649:
919:, a fission product generated in the fuel. This was first noted in the specimens that were removed from the core at intervals during the reactor operation. Post-operation examination of pieces of a control-rod thimble, heat-exchanger tubes and pump bowl parts revealed the ubiquity of the cracking and emphasized its importance to the MSR concept. The crack growth was rapid enough to become a problem over the planned 30-year life of a follow-on thorium breeder reactor. This cracking could in short-term be reduced by adding small amounts of
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384:
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20:
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234:. Before the MSRE development began, tests had shown that salt would not permeate graphite in which the pores were on the order of a micrometer. However, graphite with the desired pore structure was available only in small, experimentally prepared pieces, and when a manufacturer set out to produce a new grade (CGB) to meet the MSRE requirements, difficulties were encountered.
313:
486:
Almost 200,000 lb (90,000 kg) in a variety of shapes of material for the MSRE were produced commercially. Requests for bids on component fabrication went to several companies in the nuclear fabrication industry, but all declined to submit lump-sum bids because of lack of experience with the
443:
aircraft reactor) were started in 1962. Installation of the salt systems was completed in mid-1964. ORNL was responsible for quality assurance, planning, and management of construction. The primary systems were installed by ORNL personnel; subcontractors modified the building and installed ancillary
982:
In 2003, the MSRE cleanup project was estimated at $ 130 million, with decommissioning expected to be completed in 2009. Removal of uranium from the salt was completed in March 2008, however still leaving the salt with the fission products in the tanks. Much of the high cost was caused by the
663:
By this time, ample U had become available, so the MSRE program was extended to include substitution of U for the uranium in the fuel salt, and operation to observe the new nuclear characteristics. Using the on-site processing equipment the flush salt and fuel salt were fluorinated to recover the
872:
elements remained stable in the salt. Additions of uranium and plutonium to the salt during operation were quick and uneventful, and recovery of uranium by fluorination was efficient. The neutronics, including critical loading, reactivity coefficients, dynamics, and long-term reactivity changes,
863:
The MSRE confirmed expectations and predictions. For example, it was demonstrated that: the fuel salt was immune to radiation damage, the graphite was not attacked by the fuel salt, and the corrosion of
Hastelloy-N was negligible. Noble gases were stripped from the fuel salt by a spray system,
683:
characteristics. An unexpected consequence of processing the salt was that its physical properties were altered slightly so that more than the usual amount of gas was entrained from the fuel pump into the circulating loop. The circulating gas and the power fluctuations that accompanied it were
564:
were developed similar to those used successfully in the aircraft reactor program, but with provisions for remote maintenance, and including a spray system for xenon removal. Remote maintenance considerations pervaded the MSRE design, and developments included devices for remotely cutting and
963:
After shutdown, the salt was believed to be in long-term safe storage. At low temperatures, radiolysis can free fluorine from the salt. As a countermeasure, the salt was annually reheated to about 302 °F (150 °C) until 1989. But beginning in the mid-1980s, there was concern that
644:
After two months of high-power operation, the reactor was down for three months because of the failure of one of the main cooling blowers. Some further delays were encountered because of offgas line plugging, but by the end of 1966 most of the startup problems were behind. During the next
908:) production diffused out of the fuel system into the containment cell atmosphere and another 6–10% reached the air through the heat removal system. The fact that these fractions were not higher, indicated that something partially negated the transfer of tritium through hot metals.
859:
The broadest and perhaps most important conclusion from the MSRE experience was that a molten salt fueled reactor concept was viable. It ran for considerable periods of time, yielding valuable information, and maintenance was accomplished safely and without excessive delay.
1589:
975:, as well as a potentially dangerous build-up of fluorine gas: the environment above the solidified salt was approximately one atmosphere of fluorine. The ensuing decontamination and decommissioning project was called "the most technically challenging" activity assigned to
896:
measured in the MSRE agreed with conventional design calculations and did not change over the life of the reactor. Limiting oxygen in the salt proved effective, and the tendency of fission products to be dispersed from contaminated equipment during maintenance was low.
645:
15 months, the reactor was critical 80% of the time, with runs of 1, 3, and 6 months that were uninterrupted by a fuel drain. By March 1968, the original objectives of the MSRE had been accomplished, and nuclear operation with U was concluded.
591:
Most of the MSRE effort from 1960 through 1964 was devoted to design, development, and construction of the MSRE. Production and further testing of graphite and
Hastelloy-N, both in-pile and out, were major development activities. Others included work on
629:. After zero-power experiments to measure rod worth and reactivity coefficients, the reactor was shut down and final preparations made for power operation. Power ascension was delayed when vapors from oil that had leaked into the fuel pump were
192:
could be embodied in a practical reactor that could be operated safely and reliably and be maintained without excessive difficulty. For simplicity, it was to be a fairly small, one-fluid (i.e. non-breeding) reactor operating at
1587:
522:
irradiation. The MSRE stresses were reanalyzed, and it was concluded that the reactor would have adequate life to reach its goals. At the same time a program was launched to improve the resistance of
Hastelloy-N to the
983:
unpleasant surprise of fluorine and uranium hexafluoride evolution from cold fuel salt in storage that ORNL did not defuel and store correctly, but this has now been taken into consideration in MSR design.
