2960:
told Leeb that he was out of line and should in the future co-operate fully with the SS in "special tasks". Schmundt asked if Leeb appreciated his monthly payments from
3095:
rank and file. Moreover, the vast majority of Germans of that generation regularly attended church, and so the chaplains had a greater role in the social life of the
3046:
bishop of the Lutheran church, and saw the military as a basis for achieving their ambitions. Lonicier, in particular, enjoyed the open backing of his close friends
1782:
and thus ensure that Germany did not lose the next war. As such, what both the Nazis and the German Army wanted to see was Germany remade into a totally militarized
5554:
1859:
ban on Nazi Party membership should be rescinded. The trial in Leipzig caused a media sensation and Hitler himself testified at the trial about how much Nazi and
2817:
were to have the same status as Cabinet ministers and as such, they all started to receive publicly the same pay as a Cabinet member and privately payments from
3154:
who had been rendered orphans after their parents had been shot in the preceding days, the Protestant and Catholic chaplains, namely Pastor Wilczek and Father
3082:
members that unabashedly glorified war as the only fit and proper activity for "real men". Besides for being outspoken supporters of the war, German Christian
1830:. The three officers openly admitted to Nazi Party membership and used it as their defence to claim that the Nazi Party membership should not be forbidden to
3139:
tone of the regime led to those chaplains who were not German Christians to incorporate aspects of their theology as a way of counteracting their influence.
1933:
was vetoed by the Army officer corps with the support of President von Hindenburg under the grounds that Reichenau was too much a military radical, and so
1808:
2461:
was taking such heavy losses that there were no "primary groups" for men to give their loyalty to and that only a belief in Nazism could explain why the
2427:
as serious defeats for the German Army and tensions mounted between the military and the government. When Hitler appointed unqualified personnel such as
358:
3249:
3164:
2993:
2281:
5324:
Goda, Norman (2005). "Black Marks: Hitler's Bribery of his Senior Officers During World War II". In Kreike, Emmanuel; Jordan, William Chester (eds.).
2118:-SS, as, within the SS, adherence to Nazism mattered more for advancement. Despite this, Hitler regretted not having purged his officer corps the way
3234:
2305:
Very typical of the German Army propaganda as part of the preparations for Barbarossa was the following passage from a pamphlet issued in June 1941:
1978:
and revolutionary future dominated by men like themselves. The more technocratic the officer, the more likely he was to be a Nazi. Israeli historian
5188:
Bergen, Doris (2001). "Between God and Hitler: German Military Chaplains and the Crimes of the Third Reich". In Bartov, Omer; Mack, Phyllis (eds.).
2431:
to lead his Air Force, failure ensued. A sign of the close ties between Hitler and his armed forces was his choice of the ardent Nazi Grand Admiral
1712:
In 1927, the Phoebus film studio went bankrupt. Subsequently, bankruptcy proceedings established that the studio was a front company created by the
5151:
Bergen, Doris (September 1997). "'Germany Is Our Mission: Christ Is Our Strength!' The Wehrmacht Chaplaincy and the 'German Christian' Movement".
2104:
and had thus been subjected to intensive Nazi indoctrination; as a result, many newly commissioned officers were committed Nazis. In general, the
1235:
2021:. In this way, 74 Jewish soldiers lost their jobs for no other reason than that they were Jewish. Again, on his own initiative Blomberg had the
205:
1216:
1642:
became, even more so than under the monarchy, a "state within the state" that operated largely outside the control of politicians. During the
5251:
Förster, Jürgen (1998). "Complicity or Entanglement? The Wehrmacht, the War and the Holocaust". In Berenbaum, Michael; Peck, Abraham (eds.).
3155:
2544:
took from this was for the need for a draconian military justice system that would ruthlessly stamp out anything that might lead to any new "
1961:
which began on June 30, 1934, and led to the execution of the majority of the SA leadership, much to the barely veiled glee of the military.
961:
116:
3142:
Despite the screening process, there were occasions when chaplains did protest. In August 1941, when the commander of the 6th Army, General
1917:. The military had decided that Hitler alone was capable of peacefully creating the national consensus that would allow the creation of the
111:
4211:"'We are Trying... To Change the Face of the World' – Ideology and Motivation in the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front: The View from Below"
1964:
British historian A.J. Nicholls wrote that the popular stereotype of the German military in the 1920s–1930s as old-fashioned reactionary
1882:
worried that unless conscription was restored soon, German military power would be destroyed forever. So, Schleicher and the rest of the
1721:
to resign in disgrace in January 1928. The military took advantage of the opening created by Gessler's resignation to convince President
1228:
1795:
Many officers in the early 1930s started to express admiration for Nazism, which they saw as the best way of creating the much desired
1206:
971:
2248:, who protested that this was both morally and legally wrong, none of the officers who heard Hitler's speech voiced any objections.
2612:
On 17 August 1938 the German military code was re-written to make desertion equivalent to high treason, and created a new crime of
1463:
1297:
750:
3856:
Talmadge, Caitlin. The Dictator's Army: Battlefield Effectiveness in Authoritarian Regimes. Cornell University Press, 2015, p. 256
2384:
troops for the "war of extermination" against Soviet Russia. Among higher-ranking officers, 29.2% were NSDAP members by 1941. The
2992:
perjured himself when he denied that he had taken bribes, and then had to maintain a stern silence when the American prosecutor
2569:
treated by military courts as equivalent to high treason, though in the vast majority of the cases, politics were not a factor.
2556:. In August 1917, there had been a mutiny in the High Seas Fleet, which after it was crushed, saw the execution of its leaders'
2405:
going and that the best way to bring about victory against the Soviet Union was to exterminate the commissars via enforcing the
1312:
2618:(literally: "subversion of the war effort"), a vaguely defined crime that carried the death penalty for anyone serving in the
5530:
5504:
5482:
5450:
5333:
5314:
5279:
5260:
5241:
5218:
5197:
5141:
5122:
3431:
3239:
2984:
when he denied taking any bribes. Brauchitsch's bank records showed that he had been receiving 4,000 R.M/month payments from
2314:
236:
21:
4210:
2722:
in a speech before General Staff Association in February 1935. To silence him, Hitler gave Mackensen a free estate of 1,250
4809:
1223:
136:
2781:
5 slush fund started with a budget of about 150,000 RM in 1933 and by 1945 had grown to about 40 million RM Payments from
683:
981:
2746:
for field marshals and grand admirals and 2,000 RM for all other senior officers, which came from a special fund called
2365:
Einsatzgruppen were responsible for the great bulk of the killing, but they received full cooperation from the Army. At
3134:
never suffered from a shortage of chaplains despite the "high" standards they had imposed in 1935 for the new expanded
2549:
1262:
1133:
143:
1803:). An important sign of the sympathy for Nazism within the military came in September–October 1930, with the trial in
5431:
4136:
4128:
2318:
1061:
1970:
is incorrect, and a disproportionate number of officers had a technocratic bent, and instead of looking back to the
2025:
in May 1934 adopt Nazi symbols into their uniforms. In August 1934, again on Blomberg's initiative and that of the
1948:, informed Hitler that if he did not move to curb the SA then Hindenburg would dissolve the Government and declare
1014:
391:
5371:
Kitterman, David (1991). "The Justice of the Wehrmacht Legal System: Servant or Opponent of National Socialism?".
2698:
Typical of the FĂĽhrer's "gifts" was the cheque made out for a half-million Reichsmark presented to Field-Marshal
2681:
2259:
presumes that they had no objections to the sort of war that Hitler intended to wage. In 1989, British historian
1390:
1168:
445:
198:
126:
2089:
s self-proclaimed role as one of the "twin pillars" of Nazi Germany (the other pillar being the NSDAP). General
2564:
with the rest of the mutineers given long prison sentences. The "lesson" drawn by the Navy and the rest of the
131:
5270:
Förster, Jürgen (2004). "The German Military's Image of Russia". In Erickson, Ljubica; Erickson, Mark (eds.).
4199:
Fritz, Stephen. Frontsoldaten: The German Soldier in World War II. University Press of Kentucky, 1997, p. 218
1548:
991:
613:
583:
571:
3059:
1618:
units, the government ended all efforts to democratize the military later that month. Under the laws of the
3021:
1456:
1287:
1114:
386:
2255:, who had previously argued with Hitler about military matters remained silent after hearing this speech,
1940:
A more serious trial of strength concerned the military and the SA. By 1934, the generals were fearful of
3217:
3212:
2923:
2790:
2176:
2126:
1521:
1510:
1078:
1002:
882:
917:
4427:
2138:
1552:
1242:
603:
353:
193:
5342:
Goda, Norman (June 2000). "Black Marks: Hitler's Bribery of his Senior Officers During World War II".
4334:
Fritz, Stephen. Frontsoldaten: The German Soldier in World War II. University Press of Kentucky, 1997.
401:
4796:
Die Truppe des Weltanschauungskrieges: Die Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD 1938–1942
4422:
2540:
Because the military believed that Germany had not been defeated in World War I, the lesson that the
1107:
1097:
3111:
was a strong supporter of the regime. In his Christmas message in 1940 for Catholics serving in the
2227:
and anti-Polish attitudes like the views expressed above coloured all the instructions that came to
1895:
role in the downfall of the Weimar Republic and unintentionally helped to bring about Nazi Germany.
