Mughal Empire - Knowledge

3685: 1491: 3143: 3638:, mainly expressed in painted miniatures, as well as small luxury objects, was eclectic, borrowing from Iranian, Indian, Chinese and Renaissance European stylistic and thematic elements. Mughal emperors often took in Iranian bookbinders, illustrators, painters and calligraphers from the Safavid court due to the commonalities of their Timurid styles, and due to the Mughal affinity for Iranian art and calligraphy. Miniatures commissioned by the Mughal emperors initially focused on large projects illustrating books with eventful historical scenes and court life, but later included more single images for albums, with portraits and animal paintings displaying a profound appreciation for the serenity and beauty of the natural world. For example, Emperor Jahangir commissioned brilliant artists such as 1328: 1279:, leading to the militarization of the Sikh community. From the imperial perspective, conversion to Islam integrated local elites into the king's vision of network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor. His campaign to conquer South and Western India nominally increased the size of Mughal Empire but had a ruinous effect on Mughal Empire. This campaign also had a ruinous effect on Mughal Treasury, and Emperor's absence led to a severe decline in Governance in Northern India. Marathas started expanding northwards shortly after the death of Aurangzeb, defeated the Mughals in Delhi and 1596: 1413: 976: 3931: 1343: 4073: 3627: 3789: 2853: 1181: 5954:

The emperors' will was frequently enforced in battle. Hundreds of army scouts were an important source of information. But the empire's administrative structure too was defined by and directed at war. Local military checkpoints or thanas kept order. Directly appointed imperial military and civil commanders (faujdars) controlled the cavalry and infantry, or the administration, in each region. The peasantry in turn were often armed, able to provide supporters for regional powers, and liable to rebellion on their own account: continual pacification was required of the rulers."

2972: 2003: 5155: 1728:. The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes, as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions. Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography – the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys, and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps were not created. The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division, to assess the territory's capacity for revenue, based on simpler land surveys. 2435: 1752:. Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals. Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal. Situations where there were two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to 4574: 4976: 4528: 1106: 14003: 1788: 5313: 4821: 5067: 4677: 4626: 4435: 4244: 5258: 4921: 4871: 4723: 1819:(censor and market supervisor) were well-established in the Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority. Scholar Mouez Khalfaoui notes that legal institutions in the Mughal Empire systemically suffered from the corruption of local judges. 2335: 2829: 4767: 69: 2327: 5203: 5107: 5024: 2413:, others, the lotus, glory of every Indian village. But Birbal said, "The cotton boll". There was a scornful laughter and Akbar asked for an explanation. Birbal said, "Your Majesty, from the cotton boll, comes the fine fabric prized by merchants across the seas that has made your empire famous throughout the world. The perfume of your fame far exceeds the scent of roses and jasmine. That is why I say the cotton boll is the most beautiful flower. 2821: 1143:. He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies. India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development. Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, 4385: 4342: 4482: 3681:) decorated with calligraphy and artistic scenes were mounted onto pages with decorative borders and then bound with covers of stamped and gilded or painted and lacquered leather. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was never an enthusiastic patron of painting, largely for religious reasons, and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the court around 1668, after which he probably commissioned no more paintings. 1551:, whose financial support was increasingly needed; the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British. In a religious interpretation, some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty. Finally, other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence, thus weakening the imperial court. 2031:

brass utensils. The dam was initially the most common coin in Akbar's time, before being replaced by the rupee as the most common coin in succeeding reigns. The dam's value was later worth 30 to a rupee towards the end of Jahangir's reign, and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s. The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without

4259:, which functioned as workshops for craftsmen. These Karkhanas were producing arms, ammunition, and also various items for the court and emperor's need such as clothes, shawls, turbans, jewelry, gold and silverware, perfumes, medicines, carpets, beddings, tents, and for the imperial stable-harnesses for the horses in irons, copper and other metals. 1354:, repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after he died in 1712, the Mughal dynasty began to sink into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne", as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the 2725:

exceed 13% of its total population, while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era. By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.

767:

standardized rule. The base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in the well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.

1263:), seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until he died in 1666. Aurangzeb oversaw an increase in the Islamicization of the Mughal state. He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the 2308:, unprocessed metals and a few luxury items. The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of gold and silver to Mughal India to pay for South Asian imports. Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan. 6232:

Quote: "... well over half of the output from the fields in his realm, after the costs of production had been met, is estimated to have been taken from the peasant producers by way of official taxes and unofficial exactions. Moreover, payments were exacted in money, and this required a well regulated

5586:

We have seen that there is considerable uncertainty about the size of India's population c.1595. Serious assessments vary from 116 to 145 million (with an average of 125 million). However, the true figure could even be outside of this range. Accordingly, while it seems likely that the population grew

2716:

According to Irfan Habib Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres. This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than

2071:

estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in mid-18th century Bengal and South India were comparable to Britain. Similarly, Sivramkrishna analyzed agricultural surveys conducted in Mysore by Francis Buchanan during 1800–1801, arrived at estimates using a "subsistence basket" that aggregated

1966:

The economy in the Indian Subcontinent during the Mughal era performed just as it did in ancient times, though now it would face the stress of extensive regional tensions. The Mughal economy was large and prosperous. India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750. India's

1441:

took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company's control.

5953:

Quote: "The Mughal state was geared for war, and succeeded while it won its battles. It controlled territory partly through its network of strongholds, from its fortified capitals in Agra, Delhi or Lahore, which defined its heartlands, to the converted and expanded forts of Rajasthan and the Deccan.