355:, followed by a sudden jump in reactivity as the Xe is burned out. Conventional reactors may have to wait hours until xenon-135 decays after shutting down and not immediately restarting (so-called
286:
and increases reliability. The high reactivity of fluorine traps most fission reaction byproducts. It appeared that the fluid salt would permit on-site chemical separation of the fuel and wastes.
113:
was the result of breeding from thorium in other reactors. Since this was an engineering test, the large, expensive breeding blanket of thorium salt was omitted in favor of neutron measurements.
1619:
1066:
710:
After the final shutdown in
December 1969, the reactor was left in standby for nearly a year. A limited examination program was then carried out, including a moderator bar from the core, a
293:
salt was used to flush the fuel circulating system before and after maintenance. In a cell adjacent to the reactor was a simple facility for bubbling gas through the fuel or flush salt: H
1480:(see PDF page 10) "The MSRE was fueled with 39 kilograms of 233U that contained ~220 parts per million (ppm) of 232U various Light Water Reactors that had operated on 235U (such as the
964:
radioactivity was migrating through the system, reported by an ORNL employee who was among 125 people working above the reactor, which had not been decontaminated or decommissioned.
618:
Checkout and prenuclear tests included 1,000 hours of circulation of flush salt and fuel carrier salt. Nuclear testing of the MSRE began in June 1965, with the addition of
615:
The MSRE operated for 5 years. The salt was loaded in 1964, and nuclear operation ended in
December 1969, and all the objectives of the experiment were achieved during this period.
35:, (8) Coolant drain tank, (9) Fans, (10) Fuel drain tanks, (11) Flush tank, (12) Containment vessel, (13) Freeze valve. Also note Control area in upper left and Chimney upper right.
423:
measurements. There was enough latitude in the MSRE that deviations from predictions would not compromise safety or accomplishment of the objectives of the experimental reactor.
411:. If temperatures increased or bubbles formed, the volume of the fluid fuel salts would increase and some fluid fuel salts would be forced out of the core, thereby reducing the
332:
The bowl of the fuel pump was the surge space for the circulating loop, and here about 50 US gallons per minute (190 L/min) of fuel was sprayed into the gas space to allow
2229:
1259:
DeVan, Jackson H. "Effect of
Alloying Additions on Corrosion Behavior of Nickel–Molybdenum Alloys in Fused Fluoride Mixtures." Thesis. University of Tennessee, 1960. Web. <
2423:
986:
A potential decommissioning process has been described; uranium is to be removed from the fuel as the hexafluoride by adding excess fluorine, and plutonium as the
439:
Construction of the primary system components and alterations of the old
Aircraft Reactor Experiment building (which had been partly remodeled for a proposed 60 MW
475:. All metal parts contacting salt were made of Hastelloy-N. The choice of Hastelloy-N for the MSRE was on the basis of the promising results of tests at aircraft
999:
2739:
923:
to the
Hastelloy-N. However, further studies were needed to assess the effects of longer exposure times and some interaction parameters for the used mixtures.
926:
The operation experience gained with the MSRE showed that the following areas require further investigation for the successful operation of a commercial MSR:
1451:
1523:
1870:
968:
Oak Ridge
Operations Manager Joe Ben LaGrone ordered evacuation of 125 employees, based on findings reported to him inspector William Dan DeFord, P.E.
289:
The fuel system was located in sealed cells, laid out for maintenance with long-handled tools through openings in the top shielding. A tank of LiF-BeF
1688:
1261:
2534:
2679:
1636:
1412:
B.E. Prince; S.J. Ball; J.R. Engel; P.N. Haubenreich & T.W. Kerlin (February 1968). "Zero-Power
Physics Experiments on the MSRE". ORNL-4233.
684:
eliminated by operating the fuel pump at slightly lower speed. Operation at high power for several months permitted accurate measurement of the
545:
of more than 200 W/cm had no adverse effects on compatibility of fuel salt, Hastelloy-N, and graphite. Fluorine gas was found to be produced by
596:, development of fabrication techniques for Hastelloy-N, development of reactor components, and remote-maintenance planning and preparations.
479:
conditions and the availability of much of the required metallurgical data. Development for the MSRE generated the further data required for
1586:
Disposition of the Fluoride Fuel and Flush Salts from the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, available as PDF
1712:
Evaluation of the U.S. Department of Energy's Alternatives for the Removal and Disposition of Molten Salt Reactor Experiment Fluoride Salts
556:
for 5-inch (130 mm) lines carrying molten salt, freeze valves (an air-cooled section where salt could be frozen and thawed), flexible
1714:
1114:
399:. After two months of high-power operation, the reactor was down for 3 months because of the failure of one of the main cooling blowers.
1843:
537:
test program was carried out for Hastelloy-N, which indicated extremely low corrosion rates at MSRE conditions. Capsules exposed in the
1667:
1475:
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inches (38 mm) pipe, removable heater-insulation units, and equipment for removing specimens of metal and graphite from the core.
1929:
2168:
1541:
2379:
2219:
2158:
2299:
2775:
2124:
1863:
1748:
1397:
M.W. Rosenthal; P.N. Haubenreich; H.E. McCoy & L.E. McNeese (1971). "Current Progress in Molten-Salt Reactor Development".
