1983:. Among the tested orthographies, Chinese and French orthographies, followed by English and Russian, are the most opaque regarding writing (i.e. phonemes to graphemes direction) and English, followed by Dutch, is the most opaque regarding reading (i.e. graphemes to phonemes direction); Esperanto, Arabic, Finnish, Korean, Serbo-Croatian and Turkish are very shallow both to read and to write; Italian is shallow to read and very shallow to write, Breton, German, Portuguese and Spanish are shallow to read and to write.
2018:
spelling, so that it has to be said that the phonemes represent the graphemes rather than vice versa. And in much technical jargon, the primary medium of communication is the written language rather than the spoken language, so the phonemes represent the graphemes, and it is unimportant how the word is pronounced. Moreover, the sounds which literate people perceive being heard in a word are significantly influenced by the actual spelling of the word.
1274:
77:
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36:
361:) between the graphemes (letters) and the phonemes of the language, and each phoneme would invariably be represented by its corresponding grapheme. So the spelling of a word would unambiguously and transparently indicate its pronunciation, and conversely, a speaker knowing the pronunciation of a word would be able to infer its spelling without any doubt. That ideal situation is rare but exists in a few languages.
1861:, may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. The phoneme-to-letter correspondence, on the other hand, is often low and a sequence of sounds may have multiple ways of being spelt, often with different meanings.
1930:
spellings were acceptable for the same word) happened arbitrarily over a period without any central plan. However even
English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and several of these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate.
377:(but a more complex one) for predicting the spelling from the pronunciation and vice versa. In the second case, true irregularity is introduced, as certain words come to be spelled and pronounced according to different rules from others, and prediction of spelling from pronunciation and vice versa is no longer possible.
2055:(IPA) aim to describe pronunciation in a standard form. They are often used to solve ambiguities in the spelling of written language. They may also be used to write languages with no previous written form. Systems like IPA can be used for phonemic representation or for showing more detailed phonetic information (see
2102:, the sounds humans are capable of producing, many of which will often be grouped together as a single phoneme in any given natural language, though the groupings vary across languages. English, for example, does not distinguish between aspirated and unaspirated consonants, but other languages, like
2017:
In some
English personal names and place names, the relationship between the spelling of the name and its pronunciation is so distant that associations between phonemes and graphemes cannot be readily identified. Moreover, in many other words, the pronunciation has subsequently evolved from a fixed
1842:
do not make any distinctions in vowel length. Thus the letters like ই ('i') and ঈ ('i:') as well as উ ('u') and ঊ ('u:') have the same pronunciations as 'i' and 'u' respectively. This leads to the existence of many homophones (words with same pronunciations but different spellings and meanings) in
1929:
occurred after the orthography was established; partly because
English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels; and partly because the regularisation of the spelling (moving away from the situation in which many different
2094:
is really a group of sounds, all pronounced slightly differently depending on where they occur in a word. A perfect phonemic orthography has one letter per group of sounds (phoneme), with different letters only where the sounds distinguish words (so "bed" is spelled differently from "bet").
411:
in German), that retains predictability only if the multigraph cannot be broken down into smaller units. Some languages use diacritics to distinguish between a digraph and a sequence of individual letters, and others require knowledge of the language to distinguish them; compare
799:(minimum meaningful unit of language) are often spelt identically or similarly in spite of differences in their pronunciation. That is often for historical reasons; the morphophonemic spelling reflects a previous pronunciation from before historical
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with regard to voicing and pronounced in various ways, such as both in neutral style or both in emphatic pronunciation. On the other hand, Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and
Montenegrin) spelling reflects assimilation so one writes
1833:
does not have retroflex consonants and so, the characters for retroflex consonants ( like ট ('t') and ড ('d') ) that it has inherited in its script from the ancient Brahmi script are also pronounced like their dental versions. Moreover, in both
1175:
is one that is not capable of representing all the phonemes or phonemic distinctions in a language. An example of such a deficiency in
English orthography is the lack of distinction between the voiced and voiceless "th" phonemes
1130:
has changed over the centuries from a highly phonemic to a largely morphophonemic orthography. Japanese kana are almost completely phonemic but have a few morphophonemic aspects, notably in the use of ぢ
1899:
Similarly to French, it is much easier to infer the pronunciation of a German word from its spelling than vice versa. For example, for speakers who merge /eː/ and /ɛː/, the phoneme /eː/ may be spelt
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will usually be represented by the same grapheme, a purely phonetic script would demand that phonetically distinct allophones be distinguished. To take an example from
American English: the
1163:
is also mostly morphophonemic, because it does not reflect vowel reduction, consonant assimilation and final-obstruent devoicing. Also, some consonant combinations have silent consonants.