3734:

in the Indian subcontinent, and by the end of the 16th-century Turki (Chagatai) was understood by relatively few at court. Accompanied by literary patronage was the institutionalisation of Persian as an official and courtly language; this led to Persian reaching nearly the status of a first language

2404:

across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the

2399:

handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in India sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire. The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion

2551:

Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in

2454:

wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province. Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports

2070:

According to Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta, grain wages in India were comparable to England in the 16th and 17th centuries, but diverged in the 18th century when they fell to 20-40% of England's wages. This, however, is disputed by Parthasarathi and Sivramkrishna. Parthasarathi cites his

2030:

during his brief rule. The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of Akbar's reign, before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s, with the dam's value rising further in the 17th century as a result of new industrial uses for copper, such as in bronze cannons and

5993:

Quote: "With Safavid and Ottoman aid, the Mughals would soon join these two powers in a triumvirate of warrior-driven, expansionist, and both militarily and bureaucratically efficient early modern states, now often called "gunpowder empires" due to their common proficiency is using such weapons to

2816:

argued instead that although it was true that the Mughal has their origin as nomadic civilization, they became more sendentarized as the time passed, as exemplified by their military tradition. The Mughal Empire was definitive in the early-modern and modern periods of South Asian history, with its

2724:

Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not

2171:

among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe. While the average peasant across the world was only skilled in growing very few crops, the average Indian peasant was skilled in growing a wide variety of food and non-food crops, increasing their productivity. Indian peasants were also quick to

2079:

According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century. This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food

1993:

The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in the well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger

1771:

The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All

1515:

In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities, and made their deals with local men of influence. The imperial

1428:

was fought between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans (led by Abdali) in 1761, in which the Afghans were victorious, the emperor had ignominiously taken temporary refuge with the British to the east. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became the

1165:. He "was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques". Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more 5845:

Quote: "The imperial career of the Mughal house is conventionally reckoned to have ended in 1707 when the emperor Aurangzeb, a fifth-generation descendant of Babur, died. His fifty-year reign began in 1658 with the Mughal state seeming as strong as ever or even stronger. But in Aurangzeb's later

2770:

Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods, and provided homes for a variety of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, artisans, moneylenders, weavers, craftspeople, officials, and religious figures. However, several cities were military and political centres, rather than manufacturing or commerce

2362:

was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade. India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century. Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to

1607:

The Mughal Empire had a highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar. The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry, headed by an

1397:

shattering the remnants of Mughal power and prestige, and taking off all the accumulated Mughal treasury. The Mughals could no longer finance the huge armies with which they had formerly enforced their rule. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their affairs and broke away to form

1249:. The cost of maintaining the court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in. His reign was called as "The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture". Shah Jahan extended the Mughal empire to the Deccan by ending the Nizam Shahi dynasty and forcing the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute. 770:

The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion. The burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court. There was more

766:

Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare, it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices, and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and

1503:

Historians have offered numerous accounts of the several factors involved in the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. A succession of short-lived incompetent and weak rulers, and civil wars over the succession, created political

2455:

from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.

1535:

Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with little consensus on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external

2590:

India's population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60% to 253% in 200 years during 1500–1700. The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in

4016:

The Indian war rockets ... were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket body lashed to the rod and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic. The use of mines and

2363:

Japan. By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East. The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of

2062:

The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to the Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century

2379:

for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.

5724:

Quote: "The realm so defined and governed was a vast territory of some 750,000 square miles , ranging from the frontier with Central Asia in northern Afghanistan to the northern uplands of the Deccan plateau, and from the Indus basin on the west to the Assamese highlands in the

1398:

independent kingdoms. But lip service continued to be paid to the Mughal Emperor as the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India.

2119:, which began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised hierarchically based on merit, with promotions based on performance. The Mughal government funded the building of 1061:

After the battle, the centre of Mughal power became Agra instead of Kabul. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India. The instability of the empire became evident under his son,

8998: 5759:

Quote: "Babur then adroitly gave the Ottomans his promise not to attack them in return for their military aid, which he received in the form of the newest of battlefield inventions, the matchlock gun and cast cannons, as well as instructors to train his men to use

2158:

cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation. The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb, whose 1665

6620: 5802:

Quote: "Another possible date for the beginning of the Mughal regime is 1600, when the institutions that defined the regime were set firmly in place and when the heartland of the empire was defined; both of these were the accomplishment of Babur's grandson

2075:

income could be almost five times subsistence level, while corresponding rice income was three times that much. That could be comparable to advance part of Europe. Due to the scarcity of data, however, more research is needed before drawing any conclusion.

2458:

Akbar played a key role in establishing Bengal as a leading economic centre, as he began transforming many of the jungles there into farms. As soon as he conquered the region, he brought tools and men to clear jungles to expand cultivation and brought

3880:, though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated. The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battles throughout the empire's history. In India, guns made of 1917:(local tax collector) was another kind of official approach, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local 1256:, became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness. Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, emulating his great-grandfather Akbar. With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb ( 2231:. Compared to Britain, the price of grain was about one-half in South India and one-third in Bengal, in terms of silver coinage. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets. 2483:

festivals. The province was a leading producer of grains, salt, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments. After Akbar, there are notable contributive factor during the era of Aurangzeb, as Siddiqui M. Azizuddin Hussein from

1078:

and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire. Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident the next year.

1057:

which was fought near Agra, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the Rajput army of Sanga. This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history, as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries.