892:") was expected, but the MSRE provided quantitative data on relative deposition on graphite, metal, and liquid-gas interfaces.
652:
364:
Also in the pump bowl was a port through which salt samples could be taken or capsules of concentrated fuel-enriching salt (UF
937:
production and transport from the core (only <20% could be removed due to diffusion and heat removal system in the MSRE).
714:
thimble, heat exchanger tubes, parts from the fuel pump bowl, and a freeze valve that had developed a leak during the final
2175:
960:
As of 2019, the MSRE is in a SAFESTOR state, meaning it still intact but shut down and actively monitored and maintained.
181:), and it operated as hot as 650 °C and operated for the equivalent of about 1.5 years of full power operation.
2092:
1161:
R.C. Robertson (January 1965). "MSRE Design and Operations Report, Part I, Description of Reactor Design". ORNL-TM-0728.
2374:
965:
1856:
979:
under its environmental management contract with the U.S. Department of Energy's Oak Ridge Operations organization.
676:
was then added to the carrier salt, and in October 1968, the MSRE became the world's first reactor to operate on U.
483:
code approval. It also included preparation of standards for Hastelloy-N procurement and for component fabrication.
2709:
2684:
2549:
1228:
B.H. Webster (April 1970). "Quality-Assurance Practices in Construction and Maintenance of the MSRE". ORNL-TM-2999.
2627:
2461:
2063:
1941:
95:
391:
At the time, the high temperatures were seen almost as a disadvantage because they hampered use of conventional
2617:
1924:
930:
Maintaining the salt as a liquid in all parts of primary system, particularly in extremities far from the core.
184:
The result promised to be a simple, reliable reactor. The purpose of the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment was to
951:
Decommissioining and disposal of the reactor structure and waste salt (approx. costs in 2019 are $ 10mil/yr ).
2765:
2391:
2224:
1744:
1542:"Monthly Meeting of the Oak Ridge Site Specific Advisory Board - Approved November 13, 2019, Meeting Minutes"
1514:
1444:
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55:
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1934:
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271:
1835:
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1820:
1808:
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1481:
715:
531:
502:
At the time that design stresses were set for the MSRE, the data that was available indicated that the
1643:
904:
in a molten-salt reactor. It was observed that about 6–10% of the calculated 54 Ci/day (2.0
66:
in 1965, and was operated until 1969. The costs of a cleanup project were estimated at $ 130 million.
2770:
2554:
2163:
1946:
893:
538:
1776:
1682:"Fluorine Production and Recombination in Frozen MSR Salts after Reactor Operation [Disc 5]"
1430:
1246:
1214:
1179:
2760:
2719:
2644:
2544:
2456:
876:
In other areas, the operation resulted in improved data or reduced uncertainties. The U capture-to-
396:
129:
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2649:
2263:
2040:
945:
416:
369:
283:
62:. This technology was researched through the 1960s, the reactor was constructed by 1964, it went
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2539:
1711:
912:
1137:
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2524:
1986:
1914:
1825:
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1417:
1233:
1201:
1166:
503:
163:
107:
81:
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In the concluding months of operation, xenon stripping, deposition of fission products, and
84:
data. It was a test reactor simulating the neutronic "kernel" of a type of inherently safer
2519:
2504:
972:
971:
Sampling in 1994 revealed concentrations of uranium that created a potential for a nuclear
626:
492:
412:
306:
117:
63:
59:
1839:
1319:
H.E. McCoy; et al. (1970). "New Developments in Materials for Molten-Salt Reactors".
8:
2654:
2439:
2033:
1901:
1880:
1196:
R.B. Lindauer (August 1969). "Processing of the MSRE Flush and Fuel Salts". ORNL-TM-2578.
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267:
85:
48:
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227:
156:
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to operate in thimbles at 1,200 °F (649 °C), and the fuel sampler-enricher.
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987:
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made the reactor safer and easier to restart. In solid-fuel reactors, on restart the
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231:
137:
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Aircraft Reactor Experiment building at ORNL that was retrofitted to house the MSRE.
1848:
1328:
1129:
991:
915:
in all metal surfaces exposed to the fuel salt. The cause of the embrittlement was
881:
799:
656:
648:
637:
and plugged gas filters and valves. Maximum power, which was limited to 7.4 MW
619:
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254:(65-29.1-5-0.9 mole %). The first fuel was 33% U; later a smaller amount of UF
185:
145:
141:
51:
2637:
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1718:
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of frozen salts, but only at temperatures below about 212 °F (100 °C).
519:
352:
259:
189:
91:
2129:
278:, and when melted they are stable at high temperatures, low pressures, and high
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2332:
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2190:
1834:("Commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the Startup of the MSRE"), including a
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Reduction in growth of inter-granular cracks in exposed metal surfaces (due to
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is an example of basic data that was improved. The effect of fissioning on the
604:
341:
275:
28:
24:
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1814:
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by the capability of the heat-rejection system, was reached in May 1966.