4118:
3261:
1958:
1870:
By 1931, Germany's reserves of experienced reservists were coming to an end, because Part V of the
1634:
In the 1920s, the military did not accept the democratic Weimar Republic as legitimate, and so the
1362:
483:
396:
323:
246:
222:
188:
5228:
Förster, Jürgen (1989). "The Wehrmacht and the War of Extermination Against the Soviet Union". In
3091:
men sought solace in religion, and so the chaplains had considerable spiritual influence with the
1921:, and thus the military successfully brought pressure on Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor.
1555:
were grossly incompetent, and needed to step aside in order to allow the military to win the war.
887:
2977:
2976:
The subject of corruption proved to be embarrassing for its recipients. Under oath at Nuremberg,
2966:
2930:
2755:
2061:. Bartov wrote about the new sort of technocratic officers and their views about the Nazi regime:
1449:
1357:
1292:
942:
870:
5306:
5298:
4417:
3034:
favoured the recruitment of German Christian pastors, and banned those pastors belonging to the
3244:
3104:
3051:
2798:
2728:
2483:
been noble, yet this fell to 4% by 1943. While in 1941 90% of officer candidates possessed the
2154:
2018:
1601:
827:
688:
516:
368:
106:
2885:
5 not to speak about these payments to anyone and to keep as few written records as possible.
2263:
wrote that right from the beginning of the war against the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, the
1596:
came under attack from the radical left-wing "People's Marine Division". Ebert called General
2956:
women and children might have been taking things too far. In response, Hitler's aide General
2952:
2574:
2545:
2223:
simply did not understand the nature of the regime that they fought for, are not believable.
2078:, the leadership of the military welcomed and embraced the Nazi regime. The German historian
2038:
tie Hitler more tightly towards the military and away from the NSDAP. The American historian
2030:
1813:
1405:
1268:
1163:
1123:
678:
628:
623:
5523:
The Indoctrination of the Wehrmacht: Nazi Ideology and the War Crimes of the German Military
3193:, and thereby in their own way helped to prolong the war, and with it the "Final Solution".
2190:
1890:
generals made secret contacts with the SA leadership starting in 1931. Like the rest of the
5492:
3143:
2839:
2715:
2648:
A major latter-day debate about German military justice has been the demand by families of
2256:
2240:
2211:
2142:
1930:
1926:
1871:
1850:), was furious at their arrest, and argued that since the Nazi Party was a force for good,
1835:
1539:
1395:
1317:
1201:
1050:
837:
241:
5443:
Soldaten: On Fighting, Killing and Dying: The Secret Second World War Tapes of German POWs
2865:
2699:
1709:
on March 11, 1923, Seeckt wrote: "We were one in our aim; only our paths were different".
671:
666:
8:
3169:
2937:
officer whose greed overwhelmed any moral revulsion that they might have felt about the "
2873:
2719:
2614:
2398:
2134:
2100:
2079:
2051:
The unintentional effect of these measures to defend the "state within a state" by "self-
2010:
1904:
1879:
1742:
1722:
1576:
1564:
1335:
1191:
1158:
457:
426:
261:
3103:
There was no equivalent to the German Christian Movement in the Catholic Church, though
3078:
members. In the same way, German Christian chaplains preached a "manly Christianity" to
3038:
from becoming chaplains. Both Heinrich Lonicier, the Lutheran bishop of Breslau (modern
1788:
that would be ruthlessly purged of those considered to be internal enemies, such as the
438:
59:
5549:
5462:
5420:
5388:
5359:
5176:
5168:
4293:
4285:
4233:
3207:
2714:
The first officer to be bribed into loyalty was the old World War I hero Field Marshal
2232:
2146:
2130:
1934:
1559:
1385:
907:
703:
588:
566:
561:
556:
511:
338:
94:
3074:, the Old Testament was in effect banned, and only the New Testament was available to
2774:
5 was deposited for the officer's life-time, and did not stop if the officer retired.
5526:
5500:
5478:
5446:
5427:
5392:
5363:
5329:
5310:
5285:
5275:
5256:
5237:
5214:
5193:
5180:
5137:
5118:
4297:
4132:
4124:
3427:
3229:
3035:
3013:
2366:
2298:
2181:
1784:
1543:
1345:
1340:
1196:
1128:
797:
726:
551:
431:
333:
251:
212:
5208:
2876:, it was demanded that his family pay back all of the bribe money he had taken from
2806:
2428:
817:
5380:
5351:
5160:
4791:
4277:
4225:
3175:
3150:
and its Ukrainian auxiliaries with shooting the Jewish children at an orphanage in
2973:
A, in a report to Berlin praised Leeb's Army Group for its exemplary co-operation.
2942:
2894:
2835:
2742:
The basis of the corruption system were regular monthly tax-free payments of 4,000
2691:
2557:
2519:
2506:
2390:
2380:
2260:
2039:
2013:
in February 1934, acting on his own initiative, had all of the Jews serving in the
1966:
1611:
1580:
1369:
1211:
1026:
932:
857:
802:
698:
576:
411:
304:
3178:
were convicted by a court-martial for high treason and executed in November 1944.
2412:
2070:
into the Nazi state, in stark contradiction of its image as a "haven" from Nazism.
1778:
of Germany, namely the total militarization of German society in order to fight a
927:
469:
5559:
5253:
The Holocaust and History The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed and the Reexamiend
5234:
The Nazi Holocaust Part 3 The "Final Solution": The Implementation of Mass Murder
5210:
In Hitler's Shadow West German Historians and the Attempt to Escape the Nazi Past
5113:(1999). "Soldiers, Nazis and War in the Third Reich". In Leitz, Christian (ed.).
3047:
2957:
2915:
2903:
2861:
2767:
2763:
2708:
2406:
2245:
2119:
2053:
1993:
1726:
1689:
by disobeying Ebert's orders to suppress the putsch were later to claim that the
1659:
1639:
1619:
1597:
1593:
1423:
1378:
1102:
902:
897:
877:
847:
812:
715:
708:
593:
294:
1826:; at that time membership in political parties was forbidden for members of the
5229:
4266:"1 October 1942: Adolf Hitler, Wehrmacht Officer Policy, and Social Revolution"
2947:
2938:
2898:
2794:
2704:
2597:
2189:
murdered by the soldiers of the German 15th motorized infantry regiment in the
1800:
1499:
1436:
1352:
1247:
1173:
922:
912:
777:
757:
546:
523:
416:
316:
299:
256:
157:
5384:
4281:
2842:, but because Paulus had gone on Soviet radio to blame Hitler for the defeat.
2561:
2448:
wrote that on the Eastern Front, it was the belief in Nazism that allowed the
2432:
1838:
distributing Nazi literature at their base, their commanding officer, General
1142:
767:
735:
26:
5543:
4112:
2759:
2416:
2289:
2267:
waged a genocidal war of "extreme brutality and barbarism". Evans wrote that
1971:
1754:
1672:
1517:
1302:
1090:
852:
787:
772:
659:
650:
539:
488:
478:
406:
289:
268:
167:
5289:
2711:
to ask him if his sacking meant that he was no longer to receive the money.
2667:
Ludwig Baumann, summarized the arguments against people such as himself as:
2501:
involving a minority of officers received overwhelming disapproval from the
1941:
832:
3151:
3126:. Mindful of the important role chaplains played in the social life of the
2989:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2814:
2751:
2498:
2457:
to fight on the Eastern Front. Bartov wrote that on the Eastern Front, the
2353:
2252:
2224:
2095:
1875:
1799:(literally defense state but in actuality a military state akin to that of
1718:
1706:
1651:
1647:
1626:
was allowed to be a member of a political party or to vote in an election.
1489:
1485:
1257:
1151:
937:
892:
842:
822:
807:
762:
693:
618:
462:
348:
284:
229:
217:
101:
5134:
The Eastern Front, 1941–45: German Troops and the Barbarisation of Warfare
1753:
was the vehicle for military interference with politics. German historian
5299:"Etudes in Political History: Reichswehr, NSDAP and the Seizure of Power"
5110:
2793:
in early 1938, it was declared that the service chiefs, namely OKW chief
2553:
2445:
2150:
2090:
2074:
Because of these conceptions of Germany being remade into a totalitarian
2034:
1998:
1979:
1949:
1903:
The military played a major role in January 1933 in persuading President
1839:
1819:
1690:
1643:
1509:
Following the war, many former Nazis denied and downplayed the extensive
1400:
792:
638:
608:
452:
328:
30:
2356:. The American historians Williamson Murray and Alan Millet wrote about
1769:
In 1926, Seeckt was ousted by the so-called "modern" faction within the
1681:
allowed to continue with their jobs. The same officers who violated the
5172:
4289:
4265:
4237:
2743:
2548:". It had been neither forgotten nor forgiven by the military that the
2326:
2149:, who was acting as the Army's spokesman in this matter and who wanted
2145:
as Army commander, and following tense negotiations between Hitler and
1823:
1542:", with a very large amount of institutional autonomy. Thus Chancellor
1494:
1038:
782:
532:
495:
421:
309:
150:
3039:
2601:(penal battalions). Their conditions were so brutal that service in a
2466:
alone" could not explain why the German soldiers carried on fighting:
1749:
politicians ostensibly for improved military budgets, but in fact the
2707:
in December 1941, Bock's first reaction was to contact Hitler's aide
2285:
2106:
1975:
1843:
1779:
1606:
1479:
1085:
643:
277:
76:
35:
5164:
4229:
2988:
5 from 1938 until the end of the war. At his trial in 1948, General
5355:
3160:
2402:
1792:
who were believed to have "stabbed" Germany in "the back" in 1918.