6535: 1614:, was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of the military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled 1985:

The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system, creating a uniform currency, and the unification of the country. The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a

1290:

Aurangzeb is considered India's most controversial king, with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society, while other historians question this, noting that he built

5846:

years the state was brought to the brink of destruction, over which it toppled within a decade and a half after his death; by 1720 imperial Mughal rule was largely finished and an epoch of two imperial centuries had closed."

6275:

Quote: "His stipulation that land taxes be paid in cash forced peasants into market networks, where they could obtain the necessary money, while the standardization of imperial currency made the exchange of goods for money

2067:, where the secondary sector only contributed 11% to the economy. In terms of the urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to the economy, respectively. 6624: 2739:(1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships. A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people, with larger cities including 2080:

per capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910. However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for

13353: 6992:

From Babur's memoirs we learn that Sanga's successes against the Mughal advance guard commanded by Abdul Aziz, and other forces at Bayana, ... severely demoralised the fighting spirit of Babur's troops encamped near

1169:(tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had. In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably the 10951: 10849: 10714: 9960: 9910: 9400: 5927:

Quote: "The vaunting of such progenitors pointed up the central character of the Mughal regime as a warrior state: it was born in war and it was sustained by war until the eighteenth century, when warfare destroyed

2163:

edict stated: "the entire elevated attention and desires of the Emperor are devoted to the increase in the population and cultivation of the Empire and the welfare of the whole peasantry and the entire people."

2370:

Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia, Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan, and

1462:

and some of the remaining members of the family accompanied him. At 4 am on 7 October 1858, Zafar along with his wives, and two remaining sons began his journey towards Rangoon in bullock carts escorted by

2296:, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the 12334: 10121: 1139:, who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India. Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the 7859:

Even more disturbing was the fact that the assertion of independence had spread to other part of the empire too, and the governors of Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh soon established independent kingdoms as

3684: 2395:

era of the 13th–14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire sometime around the 16th century, and is still used in India through to the present day. Another innovation, the incorporation of the

13801: 11850: 11348: 6519: 1401:

Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire, involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during the

6432:

Quote: "All these factors resulted in greater patronage of the arts, including textiles, paintings, architecture, jewelry, and weapons to meet the ceremonial requirements of kings and princes."

2269:, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter. The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of 1147:, with strong characteristics of a ruler cult. He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge. 2786: 1847:

was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context.

755:, during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. Reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1760, the empire was formally dissolved by the 3994:

while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting, Bidar was captured by the Mughals.

3099:

considered "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage", attracting 7–8 million unique visitors a year. The palaces, tombs,

2084:. In Mughal India, there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers, with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour. While 2223:, per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption in 17th-century Mughal India were probably higher than in 17th-century Europe and certainly higher than early 20th-century 7752: 12487: 8930: 7964: 3142: 2304:

from Asia. In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self-sufficient, thus Europeans had very little to offer, except for some

10664: 6354:

Quote: "As the European presence in India grew, their demands for Indian goods and trading rights increased, thus bringing even greater wealth to the already flush Indian courts."

8444: 1712:

Mughal administrative divisions were not static. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. For example, a

2450:

The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757. Historian

1527:

Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation.

1490: 13350: 8151:"How an unfortunate circumcision event by Mughals on Baniya's and failure of protection from Shivaji Loot forces after capturing the mainland lead to decline of Mughal empire" 2987:

The procession of marriage among the royals of the Mughal empire was recorded with many reports of extravagant gifts. One occasion was during the marriage of a son of emperor

10444: 10938: 10836: 10701: 9947: 9897: 9387: 7829:

The Mughal court was hostile to Nizam-ul-Mulk..... Nizam did not interfere with the Maratha activities in Malwa and Gujarat.....Nizam-ul-Mulk considered the Maratha army...

7681: 13446: 12037: 10875: 1284: 926:

was applied to them in India by association with the Mongols and to distinguish them from the Afghan elite which ruled the Delhi Sultanate. The term remains disputed by

9269: 614: 589: 575: 11326:

Wrestling in modern India is a synthesis of two different traditions: the Persian form of the art brought into South Asia by the Moguls, and an indigenous Hindu form.

7800:

I consider all this army (Marathas) as my own.....I will enter into an understanding with them and entrust the Mulukgiri(raiding) on that side of the Narmada to them.

6518:

Hardy, P. (1979). "Modern European and Muslim Explanations of Conversion to Islam in South Asia: A Preliminary Survey of the Literature". In Levtzion, Nehemia (ed.).

11998: 2567:

design. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in

1850:

The Mughal Empire also drew on Persian notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs.

12342: 8465:

Burton-Page, J.; Islam, Riazul; Athar Ali, M.; Moosvi, Shireen; Moreland, W. H.; Bosworth, C. E.; Schimmel, Annemarie; Koch, Ebba; Hall, Margaret (24 April 2012),

2172:

adapt to profitable new crops, such as maize and tobacco from the New World being rapidly adopted and widely cultivated across Mughal India between 1600 and 1650.