31:, (3) Fuel pump, (4) Freeze flange, (5) Thermal shield, (6) Coolant pump, (7)
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2068:
1014:
1001:
905:
542:
524:
420:
392:
1731:"MSR Program Semiannual Progress Report for the period ending July 31, 1964"
692:
ratio, for U in this reactor, completing the objectives of the U operation.
2343:
889:
395:. Now, such temperatures are seen as an opportunity to use high-efficiency
387:
MSRE air-cooled heat exchanger glowing a dull red due to high temperature.
197:
or less, with heat rejection to the air via a secondary (fuel-free) salt.
2401:
1991:
1804:"The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment" (1969) Oak Ridge National Laboratory
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818:
711:
634:
630:
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467:
alloy—was used in the MSRE and proved compatible with the fluoride salts
125:
103:
99:
679:
The U zero-power experiments and dynamics tests confirmed the predicted
2107:
1826:
An Account of Oak Ridge National Laboratory’s Thirteen Nuclear Reactors
1133:
718:. The radioactive systems were then closed to await ultimate disposal.
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464:
408:
357:
279:
132:. The MSRE's piping, core vat and structural components were made from
383:
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941:
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808:
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751:
700:
534:
514:. After the construction was well along, the stress-rupture life and
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348:
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133:
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205:
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2416:
2085:
2013:
1996:
1981:
1956:
1737:
1494:
R.B. Briggs (Winter 1971–1972). "Tritium in Molten-Salt Reactors".
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673:
515:
456:
302:
263:
121:
32:
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2602:
2001:
1976:
934:
920:
901:
888:
of the fuel salt was resolved. The deposition of some elements ("
763:
696:
680:
566:
487:
new alloy. Consequently, all major components were fabricated in
337:
170:
88:
1516:
Status of Tellurium-Hastelloy N Studies in Molten Fluoride Salts
552:
Components that were developed especially for the MSRE included
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2406:
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2351:
2234:
1971:
1951:
1919:
747:
553:
472:
460:
431:
19:
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had emerged from earlier molten salt reactor research for the
2448:
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2097:
1961:
786:
468:
333:
174:
124:. It is thought similar reactors could power high-efficiency
1721:(1997), Commission on Geosciences, Environment and Resources
900:
Operation of the MSRE provided insights into the problem of
218:
2309:
2198:
2008:
1966:
611:
noting "6000 full-power hours!" of MSRE operation, in 1967.
480:
70:
1112:
2282:
2146:
1740:
312:
340:
to escape from the salt. Removing the most significant
625:-LiF eutectic to the carrier salt to make the reactor
1062:
1060:
699:
behavior were investigated. The feasibility of using
1878:
1115:"Experience with the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment"
703:
in molten-salt reactors was emphasized by adding PuF
659:
at the MSRE controls in 1968 for startup with U-233.
402:
188:that some key features of the proposed molten-salt
120:was shed via a cooling system using air blown over
1057:
1832:2015 Workshop on Molten Salt Reactor Technologies
1522:, Oak Ridge National Laboratories, ORNL/TM-6002,
301:mixture, in roughly 10:1 ratio, to remove oxide,
2752:
1493:
282:. Stability at low pressure permits less robust
1816:Alvin Weinberg's Molten Salt Reactor Experiment
586:
518:strain were found to be drastically reduced by
447:
415:. The MSRE development program did not include
1811:, a film published by Atomic Energy Commission
1674:
1160:
2535:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
1864:
1195:
1079:
1077:
378:
1392:
1390:
1227:
1828:(from ORNL; includes a section on the MSRE)
169:(65-29.1-5-0.9 mole %). The secondary
2715:
1871:
1857:
1318:
1113:P.N. Haubenreich & J.R. Engel (1970).
1074:
1620:Elegant experiment puts wallop on cleanup
1387:
1108:
1106:
2447:
1191:
1189:
1068:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 1965-1972
868:by a factor of about 6. The bulk of the
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603:
430:
382:
311:
217:
204:
18:
1844:history of the ORNL molten salt program
790:weight: 15,300 lbs (6,940 kg)
767:weight: 11,260 lbs (5,107 kg)
726:Parameters and operational statistics:
510:of Hastelloy-N were hardly affected by
2753:
2462:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
1728:
1666:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1512:
1506:
1487:
1474:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1405:
1381:
1369:
1357:
1345:
1306:
1291:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1221:
1103:
1097:
845:full-power output equivalent: 2,549 h
828:full-power output equivalent: 9,006 h
200:
76:, the MSRE was operated at 7.4 MW
2467:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
1852:
1312:
1186:
1154:
98:. It primarily used two fuels: first
1567:"ORSSAB Meeting - November 13, 2019"
230:core, grade CGB, also served as the
16:Nuclear reactor, Oak Ridge 1965–1969
2472:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
1564:
1539:
1321:Nuclear Applications and Technology
1122:Nuclear Applications and Technology
792:coolant pump circulating: 23,566 h
775:flow rate: 400 gal/min (1514 l/min)
707:as makeup fuel during this period.
426:
13:
2281:
1784:
955:
14:
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403:Neutronics and thermal-hydraulics
320:The secondary coolant was LiF-BeF
2735:
2734:
2725:
2724:
2714:
2705:
2704:
2555:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
873:agreed with prior calculations.