1746:
633:
598:
343:
4369:
4181:
2202:
On August 22, 1939, in a conference between Hitler and all of the
4359:
4357:
4355:
4033:
4031:
3107:, the Catholic bishop who was the chief Catholic chaplain of the
2981:
2723:
1804:
1646:
of March 1920, Seeckt disobeyed orders from the Defence Minister
85:
3070:
As part of their efforts to promote "Aryan Christianity" in the
2352:
officers fully co-operated with the SS in murdering Jews in the
2197:
1610:
to protect the government. In return for crushing the Communist
3598:
3596:
3594:
3592:
3426:] (in German). Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. p. 43.
3025:
disproportionate number of German Christian pastors joined the
2485:
2409:
so as to deprive the Russian soldiers of their Jewish leaders.
2082:
wrote that it was wrong as many historians have to dismiss the
504:
363:
51:
4352:
4094:
4028:
3877:
3741:
3729:
3717:
3692:
3633:
3621:
3502:
3490:
2868:
were punished by being cut off from the monthly payments from
2231:
during the summer of 1939 as part of the preparations for the
1929:
resigned, Hitler's choice for Hammerstein's successor General
5190:
In God's Name: Genocide and Religion in the Twentieth Century
4563:
4561:
4559:
3911:
3909:
3828:
3826:
3523:
3521:
3519:
3517:
3184:
2325:
As a result of the very intense anti-Semitic and anti-Slavic
1252:
5426:. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
4171:
4169:
3866:
3864:
3862:
3589:
1733:
Reflecting this position as a "state within the state", the
1575:
military dictatorship under the duumvirate of Field Marshal
5236:. Vol. 2. Westpoint: Meckler Press. pp. 494–520.
3363:
3351:
3314:
3304:
3302:
3300:
2941:". In late June-early July 1941, Leeb, as the commander of
2718:, who criticized the Nazi regime for the murder of General
2439:
2129:
of January–February 1938 that ended with the dismissals of
1789:
1741:
or Office of the Ministerial Affairs in 1928 under General
5497:
The Nemesis of Power The German Army in Politics 1918–1945
5255:. Bloomington: Indian University Press. pp. 266–283.
5076:
5052:
5040:
5028:
4995:
4983:
4918:
4877:
4556:
3999:
3936:
3906:
3823:
3783:
3652:
3650:
3648:
3609:
3533:
3514:
2505:, who rallied for the Nazi regime. The American historian
5018:
5016:
5014:
5012:
5010:
4973:
4971:
4969:
4896:
4894:
4892:
4867:
4865:
4863:
4850:
4848:
4453:
4441:
4166:
4154:
4018:
4016:
4014:
3989:
3987:
3896:
3894:
3892:
3859:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3452:
3399:
3387:
3273:
2690:
officers, Hitler had created what the American historian
2186:
1847:
1498:
which ruled Germany has been the subject of an extensive
4477:
4342:
4340:
3800:
3798:
3773:
3771:
3758:
3756:
3339:
3297:
5274:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 117–129.
4758:
4756:
4522:
4520:
4518:
4516:
4392:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4384:
3811:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3645:
3285:
2838:
stopped in August 1943 not because Paulus had lost the
1693:
made it impossible for them to resist the Nazi regime.
1538:
The German military had traditionally functioned as a "
5088:
5064:
5007:
4966:
4954:
4942:
4930:
4906:
4889:
4860:
4845:
4082:
4070:
4011:
3984:
3926:
3924:
3889:
3572:
3560:
3336:, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981 pp. 41–45.
2518:
attempt was crushed by Army troops commanded by Major
2343:
1997:("synchronization") being imposed by engaging in what
4833:
4337:
4304:
3795:
3768:
3753:
4753:
4729:
4532:
4513:
4501:
4489:
4465:
4381:
4058:
3675:
1863:
values were one and the same. After the trial, many
1822:. The three men were charged with membership in the
1666:, claiming "There can be no question of sending the
5411:
Strange Victory, Hitler's victory over France, 1940
4823:
4821:
4819:
4775:
4773:
4771:
4544:
4316:
4142:
3921:
2475:Stephen Fritz argues that the Nazis' vision of the
2393:". German historian Jürgen Förster wrote that most
5461:
5419:
4719:
4717:
4715:
4702:
4700:
4698:
4685:
4683:
4634:
4632:
4630:
4605:
4603:
4590:
4588:
4048:
4046:
3960:
3948:
3606:, New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000, pp. 163–164.
3550:
3548:
3250:Guidelines for the Conduct of the Troops in Russia
2282:Guidelines for the Conduct of the Troops in Russia
3838:
3235:War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II
5541:
4816:
4768:
4741:
4123:(In the US). New York: Viking, 1998 (hardcover,
2374:
1985:
16:Relationship between the NSDAP and the Wehrmacht
5555:Military history of Germany during World War II
5417:
4712:
4695:
4680:
4668:
4656:
4644:
4627:
4615:
4600:
4585:
4573:
4375:
4363:
4187:
4121:" or "Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege: 1942–1943"
4043:
4037:
3972:
3663:
3545:
3440:
3375:
2686:In order to ensure the absolute loyalty of the
1834:personnel. When the three officers were caught
5192:. New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 123–138.
4411:
4409:
4407:
4405:
2005:". As part and parcel of the process of "self-
1974:looked with confidence towards a new dynamic,
1878:and existing reservists were ageing. General
1600:for help, and what resulted was the so-called
1218:National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands
5440:
4100:
3660:, New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000, p. 163.
2945:, had witnessed the massacres of Jews by the
2198:Planning the war of extermination in the East
1457:
962:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
4813:, New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985, p. 301
4254:. University Press of Kentucky, 1997, p. 209
2951:, Lithuanian auxiliaries and the men of the
2750:5 run by the chief of the Reich Chancellery
2251:Since some of the officers, such as General
1567:be given the new office of "Dictator of the
1530:
1376:
1367:
1237:National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark
1149:
1140:
1112:
1048:
1036:
1024:
1012:
1000:
733:
724:
713:
657:
648:
530:
521:
502:
493:
467:
436:
275:
266:
227:
203:
165:
155:
141:
92:
83:
74:
5491:
5328:. Toronto: Hushion House. pp. 96–137.
4567:
4402:
4131:); London: Penguin Books, 1999 (paperback,
3942:
3915:
3883:
3789:
3747:
3735:
3723:
3698:
3639:
3627:
3615:
3539:
3527:
3508:
3496:
3458:
3405:
3393:
3369:
3357:
3345:
3320:
3308:
3291:
3279:
1586:
2845:In the same way, after the failure of the
2114:tended to fight more effectively than the
1464:
1450:
5477:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5418:Murray, Williamson; Millet, Alan (2000).
2401:were Jews who in turn were what kept the
1207:German National Movement in Liechtenstein
972:The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
5441:Neitzel, Söhnke; Welzer, Harald (2012).
2530:
2440:Impact of ideology on war-making ability
2313:
2180:
1484:(from 1935 to 1945 the regular combined
20:
5269:
5250:
5227:
5117:. London: Blackwell. pp. 129–150.
5115:The Third Reich: The Essential Readings
4088:
4076:
4022:
4005:
3993:
3900:
3832:
3583:
3566:
3054:in his attempts to depose the Lutheran
29:(center, back to camera) returning the
5542:
5305:. London: Allen & Unwin. pp.
5187:
5150:
5131:
5109:
5094:
5082:
5070:
5058:
5046:
5034:
5022:
5001:
4989:
4977:
4960:
4948:
4936:
4924:
4912:
4900:
4883:
4871:
4854:
4459:
4447:
4415:
4346:
4310:
4175:
4160:
4064:
3808:, New York: W.W. Norton, 1998 p. 525.
3777:
3762:
3474:, London: Macmillan, 2000, pp. 69–70.
2397:officers genuinely believed that most
1898:
1867:officers started to favour the NSDAP.
5370:
4538:
4526:
4507:
4495:
4483:
4471:
4396:
4208:
3420:Wehrmachtsoffiziere in der Bundeswehr
3417:
3240:Nazi crimes against the Polish nation
2824:
2577:and Fritz WĂĽllner in a 1987 study of
2280:On May 19, 1941, the OKW issued the "
1807:of three junior officers, Lieutenant
5520:
5472:
5464:The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich
5341:
4839:
4810:The Destruction of the European Jews
4550:
4322:
4263:
4148:
3930:
3817:
3424:Wehrmacht Officers in the Bundeswehr
2339:has saved Europe from certain chaos.
1224:National Socialist Movement of Chile
5408:
3844:
2933:as an all-too-typical example of a
2527:had become essentially "Nazified."
2344:Cooperation with genocidal policies
1614:in early January 1919 with its new
982:The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
13:
5514:
5459:
5445:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
4252:The German Soldier in World War II
3381:
2292:of the Panzer Group 4 proclaimed:
2275:
2153:as Fritsch's successor, agreed to
1629:
1263:World Union of National Socialists
237:Adolf Hitler's cult of personality
144:Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte
14:
5571:
5296:
5206:
4416:Hadden, Gerry (12 October 2009).
4052:
3978:
3966:
3954:
3686:
3487:, London: Macmillan, 2000, p. 71.
2834:5 to the bank account of General
2321:marching, Soviet Union, June 1943
2017:given an automatic and immediate
1308:Last surviving war crime suspects
1062:The Myth of the Twentieth Century
5399:
5323:
5136:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
4827:
4801:
4785:
4779:
4762:
4747:
4735:
4723:
4706:
4689:
4674:
4662:
4650:
4638:
4621:
4609:
4594:
4579:
3669:
3554:
3446:
2872:5. In the case of Field Marshal
2042:wrote about the oath to Hitler:
1430:
1419:
1418:
1298:Nazi Party leaders and officials
1015:Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes
58:
5468:. New York: Simon and Schuster.