1569:

later causing further deindustrialization. According to Williamson, the decline of the Mughal Empire led to a decline in agricultural productivity, which drove up

9721:"Ascertaining Living Standards in Erstwhile Mysore, Southern India, from Francis Buchanan's Journey of 1800–01: An Empirical Contribution to the Great Divergence" 9671:"Ascertaining Living Standards in Erstwhile Mysore, Southern India, from Francis Buchanan's Journey of 1800–01: An Empirical Contribution to the Great Divergence" 9636:"Ascertaining Living Standards in Erstwhile Mysore, Southern India, from Francis Buchanan's Journey of 1800–01: An Empirical Contribution to the Great Divergence" 1831:

system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the

8858: 7540: 8482: 2539:

community dominated banking and shipping in major cities and towns. The Europeans regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade. By the late 18th century, the

2142:

at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency. The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo,

16878: 6315:

Quote: "Above all, the long period of relative peace ushered in by Akbar's power, and maintained by his successors, contributed to India's economic expansion."

1990:

department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.

9193: 7775: 7723:

became virtual rulers and 'de facto' sovereigns when they began to make and unmake emperors. They had developed a sort of common brotherhood among themselves

1033:

in 1526. Before the battle, Babur sought divine favour by abjuring liquor, breaking the wine vessels and pouring the wine down a well. However, by this time

7434: 7710: 1946:

Self-regulating tribunals operating at the community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how

1512:, played no real part in the initial decline; they were still racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India. 2042:, as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of 16873: 13785:

The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His Majesty

11338: 11211: 8299: 6557: 2409:

Once, the Mughal emperor Akbar asked his courtiers, which was the most beautiful flower. Some said rose, from whose petals were distilled the precious

1772:

administration and governance were carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps.

1303:. Despite these allegations, it has been acknowledged that Emperor Aurangzeb enacted repressive policies towards non-Muslims, which also resulted to a 12619: 3747:, developed in the imperial capital of Delhi in the late Mughal era. It began to be used as a literary language in the Mughal court from the reign of 7338: 2598:

The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire, compared to the total population of South Asia including the regions of modern

6979: 11802: 4234: 1866:

was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The

7410: 3743:

political culture, to unite their diverse empire. Persian had a profound impact on the languages of South Asia; one such language, today known as

2800:

Generally, classical historiographies depicted the Mughal empire's origin was a sedentarized agrarian society. However, modern historians such as

2196:

for sugar-milling appears at Delhi in 1540, but may also date back earlier, and was mainly used in the northern Indian subcontinent. Geared sugar

1630:

who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works, headed by the

16868: 6393:

Quote: "The elite spent more and more money on luxury goods, and sumptuous lifestyles, and the rulers built entire new capital cities at times."

10627: 10413: 2096:

Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire. A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and

1939:(provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor dispensed justice directly. Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the 15397: 12093: 11153: 9579: 10509: 7736: 68: 16883: 14352: 8914: 7948: 1795:

The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved throughout the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed

12807: 12690: 10661: 10203: 9242: 9165: 9118: 6420: 6381: 6342: 6303: 6263: 6220: 6187:

Quote: "The Mughal empire was based in the interior of a large land-mass and derived the vast majority of its revenues from agriculture."

6175: 6133: 6089: 6021: 5915: 5833: 5790: 5712: 3705: 2038:

Despite India having its stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own but mostly minted coins from imported

11618: 11173: 10383: 10300: 10271: 10077: 10038: 9997: 9863: 9549: 9491: 9452: 8351: 7160: 6694: 6655: 6496: 5981: 5873: 12840: 10321: 8418: 2475:. The calendar played a vital role in developing and organising harvests, tax collection and Bengali culture in general, including the 2280:, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, 2239:

South Asia during the Mughal's rule was a very fertile ground for manufacturing technologies which coveted by the Europeans before the

8883: 4170:. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy. 14337: 2293: 1577:

wages, and then textile prices, which led to India losing a share of the world textile market to Britain even before it had superior

1544:) emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime. 1013:

origin. Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in

815:, which is described as "the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage." 11697: 7842: 3860:, who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formation—artillery and firearm-equipped infantry protected by wagons in the centre and the 1520:, and lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of 10656: 10436: 7639: 2046:

into India. Around 80% of Mughal India's imports were bullion, mostly silver, with major sources of imported bullion including the

10886: 16898: 16540: 13992: 7665: 4121: 4063: 13426: 9345: 8387: 2167:

Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time, exemplified by the common use of the

16888: 14942: 14292: 14287: 14160: 13044: 1994:

markets. In circa 1595, Modern historians estimated the state's annual revenues of Mughal empire were around 99,000,000 Rupee.

12021: 2563:

that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped

16350: 15732: 13440: 13405: 13363:

Parodi, Laura E. (2021). "Kabul, a Forgotten Mughal Capital: Gardens, City, and Court at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century".

13311: 13288: 13258: 13180: 13148: 13104: 13004: 12934: 12834: 12776: 12748: 12684: 12656: 12523: 12429: 12396: 12223: 12165: 12128: 12072: 12031: 11992: 11926: 11909:(2003). "A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture, Part 1: Naming and Placing a Literary Culture". In Pollock, Sheldon (ed.). 11844: 11788: 11611: 11567: 11319: 11010: 10808: 10774: 10553: 10480: 10377: 10234: 10179: 10071: 10032: 9857: 9823: 9543: 9485: 9446: 9236: 9159: 9112: 9066: 9031: 8806: 8580: 8547: 8514: 8438: 8345: 8263: 8236: 7994: 7926: 7899: 7793: 7746: 7675: 7615: 7590: 7534: 7507: 7482: 7404: 7369: 7274: 7249: 7224: 7195: 7154: 7123: 6973: 6904: 6856: 6829: 6802: 6738: 6688: 6649: 6596: 6529: 6490: 6414: 6375: 6336: 6297: 6257: 6214: 6169: 6127: 6083: 6051: 6015: 5975: 5947: 5909: 5867: 5827: 5784: 5746: 5706: 5676: 5620: 5579: 4311: 4179: 2489: 1574: 13317: 13186: 13154: 13110: 12782: 10486: 10240: 2112:. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco. 16893: 14496: 3942:

By the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in

16256: 12444:

Teltscher, Kate (2000). "The Shampooing Surgeon and the Persian Prince: Two Indians in Early Nineteenth-century Britain".