777:fuel pump circulating: 19,405 h
736:equivalent full-power: 11,555 h
144:core. The fuel for the MSRE was
1705:
1694:from the original on 2012-05-02
1629:
1612:
1598:
1580:
1558:
1533:
1529:from the original on 2012-03-24
1457:from the original on 2016-03-04
1437:
1375:
1363:
1351:
1339:
407:The reactor experienced stable
116:In the MSRE, the heat from the
96:liquid fluoride thorium reactor
2545:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
1300:
1253:
1091:
1085:Molten Salt Reactor Experiment
274:. Fluoride salts are strongly
41:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
1:
2776:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
1745:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
1051:
721:
489:U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
56:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
2345:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
599:
587:Development and construction
448:Structural alloy Hastelloy-N
7:
2692:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
1046:Thorium-based nuclear power
1029:
911:One unexpected finding was
822:first critical: 1 June 1965
773:outlet temp: 1225 F (663 C)
769:melting temp: 813 F (434 C)
272:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
10:
2797:
2530:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
894:Heat transfer coefficients
854:
841:thermal output: 20,363 MWh
824:thermal output: 72,441 MWh
771:inlet temp: 1175 F (635 C)
379:Air-cooled heat exchangers
262:a better understanding of
69:Initially designed for 15
2700:
2667:
2655:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
2568:
2550:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
2515:
2498:
2438:
2365:
2357:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
2331:
2322:
2274:
2254:
2207:
2189:
2145:
2050:
2032:
1900:
1887:
1836:50th anniversary brochure
1751:(published November 1964)
1736:. (ORNL-3708) (66.3
541:showed that salt fission
539:Materials Testing Reactor
397:closed-cycle gas turbines
130:closed-cycle gas turbines
2720:List of nuclear reactors
2560:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
2176:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
839:critical: 2 October 1968
826:critical hours: 11,515 h
23:MSRE plant diagram: (1)
2710:Nuclear fusion reactors
2675:Organic nuclear reactor
1881:nuclear fission reactor
1399:Atomic Energy Review IX
913:inter-granular cracking
880:ratio in a typical MSR
843:critical hours: 3,910 h
375:) could be introduced.
327:
237:
213:
1771:Cite journal requires
1729:Briggs, R. B. (1964).
1425:Cite journal requires
1241:Cite journal requires
1209:Cite journal requires
1174:Cite journal requires
1071:ORNL, Oct 2015 (8 MB)
660:
612:
436:
388:
317:
223:
210:
47:) was an experimental
36:
1540:DoE (November 2023).
1513:Keiser, J.R. (1977),
1015:35.92178°N 84.30672°W
664:uranium in them as UF
651:
607:
434:
386:
324:(66–34 mole %).
315:
305:to remove uranium as
221:
208:
82:nuclear cross section
80:because of imprecise
22:
2766:Molten salt reactors
2540:Traveling-wave (TWR)
2024:Supercritical (SCWR)
1791:MSRE Safety analysis
1333:10.13182/NT70-A28622
973:criticality accident
966:Department of Energy
307:uranium hexafluoride
268:molten-salt reactors
242:The fuel was LiF-BeF
60:Oak Ridge, Tennessee
2781:Science experiments
1910:Aqueous homogeneous
1618:R. Cathey Daniels,
1372:, pp. 167–190.
1360:, pp. 252–257.
1348:, pp. 334–343.
1100:, pp. 373–309.
1020:35.92178; -84.30672
1011: /
633:by the radioactive
409:neutronic operation
209:Molten salt reactor
201:Reactor description
49:molten-salt reactor
2730:Nuclear technology
1717:2007-05-13 at the
1592:2013-05-22 at the
1496:Reactor Technology
1134:10.13182/NT8-2-118
1036:Thorium fuel cycle
661:
613:
477:nuclear propulsion
437:
389:
318:
228:pyrolytic graphite
224:
222:Graphite MSRE core
211:
142:pyrolytic graphite
37:
2748:
2747:
2740:Nuclear accidents
2663:
2662:
2494:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2434:
2433:
2318:
2317:
2250:
2249:
1606:"Ending the MSRE"
1309:, pp. 63–52.
1088:, Oct 2015 (2 MB)
988:plutonium dioxide
933:Tight control of
609:Alvin M. Weinberg
594:reactor chemistry
562:Centrifugal pumps
497:Paducah, Kentucky
299:hydrogen fluoride
2788:
2771:Nuclear reactors
2738:
2737:
2728:
2727:
2718:
2717:
2708:
2707:
2650:Helium gas (GFR)
2513:
2512:
2508:
2445:
2444:
2329:
2328:
2279:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2048:
2047:
2044:
2043:
1873:
1866:
1859:
1850:
1849:
1817:
1805:
1780:
1774:
1769:
1767:
1759:
1757:
1756:
1735:
1722:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1699:
1693:
1686:
1678:
1672:
1671:
1665:
1657:
1655:
1654:
1648:
1642:. Archived from
1641:
1633:
1627:
1626:, April 8, 2003.