369:
There are two distinct types of deviation from the phonemic ideal. In the first case, the exact one-to-one correspondence may be lost (for example, some phoneme may be represented by a
2070:
sound in the words "table" and "cat" would, in a phonemic orthography, be written with the same character; however, a strictly phonetic script would make a distinction between the
2025:
to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when
1370:
Languages whose current orthographies have a high grapheme-to-phoneme and phoneme-to-grapheme correspondence (excluding exceptions due to loan words and assimilation) include:
345:, in which the depth of an orthography is the degree to which it diverges from being truly phonemic. The concept can also be applied to nonalphabetic writing systems like
492:
in these examples) and so does not have single letters available for all the phonemes used in the current language (although some orthographies use devices such as
771:, however, reflect such changes). A language may also use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items such as the Japanese
322:. Natural languages rarely have perfectly phonemic orthographies; a high degree of grapheme–phoneme correspondence can be expected in orthographies based on
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are both pronounced as the phoneme /u/). That is often for historical reasons (the Polish letters originally stood for different phonemes, which later
279:
1972:. There is also no indication of pitch accent, which results in homography of words like 箸 and 橋 (はし in hiragana), which are distinguished in speech.
1880:
representing the same sound, but consonant and vowel length are not always accurate and various spellings reflect etymology, not pronunciation),
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The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet. A standard for this is the
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phonologically). That affects the predictability of spelling from pronunciation but not necessarily vice versa. Another example is found in
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1692:(apart from letters representing multiple sounds depending on front or back vowels, the soft and hard sign, silent letters to indicate
17:
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that occurs in many languages (such as German, Polish and
Russian) is not normally reflected in the spelling. For example, in German,
1896:, are sometimes considered to be of intermediate depth (for example they include many morphophonemic features, as described above).
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that caused the variation in pronunciation of a given morpheme. Such spellings can assist in the recognition of words when reading.
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structure rather than the purely phonemic (see next section) although it is often also a reflection of historical pronunciation.
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579:/. Moreover, consonant clusters , 'স্ব', 'স্য' , 'শ্ব ', 'শ্ম', 'শ্য', 'ষ্ম ', 'ষ্য', also often have the same pronunciation, /
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at places. Moreover, due to sound mergers, the same phonemes are often represented by different graphemes. On the other hand,
1291:
94:
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1999:. In order to maintain a phonemic orthography such a system would need periodic updating, as has been attempted by various
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Sometimes, the rules of correspondence are more complex and depend on adjacent letters, often as a result of historical
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127:
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represent the same phoneme in all varieties of
Spanish (except in Valencia), while in the Spanish of the Americas,
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Conversely, a letter or group of letters can correspond to different phonemes in different contexts. For example,
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2014:. This is most common with loanwords, but occasionally occurs in the case of established native words too.
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Spelling may otherwise represent a historical pronunciation; orthography does not necessarily keep up with
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In less formally precise terms, a language with a highly phonemic orthography may be described as having
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syllabaries (and the different treatment in
English orthography of words derived from Latin and Greek).
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1815:, where the implicit default vowel is suppressed without being explicitly marked as such. Others, like
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often adhere to or are influenced by the orthography of the source language (as with the
English words
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is often not reflected in spelling even in otherwise phonemic orthographies such as Spanish, in which
472:: this is a slightly different case where the same digraph is used for two different single phonemes.
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Phonemic orthographies are different from phonetic transcription; whereas in a phonemic orthography,
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This is often due to the use of an alphabet that was originally used for a different language (the
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rather than purely phonemic. This means that the spelling reflects to some extent the underlying
318:(the smallest units of speech that can differentiate words), or more generally to the language's
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1964:) are examples of almost perfectly shallow orthography – exceptions include the use of ぢ and づ (
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of their sounds, they no longer represent the word's phonemic structure or its pronunciation.