5272:Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy
4328:
4257:
4250:Fritz, Stephen. Frontsoldaten:
4244:
4218:The Journal of Military History
4202:
4193:
4106:
3874:, London: Routledge 2000 p. 89.
3850:
3704:
3477:
3464:
3411:
3012:A great many of the Protestant
2888:
2734:
2682:Corruption within the Wehrmacht
2214:wrote that whatever doubts the
2170:
1391:Political views of Adolf Hitler
1169:Religious views of Adolf Hitler
4798:, Stuttgart: 1981 pp. 207–209.
3334:Germany and the Two World Wars
3326:
3146:ordered his men to assist the
3067:favour of a revived paganism.
2494:than they may otherwise have.
2033:, the entire military took an
1313:Speeches given by Adolf Hitler
1:
5344:The Journal of Modern History
5103:
4794:& Wilhelm, Hans-Heinrich
3658:Weimar and the Rise of Hitler
3604:Weimar and the Rise of Hitler
3485:Weimar and the Rise of Hitler
3472:Weimar and the Rise of Hitler
3000:
2675:
2573:code. The German historians'
2375:Nazis within the armed forces
1986:Growing alignment with Nazism
1558:In March–April 1915, Admiral
1549:Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg
1520:. This is referred to as the
1476:The relationship between the
1248:Ossewabrandwag (South Africa)
992:The Passing of the Great Race
5413:. New York: Hill & Wang.
5301:. In Stachura, Peter (ed.).
2703:Hitler sacked Field Marshal
1937:was chosen as a compromise.
1511:war crimes committed by the
1288:Bibliography of Adolf Hitler
387:Aestheticization of politics
7:
3213:Military history of Germany
3196:
2177:War crimes of the Wehrmacht
1818:, Hans Friedrich Wendt and
1229:National Socialist Movement
1197:Arrow Cross Party (Hungary)
1003:Preussentum und Sozialismus
10:
5576:
5473:Weinberg, Gerhard (2005).
5207:Evans, Richard J. (1989).
4428:Public Radio International
4209:Fritz, Stephen G. (1996).
2679:
2174:
2001:called a process of "self-
1243:Nordic Resistance Movement
194:National Socialist Program
5385:10.1017/S0008938900019269
5340:Originally published as:
4418:"Nazi Deserters Pardoned"
4282:10.1017/S0018246X99001284
4101:Neitzel & Welzer 2012
3256:General reference entries
2897:wrote that after General
2852:of 1944, the families of
2762:and 24,000 RM a year for
2535:
2348:The vast majority of the
1212:Nasjonal Samling (Norway)
1108:German Evangelical Church
39:officers, in France, 1941
5460:Shirer, William (1960).
5373:Central European History
5303:The Nazi Machtergreifung
4264:Knox, Macgregor (2000).
3267:
3262:Glossary of Nazi Germany
2929:Goda used Field Marshal
2509:wrote about the July 20
2035:oath of personal loyalty
2009:", the Defence Minister
1959:Night of the Long Knives
1638:under the leadership of
1587:Aftermath of World War I
484:Economic interventionism
446:Jewish conspiracy theory
247:Night of the Long Knives
223:Religion in Nazi Germany
5400:Kolb, Eberhard (2005).
5297:Geyer, Michael (1983).
3218:German Army (1935–1945)
2978:Walther von Brauchitsch
2967:Franz Walter Stahlecker
2931:Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb
2893:The American historian
2791:Blomberg–Fritsch Affair
2787:Aufwandsentschädigungen
2785:5, known officially as
2127:Blomberg–Fritsch Affair
1258:Tsagaan Khas (Mongolia)
5213:. New York: Pantheon.
4270:The Historical Journal
3245:Consequences of Nazism
3105:Franz-Justus Rarkowski
3052:Walter von Brauchitsch
2799:Walter von Brauchitsch
2729:Walter von Brauchitsch
2673:
2473:
2444:The Israeli historian
2379:The British historian
2372:
2341:
2322:
2312:
2303:
2194:
2168:
2155:Walter von Brauchitsch
2133:as Army commander and
2072:
2049:
2019:dishonorable discharge
1767:
1516:and its complicity in
1377:
1368:
1150:
1141:
1113:
1049:
1037:
1025:
1013:
1001:
734:
725:
714:
689:Social interventionism
658:
649:
531:
522:
517:Greater Germanic Reich
503:
494:
468:
437:
276:
267:
228:
204:
199:Hitler's rise to power
166:
156:
142:
107:League of German Girls
93:
84:
75:
40:
5499:. London: Macmillan.
5493:Wheeler-Bennett, John
5132:Bartov, Omer (1986).
3418:Pauli, Frank (2010).
2669:
2575:Manfred Messerschmidt
2552:had started with the
2531:Mechanisms of control
2468:
2362:
2332:
2317:
2307:
2294:
2193:on September 9, 1939.
2184:
2163:
2063:
2044:
2031:Walther von Reichenau
1776:Wiederwehrhaftmachung
1759:
1164:Positive Christianity
1124:German Faith Movement
679:Reactionary modernism
624:Anti-Slavic sentiment
354:Human experimentation
86:Geheime Staatspolizei
24:
5521:Sait, Bryce (2019).
5409:May, Ernest (2000).
5404:. London: Routledge.
3511:, p. 118, n. 1.
3332:Hillgruber, Andreas
3144:Walter von Reichenau
3020:were members of the
2840:Battle of Stalingrad
2716:August von Mackensen
2257:John Wheeler-Bennett
2241:Operation Barbarossa
2212:John Wheeler-Bennett
2143:Walter von Reichenau
1931:Walter von Reichenau
1927:Kurt von Hammerstein
1872:Treaty of Versailles
1622:, no soldier of the
1540:state within a state
1202:German American Bund
1051:Hitlers Zweites Buch
397:Anti-intellectualism
242:Enabling Act of 1933
5402:The Weimar Republic
5085:, pp. 131–133.
5061:, pp. 130–131.
5049:, pp. 125–126.
5037:, pp. 124–126.
5004:, pp. 128–129.
4992:, pp. 535–536.
4927:, pp. 524–525.
4886:, pp. 523–524.
4738:, pp. 126–127.
4486:, pp. 461–462.
4462:, pp. 141–142.
4450:, pp. 140–142.
4378:, pp. 396–337.
4376:Murray & Millet
4364:Murray & Millet
4190:, pp. 396–397.
4188:Murray & Millet
4178:, pp. 137–138.
4163:, pp. 137–139.
4038:Murray & Millet
4008:, pp. 500–501.
3886:, pp. 370–371.
3835:, pp. 267–268.
3820:, pp. 481–482.
3750:, pp. 320–323.
3738:, pp. 309–314.
3726:, pp. 319–320.
3701:, pp. 301–303.
3689:, pp. 122–123.
3642:, pp. 220–223.
3630:, pp. 216–219.
3499:, pp. 133–138.
2969:, the commander of
2874:Erwin von Witzleben
2720:Kurt von Schleicher
2633:Wehrkraftzersetzung
2629:Wehrkraftzersetzung
2615:Wehrkraftzersetzung
2550:November Revolution
2399:Red Army commissars
2135:Werner von Blomberg
2101:Reichsarbeitsdienst
2011:Werner von Blomberg
1905:Paul von Hindenburg
1899:Nazis rise to power
1880:Kurt von Schleicher
1743:Kurt von Schleicher
1723:Paul von Hindenburg
1192:American Nazi Party
458:Cult of personality
427:Class collaboration
339:Extermination camps
324:Concentration camps
262:Anti-Comintern Pact
46:Part of a series on
5525:. Berghahn Books.
4765:, p. 112–113.
3870:Kallis, Aristotle
3208:History of Germany
3022:"German Christian"
2825:Nature of payments
2323:
2233:invasion of Poland
2195:
2191:CiepielĂłw massacre
2147:Gerd von Rundstedt
2131:Werner von Fritsch
1935:Werner von Fritsch
1846:Regiment based in
1809:Richard Scheringer
1725:to impose General
1602:Ebert–Groener pact
1560:Alfred von Tirpitz
1522:myth of the clean
1437:Germany portal
1386:German Romanticism
1303:Nazi Party members
1186:Outside of Germany
369:Racial segregation
95:Deutsches Jungvolk
41:
5532:978-1-78920-150-5
5506:978-1-4039-1812-3
5484:978-0-674-00163-3
5452:978-1-84983-948-8
5335:978-1-58046-173-3
5326:Corrupt Histories
5316:978-0-04-943026-6
5281:978-0-297-84913-1
5262:978-0-253-33374-2
5243:978-0-88736-255-2
5220:978-0-394-57686-2
5199:978-1-57181-302-2
5143:978-0-312-22486-8
5124:978-0-631-20700-9
4792:Krausnick, Helmut
4103:, pp. 13–14.
3969:, pp. 59–60.
3957:, pp. 58–60.
3433:978-3-506-76750-9
3372:, pp. 33–34.
3360:, pp. 32–33.
3323:, pp. 13–14.
3230:German war crimes
3036:Confessing Church
2914:s failure in the
2866:GĂĽnther von Kluge
2797:, Army commander
2700:GĂĽnther von Kluge
2477:volksgemeinschaft
2299:Jewish Bolshevism
2185:About 300 Polish
2157:as a compromise.