11982: 12676:

Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity : Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective

3903:), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi-gun shot. As opposed to the 1508:

became clear, and the situation could not be recovered. The seemingly innocuous European trading companies, such as the

1464: 11959: 7039: 2375:

textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "Dhaka textiles". Indian textiles dominated the

1074:(reigned 1540–1545), briefly interrupted Mughal rule. Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the 16402: 15402: 13528: 13077: 12717: 12421: 11727: 11595: 11507: 11384: 11127: 10523: 8201: 7852: 5548: 3805: 2146:, tree crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand. Under the 8842: 7524: 2595:

before the Mughal era. By the time of Aurangzeb's reign, there were a total of 455,698 villages in the Mughal Empire.

1581:. Indian textiles, however, still maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century. 16574: 15046: 13719: 13691: 13054: 12352: 11882: 11587: 11477: 11450: 11419: 11085: 9299: 8466: 8024: 7449: 7303: 7014: 6946: 6745:

In India the dynasty always called itself Gurkani, after Temür's title Gurkân, the Persianized form of the Mongolian

1640: 1504:

instability at the centre. The Mughals appeared virtually unassailable during the 17th century but, once gone, their

1382: 447: 13775:(1907) v. 9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental, by A.V.W. Jackson 10118: 7582:

Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia

5885:

Quote: "By the latter date (1720) the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair."

14988: 14669: 8773: 8722: 8679: 8628: 5443: 4222: 3065:, carefully-composed and polished façades, and the use of hard red sandstone and marble as construction materials. 3003:, where the gift presented by Bhagwant Das consisted of many horses, 100 elephants, many male and female slaves of 1943:

that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials.

1689: 9278:, p. "...Mughal rulers pursued a more laissez-faire economic approach, benefiting from the prosperity of...". 9190: 2552:

nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771. He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.

1978:

Modern historians and researchers generally agreed that The Mughal empire economic policy character is resembling

16028: 14531: 14342: 14307: 14165: 12331:

Khan, Nasir Raza. Art and Architectural Traditions of India and Iran: Commonality and Diversity. Routledge, 2022.

11740: 10743:

Jean-Noël Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol. 4, pp. 1–13

10576: 8150: 7431: 6641:

From Frontier Policy to Foreign Policy: The Question of India and the Transformation of Geopolitics in Qing China

5515: 4218: 2515:

in 1717. The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region, including firms from

1590: 15190: 13970: 7704: 6454: 1327: 14917: 14834: 14506: 14282: 13014:

Faruqui, Munis D. (2005), "The Forgotten Prince: Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mughal Empire in India",

12316: 10211: 6924: 2497: 11203: 9732: 9682: 9647: 9281: 7816: 16466: 14927: 8288: 2912:

and in turn, the development of later Rajput and Sikh palatial architecture. A famous Mughal landmark is the

983:

The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the

6568: 4286:

and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern

1245:. During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the 16461: 16345: 14871: 14150: 13806: 12611: 7330: 3042: 1961: 1468: 1322: 324: 2732:, who consider them exaggerations. According to Dyson urbanization of the Mughal empire was less than 9%. 1373:(reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to 16533: 16471: 15508: 14644: 14541: 13985: 13928: 13917: 13903: 13889: 13857: 13839: 13814: 13783: 13747: 8376:

Cotton textiles and the great divergence: Lancashire, India and shifting competitive advantage, 1600–1850

6963: 4299: 3473: 2536: 1565:

in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire, with

1509: 784: 9573:"The Early Modern Great Divergence: Wages, Prices and Economic Development in Europe and Asia 1500–1800" 8107:

Habib, Irfan (March 1969). "Potentialities of Capitalistic Development in the Economy of Mughal India".

2249:

and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles,

1878:

did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the

1736:

The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established throughout their rule. These were the cities of

14741: 14723: 14511: 14002: 13885: 13871: 13432: 13140: 12926: 11442: 10947: 10845: 10710: 9956: 9906: 9849: 9396: 9201: 7394: 5369: 3096: 2960: 2516: 2227:. The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices. In turn, this benefited the Indian 1801:(Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the 1434: 747:. The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, 282: 7774:

Richard M. Eaton (2013). Eaton, Richard M.; Faruqui, Munis D.; Gilmartin, David; Kumar, Sunil (eds.).

1595: 1412: 975: 751:. This imperial structure lasted until 1720, until shortly after the death of the last major emperor, 16429: 15577: 15141: 14761: 14460: 14455: 14302: 14170: 14155: 13828: 10976:

Rob, Md. Abdur; Asaduzzaman, Md. (December 1997). "Historical Growth of Urbanization in Dhaka City".

7474: 4518: 3983: 3770: 3726:

words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child. Though the Mughals were of

3409: 3034: 2876:, jewellery and fashion, utilizing richly decorated fabrics such as muslin, silk, brocade and velvet. 2580: 2520: 1558: 1541: 1378: 11159: 10614: 10405: 5587:

over the seventeenth century, it is unlikely that we will ever have a good idea of its size in 1707.