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Sometimes, conversely, a single letter may represent a sequence of more than one phoneme (as
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2202:"OTEANN: Estimating the Transparency of Orthographies with an Artificial Neural Network"
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is highly non-phonemic. The irregularity of English spelling arises partly because the
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In an ideal phonemic orthography, there would be a complete one-to-one correspondence (
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Sometimes the pronunciation of a word changes to match its spelling; this is called a
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in which pronunciation is affected by adjacent sounds in neighboring words (written
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structure of the words, not only their pronunciation. Hence different forms of a
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instead of a single letter), but the "regularity" is retained: there is still an
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Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Computational Typology and Multilingual NLP
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orthography, however, is more strictly phonemic: for example, the imperative of
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1968:) and the use of は, を, and へ to represent the sounds わ, お, and え, as relics of
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Some examples of morphophonemic features in orthography are described below.
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respectively). With some loanwords, though, regularity is retained either by
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Orthography in which the graphemes correspond to the phonemes of the language
1819:, do not have a high grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence for vowel lengths.
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Many otherwise phonemic orthographies are slightly defective, see the page
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In Bengali, the letters, 'শ', 'ষ', and ' স, correspond to the same sound /
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Sometimes, different letters correspond to the same phoneme (for instance
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and morphology rather than their present-day pronunciation. For example,
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writing systems, but they differ in how complete this correspondence is.
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Most orthographies do not reflect the changes in pronunciation known as
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Pronunciation and spelling do not always correspond in a predictable way
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2249:. Standardised Spelling. The English Spelling Society. Archived from
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1949:
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207:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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and spellings become out of date, as has happened to English and
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nativizing the pronunciation to match the spelling (as with the
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can represent the sequence /ks/ in English and other languages).
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A phoneme may be represented by a sequence of letters, called a
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Pronunciation and spelling still correspond in a predictable way
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were once pronounced (the latter is still pronounced in some
2086:"t" in "cat" (not all these allophones exist in all English
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732:, so spelt because of an imagined connection with the words
314:(written symbols) correspond consistently to the language's
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Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a
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Spelling may represent the pronunciation of a different
397:, rather than by a single letter (as in the case of the
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is counted, though slight inconsistencies may be found)
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Many English words retain spellings that reflect their
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but pronounced in accordance with the normal rules of
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Alphabetic orthographies often have features that are
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to rank 17 orthographies according to their level of
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Similarly the English past tense morpheme is written
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330:, for example, is alphabetic but highly nonphonemic.
266:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
1298:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1239:
1213:
101:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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2179:. Cambridge University Press. p. 103, 146.
740:), or distant etymology (as in the English word
280:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
2051:Methods for phonetic transcription such as the
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1120:, as it would be if German spelling were used.
625:in the spoken language. For example, both the
496:to increase the number of available letters).
1986:
1755:if an Arabic-style pronunciation is followed)
352:
1256:(voiceless) respectively, with both written
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1082:
513:(as with the rules for the pronunciation of
2098:A narrow phonetic transcription represents
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1166:
877:regardless of whether it is pronounced as
814:regardless of whether it is pronounced as
782:
2213:
2040:
2029:switched from the Arabic alphabet to the
1743:and various vowel allophones, as well as
1473:and various palatal and vowel allophones)
1358:Learn how and when to remove this message
1204:, respectively), occurring in words like
241:Learn how and when to remove this message
223:Learn how and when to remove this message
161:Learn how and when to remove this message
1159:merger of formally different morae. The
748:was added under the influence of Latin).
1700:and voiced versus voiceless consonants)
810:The English plural morpheme is written
14:
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1945:have mostly phonemic orthographies.
1872:(mainly phonemic with the exception
1296:adding citations to reliable sources
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606:in English can represent /ð/ (as in
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365:Deviations from phonemic orthography
270:. For the distinction between ,
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99:adding citations to reliable sources
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1392:, apart from ى and assimilation of
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1147:, their pronunciation in standard
1096:("advice", "advise") in which the
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341:. Another terminology is that of
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2136:English-language spelling reform
1776:can be represented by graphemes
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2119:International Phonetic Alphabet
2053:International Phonetic Alphabet
1864:Orthographies such as those of
1762:Defective script § Latin script
1283:needs additional citations for
1155:sound change combined with the
262:International Phonetic Alphabet
86:needs additional citations for
53:or discuss these issues on the
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2057:Narrow vs. broad transcription
655:from the one being considered.
343:deep and shallow orthographies
13:
1:
2175:Hualde, José Ignacio (2005).
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1965:
1064:even though it is pronounced
1060:"bath" is spelt with a final
2200:Marjou, Xavier (June 2021).