1785:Volksgemeinschaft
1650:, the Chancellor
1544:Otto von Bismarck
1500:historiographical
1474:
1473:
1129:Germanic paganism
1115:Deutsche Christen
848:Strasser (Gregor)
727:Volksgemeinschaft
672:Völkisch movement
667:Völkisch equality
252:Nuremberg rallies
213:German rearmament
5567:
5536:
5510:
5488:
5469:
5467:
5456:
5437:
5425:
5414:
5405:
5396:
5367:
5339:
5320:
5293:
5266:
5247:
5224:
5203:
5184:
5147:
5128:
5098:
5092:
5086:
5080:
5074:
5068:
5062:
5056:
5050:
5044:
5038:
5032:
5026:
5020:
5005:
4999:
4993:
4987:
4981:
4975:
4964:
4958:
4952:
4946:
4940:
4934:
4928:
4922:
4916:
4910:
4904:
4898:
4887:
4881:
4875:
4869:
4858:
4852:
4843:
4837:
4831:
4825:
4814:
4805:
4799:
4789:
4783:
4777:
4766:
4760:
4751:
4745:
4739:
4733:
4727:
4721:
4710:
4704:
4693:
4687:
4678:
4672:
4666:
4660:
4654:
4648:
4642:
4636:
4625:
4619:
4613:
4607:
4598:
4592:
4583:
4577:
4571:
4565:
4554:
4548:
4542:
4536:
4530:
4524:
4511:
4505:
4499:
4493:
4487:
4481:
4475:
4469:
4463:
4457:
4451:
4445:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4434:
4413:
4400:
4394:
4379:
4373:
4367:
4361:
4350:
4344:
4335:
4332:
4326:
4320:
4314:
4308:
4302:
4301:
4261:
4255:
4248:
4242:
4241:
4215:
4206:
4200:
4197:
4191:
4185:
4179:
4173:
4164:
4158:
4152:
4146:
4140:
4110:
4104:
4098:
4092:
4086:
4080:
4074:
4068:
4062:
4056:
4050:
4041:
4035:
4026:
4020:
4009:
4003:
3997:
3991:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3934:
3928:
3919:
3913:
3904:
3898:
3887:
3881:
3875:
3872:Fascist Ideology
3868:
3857:
3854:
3848:
3842:
3836:
3830:
3821:
3815:
3809:
3802:
3793:
3787:
3781:
3775:
3766:
3760:
3751:
3745:
3739:
3733:
3727:
3721:
3715:
3708:
3702:
3696:
3690:
3684:
3673:
3667:
3661:
3654:
3643:
3637:
3631:
3625:
3619:
3613:
3607:
3600:
3587:
3581:
3570:
3564:
3558:
3552:
3543:
3537:
3531:
3525:
3512:
3506:
3500:
3494:
3488:
3481:
3475:
3468:
3462:
3456:
3450:
3444:
3438:
3437:
3415:
3409:
3403:
3397:
3391:
3385:
3379:
3373:
3367:
3361:
3355:
3349:
3343:
3337:
3330:
3324:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3295:
3289:
3283:
3277:
3176:Friedrich Lorenz
3173:
3165:Herbert Simoleit
2994:James M. McHaney
2943:Army Group North
2913:
2836:Friedrich Paulus
2768:general admirals
2764:colonel generals
2692:Gerhard Weinberg
2627:courts were for
2558:Max Reichpietsch
2554:High Seas mutiny
2546:stab in the back
2520:Otto Ernst Remer
2507:Gerhard Weinberg
2391:Judeo-Bolshevism
2381:Richard J. Evans
2261:Richard J. Evans
2208:
2088:
2040:Gerhard Weinberg
1817:
1685:during the Kapp
1662:to suppress the
1612:Spartacus League
1551:and the Emperor
1531:Politics of the
1466:
1459:
1452:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1422:
1421:
1382:
1373:
1370:Drang nach Osten
1238:
1219:
1155:
1146:
1118:
1067:
1057:
1054:
1045:
1042:
1033:
1030:
1027:Das Dritte Reich
1021:
1018:
1009:
1006:
997:
987:
977:
967:
943:von Sebottendorf
739:
730:
719:
699:State capitalism
684:Social Darwinism
663:
654:
536:
527:
508:
499:
473:
442:
439:DolchstoĂźlegende
412:Authoritarianism
305:Nuremberg trials
281:
272:
233:
209:
171:
161:
147:
98:
89:
80:
62:
43:
42:
5575:
5574:
5570:
5569:
5568:
5566:
5565:
5564:
5540:
5539:
5533:
5517:
5515:Further reading
5507:
5485:
5475:A World In Arms
5453:
5434:
5422:A War To Be Won
5336:
5317:
5282:
5263:
5244:
5230:Marrus, Michael
5221:
5200:
5165:10.2307/3169455
5144:
5125:
5106:
5101:
5093:
5089:
5081:
5077:
5069:
5065:
5057:
5053:
5045:
5041:
5033:
5029:
5021:
5008:
5000:
4996:
4988:
4984:
4976:
4967:
4959:
4955:
4947:
4943:
4935:
4931:
4923:
4919:
4911:
4907:
4899:
4890:
4882:
4878:
4870:
4861:
4853:
4846:
4842:, p. 1045.
4838:
4834:
4826:
4817:
4806:
4802:
4790:
4786:
4778:
4769:
4761:
4754:
4746:
4742:
4734:
4730:
4722:
4713:
4705:
4696:
4688:
4681:
4673:
4669:
4661:
4657:
4649:
4645:
4637:
4628:
4620:
4616:
4608:
4601:
4593:
4586:
4578:
4574:
4568:Wheeler-Bennett
4566:
4557:
4549:
4545:
4537:
4533:
4525:
4514:
4506:
4502:
4494:
4490:
4482:
4478:
4470:
4466:
4458:
4454:
4446:
4442:
4432:
4430:
4414:
4403:
4395:
4382:
4374:
4370:
4362:
4353:
4345:
4338:
4333:
4329:
4321:
4317:
4309:
4305:
4262:
4258:
4249:
4245:
4230:10.2307/2944661
4213:
4207:
4203:
4198:
4194:
4186:
4182:
4174:
4167:
4159:
4155:
4147:
4143:
4111:
4107:
4099:
4095:
4087:
4083:
4075:
4071:
4063:
4059:
4051:
4044:
4036:
4029:
4021:
4012:
4004:
4000:
3992:
3985:
3977:
3973:
3965:
3961:
3953:
3949:
3943:Wheeler-Bennett
3941:
3937:
3929:
3922:
3916:Wheeler-Bennett
3914:
3907:
3899:
3890:
3884:Wheeler-Bennett
3882:
3878:
3869:
3860:
3855:
3851:
3843:
3839:
3831:
3824:
3816:
3812:
3803:
3796:
3790:Wheeler-Bennett
3788:
3784:
3776:
3769:
3761:
3754:
3748:Wheeler-Bennett
3746:
3742:
3736:Wheeler-Bennett
3734:
3730:
3724:Wheeler-Bennett
3722:
3718:
3709:
3705:
3699:Wheeler-Bennett
3697:
3693:
3685:
3676:
3668:
3664:
3656:Nicholls, A.J.
3655:
3646:
3640:Wheeler-Bennett
3638:
3634:
3628:Wheeler-Bennett
3626:
3622:
3616:Wheeler-Bennett
3614:
3610:
3602:Nicholls, A.J.
3601:
3590:
3582:
3573:
3565:
3561:
3553:
3546:
3540:Wheeler-Bennett
3538:
3534:
3528:Wheeler-Bennett
3526:
3515:
3509:Wheeler-Bennett
3507:
3503:
3497:Wheeler-Bennett
3495:
3491:
3483:Nicholls, A.J.
3482:
3478:
3470:Nicholls, A.J.
3469:
3465:
3459:Wheeler-Bennett
3457:
3453:
3445:
3441:
3434:
3416:
3412:
3406:Wheeler-Bennett
3404:
3400:
3394:Wheeler-Bennett
3392:
3388:
3380:
3376:
3370:Wheeler-Bennett
3368:
3364:
3358:Wheeler-Bennett
3356:
3352:
3346:Wheeler-Bennett
3344:
3340:
3331:
3327:
3321:Wheeler-Bennett
3319:
3315:
3309:Wheeler-Bennett
3307:
3298:
3292:Wheeler-Bennett
3290:
3286:
3282:, pp. 6–7.
3280:Wheeler-Bennett
3278:
3274:
3270:
3224:Specific issues
3199:
3167:
3048:Joseph Goebbels
3003:
2958:Rudolf Schmundt
2916:Battle of Kursk
2911:
2904:Joseph Goebbels
2891:
2862:Friedrich Fromm
2827:
2740:
2709:Rudolf Schmundt
2684:
2678:
2538:
2533:
2442:
2419:opine that the
2407:Commissar Order
2377:
2360:-SS relations:
2346:
2319:German infantry
2278:
2276:Criminal orders
2246:Wilhelm Canaris
2206:
2200:
2179:
2173:
2086:
2054:Gleichschaltung
2007:Gleichschaltung
2003:Gleichschaltung
1994:Gleichschaltung
1988:
1901:
1811:
1660:Friedrich Ebert
1640:Hans von Seeckt
1632:
1630:Weimar Republic
1620:Weimar Republic
1594:Friedrich Ebert
1589:
1536:
1470:
1431:
1429:
1411:
1410:
1396:Racial theories
1379:Generalplan Ost
1331:
1323:
1322:
1293:Nazi ideologues
1283:
1275:
1274:
1236:
1231:(United States)
1230:
1217:
1187:
1179:
1178:
1103:Esoteric Nazism
1081:
1071:
1070:
1065:
1055:
1043:
1031:
1019:
1007:
995:
985:
975:
965:
956:
948:
947:
873:
863:
862:
853:Strasser (Otto)
753:
743:
742:
716:Gleichschaltung
709:Totalitarianism
594:One-party state
402:Anti-liberalism
382:
374:
373:
295:Tripartite Pact
206:Machtergreifung
184:
176:
175:
70:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5573:
5563:
5562:
5557:
5552:
5538:
5537:
5531:
5516:
5513:
5512:
5511:
5505:
5489:
5483:
5470:
5457:
5451:
5438:
5432:
5415:
5406:
5397:
5379:(4): 450–469.
5368:
5356:10.1086/315994
5350:(2): 413–452.
5334:
5321:
5315:
5294:
5280:
5267:
5261:
5248:
5242:
5225:
5219:
5204:
5198:
5185:
5159:(3): 522–536.
5153:Church History
5148:
5142:
5129:
5123:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5099:
5097:, p. 129.
5087:
5075:
5073:, p. 131.
5063:
5051:
5039:
5027:
5025:, p. 133.
5006:
4994:
4982:
4980:, p. 134.
4965:
4963:, p. 534.
4953:
4951:, p. 533.
4941:
4939:, p. 529.
4929:
4917:
4915:, p. 526.
4905:
4903:, p. 524.
4888:
4876:
4874:, p. 137.
4859:
4857:, p. 123.
4844:
4832:
4830:, p. 123.
4815:
4807:Hilberg, Raul
4800:
4784:
4782:, p. 112.
4767:
4752:
4750:, p. 127.
4740:
4728:
4726:, p. 126.
4711:
4709:, p. 106.
4694:
4692:, p. 105.
4679:
4677:, p. 130.
4667:
4665:, p. 103.
4655:
4653:, p. 113.
4643:
4641:, p. 108.
4626:
4624:, p. 111.
4614:
4612:, p. 102.
4599:
4597:, p. 110.
4584:
4582:, p. 124.
4572:
4570:, p. 529.
4555:
4553:, p. 455.
4543:
4541:, p. 456.
4531:
4529:, p. 458.
4512:
4510:, p. 455.
4500:
4498:, p. 457.
4488:
4476:
4474:, p. 460.
4464:
4452:
4440:
4401:
4399:, p. 459.
4380:
4368:
4366:, p. 397.
4351:
4349:, p. 141.
4336:
4327:
4325:, p. 754.
4315:
4313:, p. 136.
4303:
4276:(3): 801–825.
4256:
4243:
4224:(4): 683–710.
4201:
4192:
4180:
4165:
4153:
4151:, p. 826.
4141:
4113:Beevor, Antony
4105:
4093:
4091:, p. 274.
4081:
4079:, p. 273.
4069:
4057:
4042:
4040:, p. 141.
4027:
4025:, p. 127.
4010:
3998:
3996:, p. 500.
3983:
3971:
3959:
3947:
3945:, p. 513.
3935:
3933:, p. 190.
3920:
3918:, p. 448.
3905:
3903:, p. 270.
3888:
3876:
3858:
3849:
3837:
3822:
3810:
3794:
3792:, p. 312.
3782:
3780:, p. 143.
3767:
3765:, p. 145.
3752:
3740:
3728:
3716:
3703:
3691:
3674:
3672:, p. 126.
3662:
3644:
3632:
3620:
3618:, p. 217.
3608:
3588:
3586:, p. 268.
3571:
3569:, p. 267.
3559:
3557:, p. 173.
3544:
3542:, p. 198.
3532:
3530:, p. 188.
3513:
3501:
3489:
3476:
3463:
3451:
3449:, p. 172.
3439:
3432:
3410:
3398:
3386:
3374:
3362:
3350:
3338:
3325:
3313:
3296:
3284:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3258:
3257:
3253:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3221:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3204:
3203:
3198:
3195:
3152:Belaya Tserkov
3148:Einsatzgruppen
3002:
2999:
2948:Einsatzgruppen
2939:Final Solution
2924:People's Court
2899:Heinz Guderian
2890:
2887:
2826:
2823:
2807:Hermann Göring
2795:Wilhelm Keitel
2760:grand admirals
2756:field marshals
2739:
2733:
2705:Fedor von Bock
2680:Main article:
2677:
2674:
2598:Strafbattalion
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2441:
2438:
2429:Hermann Göring
2376:
2373:
2345:
2342:
2277:
2274:
2199:
2196:
2175:Main article:
2172:
2169:
2080:Jürgen Förster
2029:chief General
1987:
1984:
1900:
1897:
1801:ancient Sparta
1727:Wilhelm Gröner
1631:
1628:
1598:Wilhelm Gröner
1588:
1585:
1535:
1529:
1472:
1471:
1469:
1468:
1461:
1454:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1426:
1413:
1412:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1374:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1353:Beefsteak Nazi
1350:
1349:
1348:
1343:
1332:
1330:Related topics
1329:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1284:
1281:
1280:
1277:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1233:
1226:
1221:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1147:
1138:
1137:
1136:
1126:
1121:
1120:
1119:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1082:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1058:
1046:
1034:
1022:
1010:
998:
988:
978:
968:
957:
954:
953:
950:
949:
946:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
918:von Liebenfels
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
874:
869:
868:
865:
864:
861:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
828:von Ribbentrop
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
754:
749:
748:
745:
744:
741:
740:
731:
722:
721:
720:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
675:
674:
669:
664:
655:
646:
641:
636:
631:
626:
621:
611:
606:
601:
596:
591:
586:
581:
580:
579:
574:
569:
564:
554:
549:
547:Indoctrination
544:
543:
542:
537:
528:
524:Heim ins Reich
519:
509:
500:
491:
486:
481:
476:
475:
474:
460:
455:
450:
449:
448:
443:
429:
424:
419:
417:Blood and soil
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
392:Anti-communism
389:
383:
380:
379:
376:
375:
372:
371:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
334:Doctors' Trial
331:
326:
317:Final solution
313:
312:
307:
302:
300:Denazification
297:
292:
287:
282:
273:
264:
259:
257:Nuremberg Laws
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
225:
220:
215:
210:
201:
196:
191:
189:Early timeline
185:
182:
181:
178:
177:
174:
173:
163:
158:Sturmabteilung
153:
148:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
114:
109:
104:
99:
90:
81:
71:
68:
67:
64:
63:
55:
54:
48:
47:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5572:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5547:
5545:
5534:
5528:
5524:
5519:
5518:
5508:
5502:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5480:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5465:
5458:
5454:
5448:
5444:
5439:
5435:
5433:9780674001633
5429:
5424:
5423:
5416:
5412:
5407:
5403:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5378:
5374:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5349:
5345:
5337:
5331:
5327:
5322:
5318:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5277:
5273:
5268:
5264:
5258:
5254:
5249:
5245:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5226:
5222:
5216:
5212:
5211:
5205:
5201:
5195:
5191:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5149:
5145:
5139:
5135:
5130:
5126:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5107:
5096:
5091:
5084:
5079:
5072:
5067:
5060:
5055:
5048:
5043:
5036:
5031:
5024:
5019:
5017:
5015:
5013:
5011:
5003:
4998:
4991:
4986:
4979:
4974:
4972:
4970:
4962:
4957:
4950:
4945:
4938:
4933:
4926:
4921:
4914:
4909:
4902:
4897:
4895:
4893:
4885:
4880:
4873:
4868:
4866:
4864:
4856:
4851:
4849:
4841:
4836:
4829:
4824:
4822:
4820:
4812:
4811:
4804:
4797:
4793:
4788:
4781:
4776:
4774:
4772:
4764:
4759:
4757:
4749:
4744:
4737:
4732:
4725:
4720:
4718:
4716:
4708:
4703:
4701:
4699:
4691:
4686:
4684:
4676:
4671:
4664:
4659:
4652:
4647:
4640:
4635:
4633:
4631:
4623:
4618:
4611:
4606:
4604:
4596:
4591:
4589:
4581:
4576:
4569:
4564:
4562:
4560:
4552:
4547:
4540:
4535:
4528:
4523:
4521:
4519:
4517:
4509:
4504:
4497:
4492:
4485:
4480:
4473:
4468:
4461:
4456:
4449:
4444:
4429:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4412:
4410:
4408:
4406:
4398:
4393:
4391:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4377:
4372:
4365:
4360:
4358:
4356:
4348:
4343:
4341:
4331:
4324:
4319:
4312:
4307:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4260:
4253:
4247:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4212:
4205:
4196:
4189:
4184:
4177:
4172:
4170:
4162:
4157:
4150:
4145:
4138:
4137:0-14-028458-3
4134:
4130:
4129:0-670-87095-1
4126:
4122:
4120:
4114:
4109:
4102:
4097:
4090:
4085:
4078:
4073:
4067:, p. 49.
4066:
4061:
4055:, p. 59.
4054:
4049:
4047:
4039:
4034:
4032:
4024:
4019:
4017:
4015:
4007:
4002:
3995:
3990:
3988:
3981:, p. 58.
3980:
3975:
3968:
3963:
3956:
3951:
3944:
3939:
3932:
3927:
3925:
3917:
3912:
3910:
3902:
3897:
3895:
3893:
3885:
3880:
3873:
3867:
3865:
3863:
3853:
3847:, p. 33.