1616:
1610:
1609:
1602:
1596:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1546:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1521:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1465:
1463:
1462:
1456:
1449:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1428:
1423:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1394:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1296:
1290:
1282:
1280:
1279:
1273:
1267:. Archived from
1266:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1212:
1207:
1205:
1197:
1193:
1184:
1183:
1177:
1172:
1170:
1162:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1148:
1142:
1136:. Archived from
1119:
1110:
1101:
1095:
1089:
1081:
1072:
1064:
1026:
1025:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1016:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1007:
1004:
992:sodium carbonate
882:neutron spectrum
851:: December 1969
800:nuclear graphite
787:66% Li-7, 34% Be
734:output: 92.8 GWh
732:: 8 MW (thermal)
716:reactor shutdown
620:enriched U as UF
582:
581:
577:
574:
491:-owned shops at
427:Building grounds
353:absorbs neutrons
280:radiation fluxes
52:research reactor
2796:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2761:1965 in science
2751:
2750:
2749:
2744:
2696:
2659:
2564:
2509:
2502:
2501:
2486:
2430:
2361:
2336:
2314:
2286:
2268:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2246:
2212:
2203:
2185:
2150:
2141:
2055:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2028:
1942:Natural fission
1896:
1895:
1883:
1877:
1815:
1803:
1799:
1787:
1785:Further reading
1772:
1770:
1761:
1760:
1754:
1752:
1733:
1725:
1719:Wayback Machine
1710:
1706:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1675:
1659:
1658:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1639:
1637:"Archived copy"
1635:
1634:
1630:
1617:
1613:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1594:Wayback Machine
1585:
1581:
1571:
1569:
1563:
1559:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1538:
1534:
1526:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1492:
1488:
1467:
1466:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1447:
1445:"Archived copy"
1443:
1442:
1438:
1426:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1395:
1388:
1380:
1376:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1317:
1313:
1305:
1301:
1284:
1283:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1264:
1262:"Archived copy"
1260:
1258:
1254:
1242:
1240:
1231:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1210:
1208:
1199:
1198:
1194:
1187:
1175:
1173:
1164:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1117:
1111:
1104:
1096:
1092:
1082:
1075:
1065:
1058:
1054:
1032:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1005:
1002:
1000:
998:
997:
958:
956:Decommissioning
946:fission product
886:redox potential
870:fission product
857:
844:
842:
840:
838:
827:
825:
823:
821:
791:
789:
784:
776:
774:
772:
770:
768:
766:
746:
735:
733:
724:
706:
671:
667:
640:
623:
602:
589:
579:
575:
572:
570:
543:power densities
520:thermal neutron
450:
442:
429:
419:experiments or
417:reactor physics
405:
381:
373:
367:
330:
323:
296:
292:
284:reactor vessels
257:
253:
249:
245:
240:
216:
203:
196:
180:
167:
160:
153:
111:
92:breeder reactor
79:
74:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2794:
2784:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2742:
2732:
2722:
2712:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2671:
2669:
2665:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2641:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2574:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2525:Integral (IFR)
2522:
2516:
2510:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2488:
2487:
2485:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2453:
2451:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2389:
2384:
2383:
2382:
2371:
2369:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2291:
2289:
2284:
2276:
2269:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2201:
2195:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2184:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2166:
2155:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2095:
2090:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2060:
2058:
2053:
2045:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2020:
2019:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1944:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1912:
1906:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1889:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1876:
1875:
1868:
1861:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1829:
1823:
1812:
1798:
1797:External links
1795:
1794:
1793:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1773:|journal=
1724:
1723:
1704:
1673:
1628:
1624:The Oak Ridger
1611:
1597:
1579:
1557:
1532:
1505:
1486:
1436:
1427:|journal=
1404:
1386:
1374:
1362:
1350:
1338:
1311:
1299:
1252:
1243:|journal=
1220:
1211:|journal=
1185:
1176:|journal=
1153:
1141:(PDF, reprint)
1128:(2): 118–136.