1519:(if the apostrophe denoting
1264:Comparison between languages
1012:"optimist" are written with
852:, the addition of the vowel
7:
2224:10.18653/v1/2021.sigtyp-1.1
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1811:and several others feature
1433:(apart from schwa deletion)
856:reflected in the spelling:
203:the claims made and adding
10:
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2156:Orthographic transcription
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1987:Realignment of orthography
644:varieties), but after the
614:), as well as /th/ (as in
353:Ideal phonemic orthography
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18:Morphophonemic orthography
1977:artificial neural network
1054:final-obstruent devoicing
724:(as in the English words
1543:(apart from palatalized
681:word шофёр, from French
293:Pronunciation respelling
287:Not to be confused with
1167:Defective orthographies
889:(with some exceptions:
783:Morphophonemic features
720:Spelling may reflect a
697:nativizing the spelling
687:Russian vowel reduction
258:phonetic transcriptions
2247:"Pronunciation 1"
2082:"t" in "stop" and the
2047:Phonetic transcription
2041:Phonetic transcription
2012:spelling pronunciation
2003:and proposed by other
1975:Xavier Marjou uses an
1307:"Phonemic orthography"
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691:spelling pronunciation
306:(system for writing a
289:Spelling pronunciation
255:This article contains
110:"Phonemic orthography"
2177:The Sounds of Spanish
1993:pronunciations change
1970:historical kana usage
1935:constructed languages
1892:), as well as Korean
1853:and its heavy use of
1680:written phonetically)
1173:defective orthography
1104:in both positions.)
1072:(bathe) in which the
912:include the spelling
751:Spelling may reflect
2131:Alphabetic principle
2074:"t" in "table", the
1793:Indo-Aryan languages
1690:Mongolian (Cyrillic)
1495:; written in either
1292:improve this article
914:⟨sign⟩
744:in which the silent
300:phonemic orthography
95:improve this article
2001:language regulators
1923:English orthography
1161:Russian orthography
1020:, but are commonly
328:English orthography
2151:Orthographic depth
2005:spelling reformers
1981:Orthographic depth
1888:(written with the
1258:⟨th⟩
1112:"does" is spelled
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1927:Great Vowel Shift
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1827:silent consonants
1638:and nasal vowels
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1555:Haitian Creole
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1477:Serbo-Croatian
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1076:is pronounced
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789:morphophonemic
784:
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753:morphophonemic
749:
722:folk etymology
718:
717:
716:
699:(for example,
694:
656:
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534:
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490:Latin alphabet
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2019:
2015:
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1883:
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1308:
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1303:Find sources:
1297:
1293:
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1286:
1281:This article
1279:
1275:
1270:
1269:
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1230:(voiced) and
1227:
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1187:
1174:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1149:Tokyo dialect
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1128:
1119:
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1111:
1107:
1099:
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1037:"Serbia" but
1036:
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1008:"obtain" and
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1000:Phonological
999:
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983:
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963:
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953:
951:
943:
941:
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869:
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847:
846:morphophoneme
843:
842:
838:
832:
831:
827:
813:
809:
808:
807:
804:
802:
801:sound changes
798:
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793:morphological
790:
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669:
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658:Spellings of
657:
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624:
623:sound changes
620:
617:
613:
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583:
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511:sound changes
508:
505:
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245:
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206:
202:
198:
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191:
186:This article
184:
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140:
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133:
129:
126:
122:
119:
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112: –
111:
107:
106:Find sources:
100:
96:
90:
89:
84:This article
82:
78:
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67:
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57:
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51:
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32:
31:
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2251:the original
2240:
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2195:
2176:
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2116:
2097:
2061:
2050:
2020:
2016:
2009:
1990:
1974:
1947:
1932:
1921:
1916:
1912:
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1900:
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1877:
1873:
1863:
1855:nasal vowels
1845:
1821:
1790:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1769:
1765:
1759:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1739:(apart from
1721:
1717:
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1707:
1706:(apart from
1677:
1657:
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1617:
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1595:
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1290:Please help
1285:verification
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1009:
1005:
1002:assimilation
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700:
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528:
518:
514:
501:
487:
479:
475:
474:
465:
461:
460:
452:
448:
444:
443:
435:
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430:
427:
419:
413:
408:
401:
386:
385:
384:
368:
356:
338:
334:
332:
299:
297:
274:and ⟨
256:
237:
219:
210:
187:
157:
148:
138:
131:
124:
117:
105:
93:Please help
88:verification
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
2271:Orthography
2084:glottalized
2080:unaspirated
1991:With time,
1952:systems of
1849:, with its
1704:Azerbaijani
1493:Montenegrin
1348:August 2024
1080:. (Compare
1022:neutralized
689:; see also
636:of English
470:Manx Gaelic
424:in English.