3846:
3841:
3834:
3829:
3827:
3819:
3814:
3807:
3806:Hitler Hubris
3804:Kershaw, Ian
3801:
3799:
3791:
3786:
3779:
3774:
3772:
3764:
3759:
3757:
3749:
3744:
3737:
3732:
3725:
3720:
3713:
3707:
3700:
3695:
3688:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3671:
3666:
3659:
3653:
3651:
3649:
3641:
3636:
3629:
3624:
3617:
3612:
3605:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3593:
3585:
3580:
3578:
3576:
3568:
3563:
3556:
3551:
3549:
3541:
3536:
3529:
3524:
3522:
3520:
3518:
3510:
3505:
3498:
3493:
3486:
3480:
3473:
3467:
3461:, p. 76.
3460:
3455:
3448:
3443:
3435:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3414:
3408:, p. 42.
3407:
3402:
3396:, p. 36.
3395:
3390:
3384:, p. 54.
3383:
3378:
3371:
3366:
3359:
3354:
3348:, p. 16.
3347:
3342:
3335:
3329:
3322:
3317:
3311:, p. 13.
3310:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3293:
3288:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3223:
3222:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3200:
3194:
3192:
3187:
3186:
3179:
3177:
3171:
3166:
3162:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3140:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3116:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3101:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3068:
3065:
3061:
3060:Ludwig MĂĽller
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3008:
2998:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2974:
2972:
2971:Einsatzgruppe
2968:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2896:
2886:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2850:
2843:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2737:
2732:
2730:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2683:
2672:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2642:
2639:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2616:
2610:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2570:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2528:
2526:
2521:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2497:In 1944, the
2495:
2492:
2488:
2487:
2480:
2478:
2472:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2451:
2447:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2424:
2422:
2418:
2417:Harald Welzer
2414:
2413:Sonke Neitzel
2410:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2371:
2368:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2340:
2338:
2331:
2328:
2320:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2300:
2293:
2291:
2290:Erich Hoepner
2287:
2283:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2247:
2242:
2236:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2217:
2213:
2205:
2192:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2071:
2069:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2055:
2048:
2043:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1995:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1972:German Empire
1969:
1968:
1962:
1960:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1791:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1766:
1764:
1758:
1756:
1755:Eberhard Kolb
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1683:Reichswehreid
1679:
1675:
1674:
1673:Reichswehreid
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1584:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1528:
1526:
1525:
1519:
1518:the Holocaust
1515:
1514:
1507:
1503:
1501:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1482:
1481:
1467:
1462:
1460:
1455:
1453:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1439:
1438:
1427:
1425:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1334:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1234:
1232:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1189:
1183:
1182:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1117:
1116:
1111:
1110:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1092:
1091:Thule Society
1089:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1080:
1075:
1074:
1064:
1063:
1059:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1023:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1005:
1004:
999:
994:
993:
989:
984:
983:
979:
974:
973:
969:
964:
963:
959:
958:
952:
951:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
875:
872:
867:
866:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
838:Seyss-Inquart
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
755:
752:
747:
746:
738:
737:
732:
729:
728:
723:
718:
717:
712:
711:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
673:
670:
668:
665:
662:
661:
660:Untermenschen
656:
653:
652:
651:Rassenschande
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
616:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
559:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
541:
540:Pan-Germanism
538:
535:
534:
529:
526:
525:
520:
518:
515:
514:
513:
510:
507:
506:
501:
498:
497:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
479:Direct action
477:
472:
471:
470:FĂĽhrerprinzip
466:
465:
464:
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
447:
444:
441:
440:
435:
434:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
407:Anti-pacifism
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
384:
378:
377:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
321:
320:
319:
318:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
290:The Holocaust
288:
286:
283:
280:
279:
274:
271:
270:
269:Kristallnacht
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
232:
231:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
208:
207:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
186:
180:
179:
170:
169:
168:Schutzstaffel
164:
160:
159:
154:
152:
149:
146:
145:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
97:
96:
91:
88:
87:
82:
79:
78:
73:
72:
69:Organizations
66:
65:
61:
57:
56:
53:
50:
49:
45:
44:
38:
37:
33:of assembled
32:
28:
23:
19:
5522:
5496:
5474:
5463:
5442:
5421:
5410:
5401:
5376:
5372:
5347:
5343:
5325:
5302:
5271:
5252:
5233:
5209:
5189:
5156:
5152:
5133:
5114:
5111:Bartov, Omer
5090:
5078:
5066:
5054:
5042:
5030:
4997:
4985:
4956:
4944:
4932:
4920:
4908:
4879:
4835:
4808:
4803:
4795:
4787:
4743:
4731:
4670:
4658:
4646:
4617:
4575:
4546:
4534:
4503:
4491:
4479:
4467:
4455:
4443:
4431:. Retrieved
4421:
4371:
4330:
4318:
4306:
4273:
4269:
4259:
4251:
4246:
4221:
4217:
4204:
4195:
4183:
4156:
4144:
4116:
4108:
4096:
4089:Förster 1998
4084:
4077:Förster 1998
4072:
4060:
4023:Förster 2004
4006:Förster 1989
4001:
3994:Förster 1989
3974:
3962:
3950:
3938:
3901:Förster 1998
3879:
3871:
3852:
3840:
3833:Förster 1998
3813:
3805:
3785:
3743:
3731:
3719:
3711:
3706:
3694:
3665:
3657:
3635:
3623:
3611:
3603:
3584:Förster 1998
3567:Förster 1998
3562:
3535:
3504:
3492:
3484:
3479:
3471:
3466:
3454:
3442:
3423:
3419:
3413:
3401:
3389:
3377:
3365:
3353:
3341:
3333:
3328:
3316:
3294:, p. 8.
3287:
3275:
3190:
3183:
3180:
3147:
3141:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3069:
3063:
3055:
3043:
3031:
3026:
3017:
3011:
3006:
3004:
2990:Franz Halder
2985:
2975:
2970:
2961:
2946:
2934:
2928:
2919:
2908:
2892:
2889:Consequences
2882:
2877:
2869:
2858:Franz Halder
2854:Erwin Rommel
2848:
2844:
2831:
2828:
2818:
2815:Erich Raeder
2811:Kriegsmarine
2810:
2802:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2776:
2771:
2752:Hans Lammers
2747:
2741:
2735:
2713:
2697:
2687:
2685:
2670:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2602:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2571:
2565:
2541:
2539:
2524:
2515:
2510:
2502:
2499:20 July plot
2496:
2490:
2484:
2481:
2476:
2474:
2469:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2449:
2443:
2425:
2420:
2411:
2394:
2385:
2378:
2363:
2357:
2354:Soviet Union
2349:
2347:
2336:
2333:
2324:
2308:
2304:
2295:
2279:
2268:
2264:
2253:Franz Halder
2250:
2237:
2228:
2225:Anti-Semitic
2220:
2215:
2203:
2201:
2171:World War II
2164:
2159:
2124:
2115:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2096:Hitler Youth
2083:
2075:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2058:
2052:
2050:
2045:
2026:
2022:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1992:
1989:
1965:
1963:
1953:
1945:
1939:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1909:
1902:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1876:conscription
1869:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1851:
1842:(of the 5th
1831:
1827:
1796:
1794:
1783:
1775:
1770:
1768:
1762:
1760:
1750:
1738:
1737:created the
1734:
1732:
1719:Otto Gessler
1714:Reichsmarine
1713:
1711:
1707:Adolf Hitler
1703:
1699:
1695:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1655:
1652:Gustav Bauer
1648:Gustav Noske
1635:
1633:
1623:
1615:
1605:
1590:
1579:and General
1572:
1568:
1557:
1537:
1532:
1523:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1493:
1490:Nazi Germany
1486:armed forces
1478:
1477:
1475:
1428:
1341:Architecture
1318:SS personnel
1267:
1253:SUMKA (Iran)
1152:Kirchenkampf
1060:
990:
980:
970:
960:
694:Social order
619:Antisemitism
572:Palingenetic
463:Dictatorship
432:Conspiracism
359:Labour camps
329:Deportations
315:
314:
285:World War II
230:Kirchenkampf
218:Nazi Germany
102:Hitler Youth
34:
18:
5095:Bergen 2001
5083:Bergen 2001
5071:Bergen 2001
5059:Bergen 2001
5047:Bergen 2001
5035:Bergen 2001
5023:Bergen 2001
5002:Bergen 2001
4990:Bergen 1997
4978:Bergen 2001
4961:Bergen 1997
4949:Bergen 1997
4937:Bergen 1997
4925:Bergen 1997
4913:Bergen 1997
4901:Bergen 1997
4884:Bergen 1997
4872:Bergen 2001
4855:Bergen 2001
4460:Bartov 1999
4448:Bartov 1999
4347:Bartov 1999
4311:Bartov 1999
4176:Bartov 1999
4161:Bartov 1999
4065:Bartov 1986
3778:Bartov 1999
3763:Bartov 1999
3168: [
3156:Ernst Tewes
2895:Norman Goda
2562:Albin Köbis
2446:Omer Bartov
2433:Karl Dönitz
2151:Ludwig Beck
2091:Ludwig Beck
2027:Ministeramt
1999:Omer Bartov
1980:Omer Bartov
1950:martial law
1840:Ludwig Beck
1812: [
1757:wrote that:
1751:Ministeramt
1739:Ministeramt
1691:Hitler oath
1644:Kapp Putsch
1401:Strasserism
1143:Gottgläubig
908:de Gobineau
883:Chamberlain
751:Politicians
736:Volkskörper
639:Master race
609:Prussianism
557:Nationalism
512:Imperialism
453:Corporatism
31:Nazi salute
27:Karl Dönitz
5544:Categories
5104:References
4119:Stalingrad
3001:Chaplaincy
2980:committed
2813:commander
2805:commander
2744:Reichsmark
2676:Corruption
2327:propaganda
2286:guerrillas
2120:Stalin did
2023:Reichswehr
2015:Reichswehr
1954:Reichswehr
1946:Reichswehr
1942:Ernst Röhm
1910:Reichswehr
1892:Reichswehr
1888:Reichswehr
1884:Reichswehr
1865:Reichswehr
1861:Reichswehr
1857:Reichswehr
1852:Reichswehr
1836:red-handed
1832:Reichswehr
1828:Reichswehr
1824:Nazi Party
1820:Hans Ludin
1771:Reichswehr
1735:Reichswehr
1668:Reichswehr
1658:President
1636:Reichswehr
1624:Reichswehr
1581:Ludendorff
1577:Hindenburg
1565:Hindenburg
1553:Wilhelm II
1495:Nazi Party
1492:) and the
1039:Mein Kampf
955:Literature
871:Ideologues
704:Syncretism
629:Aryan race
604:Propaganda
552:Militarism
533:Lebensraum
496:Geopolitik
422:Chauvinism
310:Neo-Nazism
151:Nazi Party
5550:Wehrmacht
5393:145129075
5364:154044694
5181:162590377
4539:Kitterman
4527:Kitterman
4508:Kitterman
4496:Kitterman
4484:Kitterman
4472:Kitterman
4423:The World
4397:Kitterman
4298:159652708
3710:Kershaw,
3202:Overviews
3191:Wehrmacht
3136:Wehrmacht
3132:Wehrmacht
3128:Wehrmacht
3124:Wehrmacht
3120:Wehrmacht
3113:Wehrmacht
3109:Wehrmacht
3097:Wehrmacht
3093:Wehrmacht
3089:Wehrmacht
3084:Wehrmacht
3080:Wehrmacht
3076:Wehrmacht
3072:Wehrmacht
3032:Wehrmacht
3027:Wehrmacht
3018:Wehrmacht
3014:chaplains
3007:Wehrmacht
2953:16th Army
2935:Wehrmacht
2909:Wehrmacht
2803:Luftwaffe
2688:Wehrmacht
2664:Wehrmacht
2655:Wehrmacht
2650:Wehrmacht
2638:Wehrmacht
2625:Wehrmacht
2620:Wehrmacht
2603:Wehrmacht
2593:Wehrmacht
2588:Wehrmacht
2583:Wehrmacht
2579:Wehrmacht
2566:Wehrmacht
2542:Wehrmacht
2525:Wehrmacht
2503:Wehrmacht
2491:Wehrmacht
2463:Wehrmacht
2459:Wehrmacht
2455:Wehrmacht
2450:Wehrmacht
2421:Wehrmacht
2395:Wehrmacht
2386:Wehrmacht
2358:Wehrmacht
2350:Wehrmacht
2269:Wehrmacht
2265:Wehrmacht
2229:Wehrmacht
2221:Wehrmacht
2219:that the
2216:Wehrmacht
2112:Wehrmacht
2107:Luftwaffe
2084:Wehrmacht
2076:Wehrstaat
2068:Wehrmacht
2059:Wehrstaat
1976:high-tech
1919:Wehrstaat
1915:Wehrstaat
1844:Artillery
1797:Wehrstaat
1780:total war
1763:Wehrstaat
1616:Freikorps
1607:Freikorps
1533:Wehrmacht
1524:Wehrmacht
1513:Wehrmacht
1480:Wehrmacht
1174:Symbolism
1159:Occultism
1134:Heathenry
1098:Christmas
1086:Ariosophy
933:Rosenberg
913:Haushofer
858:Streicher
644:Nordicism
589:New Order
278:Anschluss
77:Ahnenerbe
36:Wehrmacht
5495:(1967).
5290:61216956
4840:Weinberg
4551:Weinberg
4433:13 April
4323:Weinberg
4149:Weinberg
4115:(1998).
3931:Weinberg
3845:May 2000
3818:Weinberg
3714:, p 306.
3197:See also
3161:Szczecin
2847:July 20
2724:hectares
2403:Red Army
2367:Babi Yar
2166:Germany.
1874:forbade
1654:and the
1573:de facto
1502:debate.
1424:Category
1363:Glossary
1079:Religion
923:von List
878:Baeumler
813:Goebbels
798:Heydrich
778:Eichmann
634:Aryanism
599:Populism
489:Eugenics
381:Ideology
344:Genocide
25:Admiral
5307:101–123
5232:(ed.).
5173:3169455
4290:3020979
4238:2944661
3058:bishop
3040:Wrocław
3016:in the
3005:In the
2982:perjury
1967:Junkers
1805:Leipzig
1358:Economy
938:Schmitt
823:Lammers
803:Himmler
773:Drexler
763:Daluege
758:Bormann
584:New Man
364:Pogroms
349:Ghettos
183:History
5560:Nazism
5529:
5503:
5481:
5449:
5430:
5391:
5362:
5332:
5313:
5288:
5278:
5259:
5240:
5217:
5196:
5179:
5171:
5140:
5121:
4296:
4288:
4236:
4135:
4127:
3712:Hitler
3430:
3382:Shirer
2920:putsch
2849:putsch
2738:5 fund
2660:FĂĽhrer
2536:Terror
2516:putsch
2511:putsch
2486:Abitur
2337:FĂĽhrer
2116:Waffen
1952:. The
1687:putsch
1678:putsch
1664:putsch
1346:Cinema
1066:(1930)
1056:(1928)
1044:(1925)
1032:(1923)
1020:(1922)
1008:(1919)
996:(1916)
986:(1903)
976:(1899)
966:(1855)
928:MĂĽller
898:Eckart
818:Göring
808:Hitler
768:Dönitz
614:Racism
567:Racial
505:Heimat
117:NSDStB
52:Nazism
5389:S2CID
5360:S2CID
5177:S2CID
5169:JSTOR
4294:S2CID
4286:JSTOR
4234:JSTOR
4214:(PDF)
4053:Evans
3979:Evans
3967:Evans
3955:Evans
3687:Geyer
3422:[
3268:Notes
3185:Shoah
3172:]
3064:Reich
3056:Reich
3044:Reich
2986:Konto
2962:Konto
2912:'
2883:Konto
2878:Konto
2870:Konto
2832:Konto
2830:from
2819:Konto
2783:Konto
2779:Konto
2772:Konto
2748:Konto
2736:Konto
2207:'
2204:Reich
2087:'
1816:]
1747:lobby
1656:Reich
1569:Reich
1406:Women
1282:Lists
1269:More…
903:Feder
888:Darré
843:Speer
788:Frick
783:Frank
577:Ultra
562:Ethno
112:NSDĂ„B
5527:ISBN
5501:ISBN
5479:ISBN
5447:ISBN
5428:ISBN
5330:ISBN
5311:ISBN
5286:OCLC
5276:ISBN
5257:ISBN
5238:ISBN
5215:ISBN
5194:ISBN
5138:ISBN
5119:ISBN
4828:Goda
4780:Goda
4763:Goda
4748:Goda
4736:Goda
4724:Goda
4707:Goda
4690:Goda
4675:Goda
4663:Goda
4651:Goda
4639:Goda
4622:Goda
4610:Goda
4595:Goda
4580:Goda
4435:2012
4133:ISBN
4125:ISBN
3670:Kolb
3555:Kolb
3447:Kolb
3428:ISBN
3174:and
3050:and
2864:and
2809:and
2777:The
2766:and
2758:and
2560:and
2415:and
2187:POWs
2125:The
2098:and
1790:Jews
893:Devi
833:Röhm
793:Hess
172:(SS)
162:(SA)
132:NSKK
127:NSFK
122:NSRL
5381:doi
5352:doi
5161:doi
4278:doi
4226:doi
2821:5.
2139:OKW
1848:Ulm
1765:)".
1745:to
1488:of
1336:Art
137:NSF
5546::
5387:.
5377:24
5375:.
5358:.
5348:72
5346:.
5309:.
5284:.
5175:.
5167:.
5157:66
5155:.
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4968:^
4891:^
4862:^
4847:^
4818:^
4770:^
4755:^
4714:^
4697:^
4682:^
4629:^
4602:^
4587:^
4558:^
4515:^
4426:.
4420:.
4404:^
4383:^
4354:^
4339:^
4292:.
4284:.
4274:43
4272:.
4268:.
4232:.
4222:60
4220:.
4216:.
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4045:^
4030:^
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3986:^
3923:^
3908:^
3891:^
3861:^
3825:^
3797:^
3770:^
3755:^
3677:^
3647:^
3591:^
3574:^
3547:^
3516:^
3299:^
3170:de
2860:,
2856:,
2801:,
2631:.
2235:.
2122:.
1814:de
1527:.
5535:.
5509:.
5487:.
5455:.
5436:.
5395:.
5383::
5366:.
5354::
5338:.
5319:.
5292:.
5265:.
5246:.
5223:.
5202:.
5183:.
5163::
5146:.
5127:.
4437:.
4300:.
4280::
4240:.
4228::
4117:"
3436:.
2389:"
1465:e
1458:t
1451:v
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