3930: 3788: 1342: 1177:, whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal empire and the Sikh community. 16706: 16387: 16362: 16212: 15871: 15866: 14855: 14450: 14425: 14365: 14332: 14277: 12089: 10570:"Technological Dynamism in a Stagnant Sector: Safety at Sea during the Early Industrial Revolution" 4117: 4002: 3449: 3313: 3198: 3033:

with the development of their distinctive architectural style. This style was derived from earlier

2721:

in the 19th century; the level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century.

2301: 1443: 1430: 808: 760: 408: 13636: 10340:(November 2011). "Where is Bengal? Situating an Indian Region in the Early Modern World Economy". 9572: 7095: 3007:, Caucasian, and native Indian origins, who brought with them various gold and silver utensils as 16686: 16454: 16335: 15876: 15829: 15772: 15471: 15415: 15163: 14789: 14733: 14562: 14430: 14420: 14312: 13824: 13521:

Empires of the Weak: The Real Story of European Expansion and the Creation of the New World Order

12282: 11823:

Abidi, S. A. H.; Gargesh, Ravinder (2008), Kachru, Braj B; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S. N (eds.),

10672: 7146: 7065: 5379: 4099: 3865: 3757:(prose romances) and replaced Persian as the informal language of the Muslim elite. According to 3626: 3246: 3108: 2270: 1968: 1671: 1425: 1030: 984: 740: 434: 382: 171: 43: 17: 4072: 16863: 16526: 16476: 16377: 16372: 16060: 16008: 15928: 15861: 15765: 15750: 15643: 15410: 15364: 15205: 15092: 14766: 14718: 14370: 13978: 12488:"A CELESTIAL GLOBE, MADE BY MUGHAL ASTROLABIST MUHAMMAD SALIH OF THATTA, DATED 1074 AH/1663 AD" 12232: 10114: 4248: 3419: 2789: 2429: 2372: 2317: 1933:(an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the 987: 421: 219: 12799: 12674: 12215: 12209: 12157: 12151: 11436: 10794: 10543: 10372:. The New Cambridge History of India. Vol. II.1. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. 10197: 9220: 9149: 9102: 8253: 8091: 7113: 6846: 6404: 6365: 6326: 6287: 6247: 6204: 6159: 6117: 6073: 6005: 5899: 5817: 5774: 5696: 5666: 2817:

legacy in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan seen in cultural contributions such as:

1475:

assumed direct control of East India Company-held territories in India in the form of the new

16407: 16367: 16180: 16055: 15119: 15109: 15068: 15039: 14865: 14819: 14781: 11906: 11634:

Soucek, Priscilla (1987). "Persian Artists in Mughal India: Influences and Transformations".

11615: 11311: 11181: 11069: 10367: 10294: 10265: 10061: 10018: 9991: 9843: 9529: 9475: 9436: 9186: 8331: 8327: 8284: 7891: 7812: 7580: 7140: 6819: 6792: 6678: 6639: 6480: 5965: 5857: 5736: 5606: 5374: 4155: 4136: 4091: 2343: 2240: 1972: 1578: 1554: 1438: 1221: 16295: 12824: 12558:"An Eighteenth Century Survey of Jaipur "Chhapakhana" Based on Jaipur "Karkhanajat" Records" 11303: 10764: 8003: 7916: 5602: 4116:, Jahangir and Shah Jahan intended to build observatories too but were unable to do so. The 1180: 16500: 16330: 16300: 16175: 16106: 16077: 15996: 15330: 15168: 15158: 14902: 14395: 13538:

Heesterman, J.C. (2004), "The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introduction",

12594: 10515: 8891: 8430: 7061: 4597: 3645:

The literary works Akbar and Jahangir ordered to be illustrated ranged from epics like the

3551: 3503: 3385: 3077: 3046: 3038: 2971: 2852: 2780: 2485: 2208: 2105: 1505: 343: 16280: 8506:

A History of Public Administration Volume II: From the Eleventh Century to the Present Day

4017:

counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and

3080:

structure existed in Delhi. Emperor Shah Jahan has recorded to establish an ice-houses in

2812:, Thomas J. Barfield, and others, argued the Mughals was originated from nomadic culture. 1299:

in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and

8: 16192: 16072: 16038: 15940: 15760: 15755: 15567: 15286: 15222: 15097: 15082: 14683: 14582: 14440: 14415: 14143: 14112: 13809: – Other Persian Texts in Translation; historical books: Author List and Title List) 12950:

Blake, Stephen P. (November 1979), "The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals",

12388: 11705: 9535: 9151:

Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics

7777:

Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History Essays in Honour of John F. Richards

7085: 5384: 5169: 4366: 3744: 3713: 3690: 3497: 3485: 3431: 3379: 3054: 3030: 3020: 2952: 2909: 2905: 2884: 2277: 2151: 1843: 1562: 1271: 1242: 1217: 862: 776: 666: 542: 156: 15908: 15898: 13766:

ed. by W.M. Thackston Jr. (2002); this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature

13743: 13631:....contrast between the Oriental despotic state and the occidental laissez faire state. 7632: 1679:, and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the 1626:

system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the

16305: 16285: 16268: 16219: 16084: 15893: 15844: 15777: 15695: 15636: 15631: 15626: 15582: 15552: 15444: 15342: 15210: 15185: 14746: 14536: 14475: 14445: 14380: 14272: 14122: 14092: 14057: 13957:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Susan Stronge & Chandrika Kaul ( 13867: 13776: 13583: 13555: 13494: 13486: 13414: 13380: 13238: 13230: 13031: 12975: 12967: 12909: 12901: 12577: 12469: 12117: 12061: 11932: 11794: 11678: 11651: 11242: 11113: 11051: 10934: 10882: 10832: 10697: 9943: 9893: 9383: 9228: 8990: 8765: 8714: 8671: 8620: 8295: 8193: 8185: 8132: 8124: 8072: 8064: 5540: 5435: 5282: 4990: 4409: 4129: 4120:

and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from

4054:. The new curriculum produced a series of eminent scholars, engineers and architects. 3951: 3908: 3533: 3361: 3210: 3050: 2939: 2813: 2376: 2246: 1451: 1447: 854: 313: 13853: 13638: 12240: 8926: 7960: 7563: 6730: 1041:

Confederacy which was the strongest power of Northern India under the capable rule of

922:. The Mughal dynasty's early followers were Chagatai Turks, and not Mongols. The term 16414: 16310: 16246: 16241: 16170: 16067: 15782: 15710: 15705: 15547: 15476: 15459: 15454: 15449: 15249: 15200: 15008: 14829: 14824: 14804: 14771: 14649: 14577: 14516: 14470: 14465: 14435: 14390: 13873:

History of India: From Reign of Akbar the Great to the Fall of Moghul Empire (Vol. 4)

13715: 13687: 13615: 13524: 13498: 13436: 13401: 13394: 13384: 13307: 13284: 13254: 13242: 13213:

Richards, J.F. (April 1981), "Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy",

13176: 13144: 13130: 13100: 13050: 13000: 12979: 12930: 12913: 12830: 12772: 12744: 12713: 12680: 12652: 12569: 12519: 12515:

Karkhanas Under the Mughals, from Akbar to Aurangzeb: A Study in Economic Development

12473: 12461: 12425: 12418:

The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India

12392: 12348: 12312: 12252: 12219: 12190: 12161: 12124: 12068: 12027: 11988: 11936: 11922: 11888: 11878: 11840: 11798: 11784: 11723: 11607: 11591: 11563: 11503: 11493: 11473: 11446: 11415: 11380: 11315: 11304: 11281: 11174:"Indo-Persian Literature Conference: SOAS: North Indian Literary Culture (1450–1650)" 11123: 11081: 11055: 11043: 11026:

Chaudhuri, K. N. (2008). "Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India".

11006: 10804: 10770: 10549: 10519: 10476: 10373: 10363: 10308: 10279: 10230: 10175: 10067: 10028: 10005: 9853: 9819: 9539: 9481: 9442: 9353: 9295: 9232: 9223:. In Lex Heerma van Voss; Els Hiemstra-Kuperus; Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk (eds.). 9155: 9108: 9062: 9037: 9027: 8994: 8982: 8812: 8802: 8757: 8663: 8612: 8576: 8543: 8510: 8478: 8434: 8374: 8341: 8259: 8232: 8225: 8076: 8020: 7990: 7922: 7895: 7884: 7848: 7789: 7742: 7671: 7611: 7586: 7530: 7503: 7478: 7445: 7400: 7375: 7365: 7309: 7299: 7270: 7245: 7220: 7216: 7191: 7187: 7150: 7119: 7091: 7010: 6969: 6942: 6900: 6852: 6825: 6798: 6734: 6720: 6684: 6645: 6602: 6592: 6525: 6486: 6410: 6371: 6332: 6293: 6253: 6210: 6165: 6123: 6079: 6047: 6011: 5971: 5943: 5905: 5863: 5823: 5780: 5742: 5702: 5672: 5616: 5575: 5532: 5488: 5427: 5154: 4798: 4214: 4184: 3893: 3869: 3811: 3801: 3723: 3443: 3355: 3349: 3331: 3204: 3069: 2932: 2805: 2796:" around 1780 AD for a language that went by a multiplicity of names before his time. 2560: 2532: 2396: 2338:

Muslim Lady Reclining or An Indian Girl with a Hookah, painted in Dacca, 18th century

2019: 2002: 1858:

Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal Empire. One such court was that of the

1276: 1275:, a collection of Islamic law. Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru 1128: 833:. Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as "dominion of Hindustan" ( 800: 546: 13469:

Chaudhuri, K.N. (1978), "Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India",

10323:

Fashion And Designing Under The Mughals Akbar To Aurangzeb. A Historical Perspective

8854: 8197: 8136: 2890:

The introduction of sophisticated Iranian-style waterworks and horticulture through

1381:

in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India. The

16263: 16050: 16045: 16001: 15988: 15918: 15886: 15881: 15745: 15740: 15722: 15683: 15616: 15599: 15540: 15530: 15525: 15466: 15422: 15392: 15352: 15335: 15318: 15281: 15032: 14809: 14799: 14634: 14546: 14521: 14491: 14410: 14405: 14400: 14385: 14175: 13913: 13899: 13881: 13849: 13607: 13575: 13547: 13478: 13372: 13222: 13023: 12959: 12893: 12648:

The Mughal Empire at War Babur, Akbar and the Indian Military Revolution, 1500-1605

12453: 12147: 11914: 11832: 11776: 11643: 11273: 11035: 10985: 10800: 10345: 10133: 10024: 9794: 9432: 8972: 8964: 8922: 8850: 8568: 8535: 8474: 8426: 8177: 8116: 8056: 7956: 7781: 6788: 5662: 5524: 5478: 5364: 5350: 5048: 4713: 4701: 4552: 4263: 4238: 4067: 4006: 3831: 3778: 3739:

argues that the Mughals used Persian purposefully as the vehicle of an overarching

3731: 3709: 3671: 3597: 3539: 3491: 3479: 3437: 3403: 3343: 3337: 3087:

Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors, especially

3081: 2924: 2809: 2736: 2611: 2476: 2472: 2359: 2228: 1841:(religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the 1665:

The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each

1484: 1280: 1154: 1054: 1050: 1046: 931: 151: 12366:... Shirazi and others revised the syllabi of the madrasas. In the new syllabi ... 11824: 11277: 10876:"Indian GDP before 1870: Some preliminary estimates and a comparison with Britain" 2127:

and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.