347:syllabaries
320:diaphonemes
304:orthography
2265:Categories
2215:1912.13321
2162:References
2064:allophones
1882:Portuguese
1737:Indonesian
1674:Belarusian
1662:Î versus Â
1517:Macedonian
1390:diacritics
1318:newspapers
1049:"Serbian".
895:wikt:knelt
891:wikt:spilt
767:and other
713:Portuguese
494:diacritics
428:Examples:
395:multigraph
324:alphabetic
213:March 2021
197:improve it
121:newspapers
50:improve it
2281:Phonology
2276:Phonetics
2232:209515879
2072:aspirated
1950:syllabary
1939:Esperanto
1870:Hungarian
1714:Hungarian
1668:Ukrainian
1512:Bulgarian
1507:Slovenian
1457:Malayalam
1376:Afrikaans
1157:yotsugana
1010:optimista
972:tionalism
910:signature
902:etymology
703:is spelt
683:chauffeur
660:loanwords
375:algorithm
359:bijection
312:graphemes
201:verifying
151:June 2023
56:talk page
2286:Spelling
2141:Spelling
2125:See also
2088:dialects
1962:katakana
1958:hiragana
1954:Japanese
1937:such as
1840:Assamese
1831:Assamese
1809:Maithili
1805:Gujarati
1650:Romanian
1497:Cyrillic
1485:Croatian
1442:Sanskrit
1426:Georgian
1421:Albanian
1410:Estonian
797:morpheme
777:katakana
773:hiragana
765:Sanskrit
726:hiccough
701:football
629:and the
616:goatherd
525:and the
440:Romansch
415:goatherd
406:trigraph
316:phonemes
308:language
272:/ /
268:Help:IPA
2208:: 1–9.
2108:Bengali
2033:-based
1859:elision
1836:Bengali
1823:Bengali
1817:Marathi
1801:Punjabi
1791:Modern
1684:Swahili
1560:Spanish
1503:script)
1489:Bosnian
1481:Serbian
1467:Turkish
1462:Dhivehi
1447:Kannada
1437:Italian
1416:Finnish
1405:Maltese
1400:Kurdish
1381:Amharic
1332:scholar
1153:rendaku
1124:Korean
1106:Turkish
1006:obtener
839:and dog
828:and dog
822:, e.g.
709:futebol
693:) or by
679:Russian
672:Spanish
653:dialect
631:digraph
527:silent
523:Italian
478:versus
464:versus
447:versus
434:versus
421:loather
399:digraph
371:digraph
260:in the
195:Please
135:scholar
2230:
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2104:Korean
2100:phones
2027:Turkey
1997:French
1943:Lojban
1894:hangul
1866:German
1847:French
1751:, and
1624:Polish
1541:Basque
1452:Telugu
1388:(with
1386:Arabic
1334:
1327:
1320:
1313:
1305:
1143:and ず
1135:and づ
1127:hangul
1043:ски/sr
1031:ија/Sr
995:/spiː/
977:, and
955:/priː/
942:judice
858:church
833:, not
761:sandhi
730:island
705:fútbol
668:fajita
664:ballet
638:knight
585:/ or /
563:merged
559:Polish
484:French
302:is an
276:
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2210:arXiv
2112:Hindi
2031:Latin
1933:Most
1886:Greek
1797:Hindi
1795:like
1784:, or
1733:Malay
1728:Oromo
1696:from
1660:(see
1602:Czech
1521:schwa
1501:Latin
1431:Hindi
1339:JSTOR
1325:books
1092:raten
1070:baden
985:/spɛ/
965:/neɪ/
945:/prɛ/
924:/saɪ/
734:cough
642:Scots
457:Welsh
264:(IPA)
142:JSTOR
128:books
2181:ISBN
2114:do.
2110:and
2076:flap
1960:and
1948:The
1941:and
1857:and
1838:and
1768:and
1735:and
1720:and
1642:and
1491:and
1311:news
1232:thin
1206:this
1190:and
1110:eder
1052:The
1016:and
992:cies
987:vs.
982:cial
975:/næ/
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921:ence
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906:sign
887:/ɪd/
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850:/ɪz/
775:and
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728:and
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612:thin
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950:pre
940:pre
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