1102:
1090:
1073:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1031:
1028:
977:Bechtel Jacobs
957:
954:
953:
952:
949:
938:
931:
856:
853:
723:
720:
704:
669:
665:
638:
621:
601:
598:
588:
585:
449:
446:
440:
428:
425:
404:
401:
393:steam turbines
380:
377:
371:
365:
342:neutron poison
329:
326:
321:
294:
290:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
236:
215:
212:
202:
199:
194:
190:power reactors
178:
165:
158:
151:
109:
77:
72:
29:Heat exchanger
25:Reactor vessel
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2793:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2741:
2733:
2731:
2723:
2721:
2713:
2711:
2703:
2702:
2699:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2676:
2673:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2570:Generation IV
2567:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2520:Breeder (FBR)
2518:
2517:
2514:
2511:
2506:
2497:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2437:
2425:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2399:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2288:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2265:
2258:
2253:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2206:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2144:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2022:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1894:
1893:
1886:
1882:
1874:
1869:
1867:
1862:
1860:
1855:
1854:
1851:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1792:
1789:
1788:
1778:
1765:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1739:
1732:
1727:
1726:
1720:
1716:
1713:
1708:
1690:
1683:
1677:
1669:
1663:
1649:on 2013-02-22
1645:
1638:
1632:
1625:
1621:
1615:
1607:
1601:
1595:
1591:
1588:
1583:
1568:
1561:
1543:
1536:
1525:
1518:
1517:
1509:
1501:
1497:
1490:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1453:
1446:
1440:
1432:
1419:
1408:
1400:
1393:
1391:
1383:
1378:
1371:
1366:
1359:
1354:
1347:
1342:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1315:
1308:
1303:
1294:
1288:
1274:on 2011-07-23
1270:
1263:
1256:
1248:
1235:
1224:
1216:
1203:
1192:
1190:
1181:
1168:
1157:
1143:on 2015-01-29
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1116:
1109:
1107:
1099:
1094:
1087:
1086:
1080:
1078:
1070:
1069:
1063:
1061:
1056:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1027:
1024:
995:
993:
989:
984:
980:
978:
974:
969:
967:
961:
950:
947:
943:
939:
936:
932:
929:
928:
927:
924:
922:
918:
914:
909:
907:
903:
898:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
874:
871:
867:
864:reducing the
861:
852:
850:
846:
837:
833:
829:
820:
816:
812:
810:
806:
802:
801:
797:
793:
788:
782:
778:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
731:
727:
719:
717:
713:
708:
702:
698:
693:
691:
687:
682:
677:
675:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
636:
632:
628:
624:
616:
610:
606:
597:
595:
584:
568:
563:
559:
555:
550:
548:
544:
540:
536:
533:
528:
526:
525:embrittlement
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
500:
498:
494:
490:
484:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
445:
433:
424:
422:
421:heat transfer
418:
414:
410:
400:
398:
394:
385:
376:
374:
362:
360:
359:
354:
350:
346:
343:
339:
335:
325:
314:
310:
308:
304:
300:
287:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
258:was used. By
235:
233:
229:
220:
207:
198:
191:
187:
182:
176:
172:
168:
161:
154:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
114:
112:
106:. The latter
105:
101:
97:
93:
90:
87:
83:
75:
67:
65:
61:
57:
53:
50:
46:
42:
34:
30:
26:
21:
2578:Sodium (SFR)
2505:fast-neutron
2466:
2344:
1890:
1764:cite journal
1753:. Retrieved
1707:
1696:. Retrieved
1676:
1651:. Retrieved
1644:the original
1631:
1623:
1614:
1600:
1582:
1570:. Retrieved
1565:DOE (2019).
1560:
1548:. Retrieved
1535:
1515:
1508:
1499:
1495:
1489:
1482:Indian Point
1459:. Retrieved
1439:
1418:cite journal
1407:
1398:
1377:
1365:
1353:
1341:
1324:
1320:
1314:
1302:
1276:. Retrieved
1269:the original
1255:
1234:cite journal
1223:
1202:cite journal
1167:cite journal
1156:
1145:. Retrieved
1138:the original
1125:
1121:
1093:
1084:
1067:
996:
985:
981:
970:
962:
959:
948:of uranium).
925:
910:
899:
890:noble metals
875:
866:Xe poisoning
862:
858:
848:
847:
831:
830:
814:
813:
804:
803:
795:
794:
781:Coolant salt
780:
779:
739:
738:
729:
728:
725:
709:
694:
678:
662:
643:
617:
614:
590:
558:control rods
551:
529:
501:
485:
451:
438:
406:
390:
363:
356:
351:in the fuel
331:
319:
316:Molten FLiBe
288:
241:
225:
183:
136:-N, and its
126:heat engines
118:reactor core
115:
68:
44:
40:
38:
2613:Superphénix
2440:Molten-salt
2392:VHTR (HTGR)
2169:HW BLWR 250
2135:R4 Marviken
2064:Pressurized
2034:Heavy water
2018:many others
1947:Pressurized
1902:Light water
1382:Briggs 1964
1370:Briggs 1964
1358:Briggs 1964
1346:Briggs 1964
1307:Briggs 1964
1098:Briggs 1964
1018: /
832:Second fuel
712:control rod
631:polymerized
512:irradiation
266:salt based
186:demonstrate
104:uranium-233
100:uranium-235
94:called the
2755:Categories
2397:PBR (PBMR)
1755:2008-05-21
1698:2012-10-24
1653:2012-12-08
1502:: 335–342.
1461:2012-10-11
1327:(2): 156.
1278:2011-01-12
1147:2006-06-26
1052:References
1006:84°18′24″W
1003:35°55′18″N
990:by adding
815:First fuel
783:: fluoride
722:Statistics
547:radiolysis
530:An out-of-
508:creep rate
465:molybdenum
413:reactivity
358:iodine pit
193:10 MW
102:and later
86:epithermal
58:(ORNL) in
2449:Fluorides
2113:IPHWR-700
2108:IPHWR-540
2103:IPHWR-220
1892:Moderator
1879:Types of
1401:: 601–50.
942:tellurium
917:tellurium
809:Hastelloy
805:Container
796:Moderator
785:cations:
740:Fuel salt
701:plutonium
681:neutronic
655:Chairman
600:Operation
569:together
535:corrosion
493:Oak Ridge
455:-N—a low
453:Hastelloy
444:systems.
345:xenon-135
232:moderator
177:(2LiF-BeF
138:moderator
134:Hastelloy
122:radiators
2482:TMSR-LF1
2477:TMSR-500
2457:Fuji MSR
2417:THTR-300
2257:Graphite
2120:PHWR KWU
2086:ACR-1000
2014:IPWR-900
1997:ACPR1000
1992:HPR-1000
1982:CPR-1000
1957:APR-1400
1842:, and a
1749:U.S. AEC
1715:Archived
1689:Archived
1662:cite web
1590:Archived
1524:archived
1470:cite web
1452:Archived
1287:cite web
1041:Fuji MSR
1030:See also
849:Shutdown
754:, 29.1%
744:fluoride
674:eutectic
627:critical
516:fracture
504:strength
457:chromium
368:-LiF or
303:fluorine
264:fluoride
128:such as
64:critical
33:Radiator
2623:FBR-600
2603:CFR-600
2598:BN-1200
2264:coolant
2191:Organic
2076:CANDU 9
2073:CANDU 6
2041:coolant
2002:ACP1000
1977:CAP1400
1915:Boiling
1840:posters
1821:YouTube
1809:YouTube
1572:May 30,
1550:May 30,
935:tritium
921:niobium
902:tritium
878:fission
855:Results
762:, 0.9%
748:cations
697:tritium
690:fission
686:capture
657:Seaborg
578:⁄
567:brazing
554:flanges
338:krypton
171:coolant
89:thorium
54:at the
2668:Others
2608:Phénix
2593:BN-800
2588:BN-600
2583:BN-350
2412:HTR-PM
2407:HTR-10
2387:UHTREX
2352:Magnox
2347:(UNGG)
2240:Lucens
2235:KS 150
1972:ATMEA1
1952:AP1000
1935:Kerena
750:: 65%
635:offgas
473:FLiNaK
461:nickel
140:was a
27:, (2)
2685:Piqua
2680:Arbus
2638:PRISM
2380:MHR-T
2375:GTMHR
2305:EGP-6
2300:AMB-X
2275:Water
2220:HWGCR
2159:HWLWR
2098:IPHWR
2069:CANDU
1930:ESBWR
1734:(PDF)
1692:(PDF)
1685:(PDF)
1647:(PDF)
1640:(PDF)
1545:(PDF)
1527:(PDF)
1520:(PDF)
1484:PWR)"
1455:(PDF)
1448:(PDF)
1297:>.
1272:(PDF)
1265:(PDF)
1118:(PDF)
836:U-233
819:U-235
758:, 5%
730:Power
672:-LiF
469:FLiBe
334:xenon
276:ionic
175:FLiBe
2645:Lead
2628:CEFR
2618:PFBR
2500:None
2310:RBMK
2295:AM-1
2225:EL-4
2199:WR-1
2181:AHWR
2125:MZFR
2093:CVTR
2082:AFCR
2009:VVER
1967:APWR
1962:APR+
1925:ABWR
1777:help
1668:link
1574:2024
1552:2024
1476:link
1431:help
1293:link
1247:help
1215:help
1180:help
944:, a
752:Li-7
688:-to-
668:. UF
532:pile
506:and
495:and
481:ASME
471:and
336:and
328:Pump
260:1960
246:-ZrF
238:Fuel
226:The
214:Core
173:was
45:MSRE
39:The
2633:PFR
2424:PMR
2402:AVR
2324:Gas
2262:by
2230:KKN
2164:ATR
2079:EC6
2039:by
1987:EPR
1920:BWR
1819:on
1807:on
1743:),
1741:PDF
1329:doi
1130:doi
906:TBq
811:-N
653:AEC
370:PuF
361:).
250:-UF
157:ZrF
150:BeF
146:LiF
2757::
2367:He
2333:CO
2209:CO
2130:R3
1838:,
1768::
1766:}}
1762:{{
1747:,
1738:MB
1687:.
1664:}}
1660:{{
1622:,
1500:14
1498:.
1472:}}
1468:{{
1450:.
1422::
1420:}}
1416:{{
1389:^
1323:.
1289:}}
1285:{{
1238::
1236:}}
1232:{{
1206::
1204:}}
1200:{{
1188:^
1171::
1169:}}
1165:{{
1124:.
1120:.
1105:^
1076:^
1059:^
994:.
834::
817::
807::
798::
760:Zr
756:Be
742::
639:th
527:.
499:.
459:,
441:th
349:Xe
195:th
164:UF
108:UF
78:th
73:th
71:MW
2507:)
2503:(
2335:2
2287:O
2285:2
2283:H
2211:2
2151:O
2149:2
2147:H
2056:O
2054:2
2052:D
1872:e
1865:t
1858:v
1779:)
1775:(
1758:.
1701:.
1670:)
1656:.
1608:.
1576:.
1554:.
1478:)
1464:.
1433:)
1429:(
1384:.
1335:.
1331::
1325:8
1295:)
1281:.
1249:)
1245:(
1217:)
1213:(
1182:)
1178:(
1150:.
1132::
1126:8
764:U
705:3
670:4
666:6
622:4
580:2
576:1
573:+
571:1
463:–
372:3
366:4
322:2
309:.
297:-
295:2
291:2
256:4
252:4
248:4
244:2
179:2
166:4
162:-
159:4
155:-
152:2
148:-
110:4
43:(
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