771:

conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite, resulting in greater patronage of

16665: 16630: 16481: 16449: 16322: 16290: 16273: 16229: 16224: 16202: 16197: 16155: 16148: 16123: 15983: 15978: 15819: 15700: 15594: 15589: 15557: 15382: 15372: 15266: 15259: 15254: 15239: 15195: 15077: 15063: 14998: 14922: 14907: 14897: 14860: 14794: 14756: 14639: 14614: 14375: 14247: 14232: 14138: 14077: 14014: 14000: 13709: 13678: 13357: 13301: 13278: 13203: 13170: 13134: 13126: 13094: 13060: 12994: 12766: 12735: 12707: 12646: 12540: 12513: 11836: 11622: 11534: 11497: 11467: 11374: 11117: 11073: 11000: 10668: 10470: 10304: 10275: 10224: 10207: 10125: 10001: 9477:

The Political Economy of Merchant Empires: State Power and World Trade, 1350–1750

9289: 9197: 9056: 8572: 8539: 8504: 8011: 7468: 7438: 5327: 4945: 4895: 4845: 4835: 4791: 4267: 4210:

and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire.

4160: 4125: 4084: 3877: 3853: 3635: 3621: 3617: 3467: 3455: 3307: 3288: 3240: 3192: 3139:, and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh, such as: 3004: 2873: 2866: 2512: 2468: 2434: 2392: 2321: 2116: 2050:

and Japan, which in turn imported large quantities of textiles and silk from the

1363: 1336: 1304: 1075: 1034: 874: 772: 732: 713: 580: 271: 240: 15903: 14297: 7844:

A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-eighteenth Century

4573: 1599:

India in 1605 and the end of emperor Akbar's reign; the map shows the different

1429:

protectors of the emperor in Delhi, a state of affairs that continued until the

16837: 16635: 16610: 16424: 16419: 16382: 16357: 16340: 16251: 16236: 16207: 16165: 16013: 15973: 15968: 15923: 15849: 15809: 15799: 15789: 15604: 15483: 15377: 15244: 15126: 15003: 14993: 14968: 14937: 14850: 14604: 14526: 14501: 14360: 14317: 14102: 14062: 14042: 13949: 13637:

Masanori Sato (佐藤正哲); Nariaki Nakazato (中里成章); Tsukasa Mizushima (水島司) (1998).

13027: 12709:

The Mughal Padshah: A Jesuit Treatise on Emperor Jahangir's Court and Household

11768: 11370: 10790: 10651: 10337: 10149: 9525: 9216: 9145: 8165: 8047:

Richards, J.F. (1981). "Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy".

7081: 6476: 5510: 5506: 5227: 5081: 4691: 4607: 4200: 4113: 3987: 3912: 3861: 3857: 3819: 3815: 3774: 3587: 3557: 3545: 3527: 3509: 3276: 3222: 3186: 3120: 3073: 2975: 2891: 2857: 2837:

Centralised imperial rule that consolidated the smaller polities of South Asia.

2592: 2540: 2401: 2216: 2173: 2139: 2130:

A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called

2043: 2027: 1765: 1749: 1517: 1480: 1374: 1355: 1351: 1140: 1132: 1071: 995: 955: 792: 728: 698: 473: 460: 128: 13611: 13482: 13376: 13226: 12897: 12457: 12278: 11918: 11780: 11039: 10913:

A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day

9799: 9782: 9041: 8181: 8120: 8060: 7379: 6751:, 'son-in-law,' a title he assumed after his marriage to a Genghisid princess. 5572:

A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day

4975: 4527: 2346:, particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of 16857: 16746: 16549: 16505: 16392: 16187: 16160: 16133: 16089: 15856: 15839: 15824: 15668: 15621: 15609: 15535: 15427: 15301: 15296: 15271: 15153: 14912: 14322: 14222: 14087: 14082: 14067: 13619: 13551: 12573: 12465: 12256: 12194: 11892: 11285: 11047: 10760: 10623: 10610: 8986: 8816: 8761: 8667: 8616: 7785: 7031: 6606: 5536: 5492: 5431: 4935: 4885: 4737: 4287: 4166: 4144: 4124:. In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and 4076: 3736: 3575: 3569: 3515: 3258: 3100: 2718: 2568: 2258: 2243:. Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of the world's industrial output. 2224: 2081: 2064: 1982:

system in dealing with tradings and bullions, to achieve the economic ends.

1979: 1776: 1566: 1548: 1472: 1437:

became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi. The British East India

1424:(1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline. But when the 1402: 1394: 1370: 1359: 1162: 1105: 1003: 355: 32: 15933: 15913: 13964: 13954: 13595: 12344:

Art and Architectural Traditions of India and Iran Commonality and Diversity

12181:

Bag, A.K. (2005). "Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu".

10172: