Mitosis - Knowledge

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new envelope forms around each set of separated daughter chromosomes (though the membrane does not enclose the centrosomes) and the nucleolus reappears. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclear membrane, begin to "relax" or decondense. Mitosis is complete. Each daughter nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes. Cell division may or may not occur at this time depending on the organism.

1929:, two circular chromosomes are attached to a special region of the cell membrane, eukaryotic mitosis is usually characterized by the presence of many linear chromosomes, whose kinetochores attaches to the microtubules of the spindle. In relation to the forms of mitosis, closed intranuclear pleuromitosis seems to be the most primitive type, as it is more similar to bacterial division. 460: 112: 4863:

Ann-Kathrin; Heier, Annabelle; Lehmbecker, Annika; Merz, Sophie; Noland, Erika L; Plog, Stephanie; Schmidt, Anja; Sebastian, Franziska; Sledge, Dodd G; Smedley, Rebecca C; Tecilla, Marco; Thaiwong, Tuddow; Fuchs-Baumgartinger, Andrea; Meuten, Donald J; Breininger, Katharina; Kiupel, Matti; Maier, Andreas; Klopfleisch, Robert (2021).

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meaning "end") is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events. At telophase, the polar microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more. If the nuclear envelope has broken down, a new nuclear envelope forms using the membrane vesicles of the parent cell's old nuclear envelope. The

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Interphase helps prepare the cell for mitotic division. It dictates whether the mitotic cell division will occur. It carefully stops the cell from proceeding whenever the cell's DNA is damaged or has not completed an important phase. The interphase is very important as it will determine if mitosis

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then push the centrosomes along these microtubules to opposite sides of the cell. Although centrosomes help organize microtubule assembly, they are not essential for the formation of the spindle apparatus, since they are absent from plants, and are not absolutely required for animal cell mitosis.

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Here we provide in vivo evidence that the decrease in HSPC numbers in adult fish indeed stems from a combination of decreased proliferation and increased apoptosis during embryonic development. This defect appears to be mediated via p53(10), as our p53/rad51 double mutants did not display any

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Bertram, Christof A; Aubreville, Marc; Donovan, Taryn A; Bartel, Alexander; Wilm, Frauke; Marzahl, Christian; Assenmacher, Charles-Antoine; Becker, Kathrin; Bennett, Mark; Corner, Sarah; Cossic, Brieuc; Denk, Daniela; Dettwiler, Martina; Gonzalez, Beatriz Garcia; Gurtner, Corinne; Haverkamp,

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occurs when the movement of one chromatid is impeded during anaphase. This may be caused by a failure of the mitotic spindle to properly attach to the chromosome. The lagging chromatid is excluded from both nuclei and is lost. Therefore, one of the daughter cells will be monosomic for that

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that pull one copy of each chromosome to opposite sides of the cell. The result is two genetically identical daughter nuclei. The rest of the cell may then continue to divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells. The different phases of mitosis can be visualized in real time, using

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is a variant of endoreduplication in which cells replicate their chromosomes during S phase and enter, but prematurely terminate, mitosis. Instead of being divided into two new daughter nuclei, the replicated chromosomes are retained within the original nucleus. The cells then re-enter

783:; instead, microtubules form a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and are then organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the nuclear envelope breaks down. The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope breakdown and spindle formation in prometaphase. 1675:. The mitoses must be counted in an area of the highest mitotic activity. Visually identifying these areas, is difficult in tumors with very high mitotic activity. Also, the detection of atypical forms of mitosis can be used both as a diagnostic and prognostic marker. For example, 1884:

encoding enzymes employed in recombination cause cells to have increased sensitivity to being killed by a variety of DNA damaging agents. These findings suggest that mitotic recombination is an adaptation for repairing DNA damages including those that are potentially lethal.

2006: 466: 465: 462: 461: 1961: 1976: 467: 1564:, sister chromatids fail to separate during anaphase. One daughter cell receives both sister chromatids from the nondisjoining chromosome and the other cell receives none. As a result, the former cell gets three copies of the chromosome, a condition known as 1248:

during metaphase, an approximately axially symmetric (centered) shape is called "orthomitosis", distinguished from the eccentric spindles of "pleuromitosis", in which mitotic apparatus has bilateral symmetry. Finally, a third criterion is the location of the

543:. As the cell elongates, corresponding daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends of the cell and condense maximally in late anaphase. A new nuclear envelope forms around each set of daughter chromosomes, which decondense to form interphase nuclei. 1691:. In order to improve the reproducibility and accuracy of the mitotic count, automated image analysis using deep learning-based algorithms have been proposed. However, further research is needed before those algorithms can be used to routine diagnostics. 1221:

reproduces asexually by budding. The cells at the surface of hydra undergo mitosis and form a mass called a bud. Mitosis continues in the cells of the bud and this grows into a new individual. The same division happens during asexual reproduction or

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project from opposite ends of the cell, attach to the centromeres, and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell. The microtubules then contract to pull the sister chromatids of each chromosome apart. Sister chromatids at this point are called

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An error in mitosis can result in the production of three or more daughter cells instead of the normal two. This is called tripolar mitosis and multipolar mitosis, respectively. These errors can be the cause of non-viable embryos that fail to

464: 1671:, the mitosis rate (mitotic count or mitotic index) is an important parameter in various types of tissue samples, for diagnosis as well as to further specify the aggressiveness of tumors. For example, there is routinely a quantification of 1555:. Early human embryos, cancer cells, infected or intoxicated cells can also suffer from pathological division into three or more daughter cells (tripolar or multipolar mitosis), resulting in severe errors in their chromosomal complements. 2510: 1918:, meiosis may have arisen after mitosis. However, sexual reproduction involving meiosis is also a primitive characteristic of eukaryotes. Thus meiosis and mitosis may both have evolved, in parallel, from ancestral prokaryotic processes. 1198:

Cell replacement: In some parts of the body, e.g. skin and digestive tract, cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones. New cells are formed by mitosis and so are exact copies of the cells being replaced. In like manner,

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completes successfully. It will reduce the amount of damaged cells produced and the production of cancerous cells. A miscalculation by the key Interphase proteins could be crucial as the latter could potentially create cancerous cells.

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After the microtubules have located and attached to the kinetochores in prometaphase, the two centrosomes begin pulling the chromosomes towards opposite ends of the cell. The resulting tension causes the chromosomes to align along the

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to "crawl" up the tube toward the originating centrosome. This motor activity, coupled with polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules, provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the chromosome's two chromatids.

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alignment and subsequent correct positioning of daughter cells. Moreover, researchers have found that if rounding is heavily suppressed it may result in spindle defects, primarily pole splitting and failure to efficiently capture

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find and interact with corresponding polar microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle. Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood, it is known that it contains some form of

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guarantees that kinetochores are properly attached to the mitotic spindle and that the chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase plate. If the cell successfully passes through the metaphase checkpoint, it proceeds to anaphase.

1800:). The generation of intracellular pressure is particularly critical under confinement, such as would be important in a tissue scenario, where outward forces must be produced to round up against surrounding cells and/or the 1546:

development in humans. During each step of mitosis, there are normally checkpoints as well that control the normal outcome of mitosis. But, occasionally to almost rarely, mistakes will happen. Mitotic errors can create

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that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved, forming two identical daughter chromosomes. Shortening of the kinetochore microtubules pulls the newly formed daughter chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell. During

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at the equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is centrally located between the two centrosomes (at approximately the midline of the cell). To ensure equitable distribution of chromosomes at the end of mitosis, the

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The function or significance of mitosis, is the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each formed cell receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell.

763:, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division. In addition to phragmosome formation, preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and 3044:

p. 102: Cell division is cytokinesis, and nuclear division is karyokinesis. The words "mitosis" and "meiosis" technically refer only to karyokinesis but are frequently used to describe cytokinesis as well.

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of all the key molecules of eukaryotic mitosis (e.g., actins, tubulins). Being a universal eukaryotic property, mitosis probably arose at the base of the eukaryotic tree. As mitosis is less complex than

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interphase, the cell prepares to divide by tightly condensing its chromosomes and initiating mitotic spindle formation. During interphase, the genetic material in the nucleus consists of loosely packed

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in 1887. However, the term "mitosis" is also used in a broad sense by some authors to refer to karyokinesis and cytokinesis together. Presently, "equational division" is more commonly used to refer to

2015:: Kinetochore microtubules pull the two sets of chromosomes apart, and lengthening polar microtubules push the halves of the dividing cell further apart, while chromosomes are condensed maximally. 1240:

The mitosis process in the cells of eukaryotic organisms follows a similar pattern, but with variations in three main details. "Closed" and "open" mitosis can be distinguished on the basis of

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Ramanathan SP, Helenius J, Stewart MP, Cattin CJ, Hyman AA, Muller DJ (February 2015). "Cdk1-dependent mitotic enrichment of cortical myosin II promotes cell rounding against confinement".

432:, "warp thread"). There are some alternative names for the process, e.g., "karyokinesis" (nuclear division), a term introduced by Schleicher in 1878, or "equational division", proposed by 1970:: Polar microtubules, shown as green strands, have established a matrix around the currently intact nucleus, with the condensing chromosomes in blue. The red nodules are the centromeres. 1167:, and coenocytic algae, but the phenomenon is found in various other organisms. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of 2634: 5753:

Bernstein, H., Bernstein, C. Evolutionary origin and adaptive function of meiosis. In "Meiosis", Intech Publ (Carol Bernstein and Harris Bernstein editors), Chapter 3: 41-75 (2013).

463: 4243: 1985:: The nuclear membrane has just disassembled, allowing the microtubules to quickly interact with the kinetochores, which assemble on the centromeres of the condensing chromosomes. 568: 1144:, develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the separated nuclei. In both animal and plant cells, cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the 1187:

Development and growth: The number of cells within an organism increases by mitosis. This is the basis of the development of a multicellular body from a single cell, i.e.,

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remaining intact or breaking down. An intermediate form with partial degradation of the nuclear envelope is called "semiopen" mitosis. With respect to the symmetry of the

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by mitosis is an equational division which gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained. Mitosis is preceded by the

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Nakajima Y, Meyer EJ, Kroesen A, McKinney SA, Gibson MC (August 2013). "Epithelial junctions maintain tissue architecture by directing planar spindle orientation".

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microtubule array during cytokinesis. Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase.

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Stewart MP, Helenius J, Toyoda Y, Ramanathan SP, Muller DJ, Hyman AA (January 2011). "Hydrostatic pressure and the actomyosin cortex drive mitotic cell rounding".

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and S phase and replicate their chromosomes again. This may occur multiple times, increasing the chromosome number with each round of replication and endomitosis.

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and the re-formation of the nucleus. In most animal cells, anaphase A precedes anaphase B, but some vertebrate egg cells demonstrate the opposite order of events.

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There are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei. The most notable occurrence of this is among the

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and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei. The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some green algae use a

4317: 626:. During all three parts of interphase, the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. However, chromosomes are replicated only during the 2879: 606:

than the relatively short M phase. During interphase the cell prepares itself for the process of cell division. Interphase is divided into three subphases:

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forms between the two nuclei. Cytokinesis does not always occur; coenocytic (a type of multinucleate condition) cells undergo mitosis without cytokinesis.

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Iourov IY, Vorsanova SG, Yurov YB (2006). "Chromosomal Variations in Mammalian Neuronal Cells: Known Facts and Attractive Hypotheses". In Jeon KJ (ed.).

331:, to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start of mitosis. Most human cells are produced by mitotic cell division. Important exceptions include the 2955: 2000:: The centrosomes have moved to the poles of the cell and have established the mitotic spindle. The chromosomes have congressed at the metaphase plate. 2102: 2824: 1275: 1259: 2546: 2185: 829:. In this stage, chromosomes are long, thin, and thread-like. Each chromosome has two chromatids. The two chromatids are joined at the centromere. 251:

The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are

4789: 3805: 5916: 1707:; C, multipolar mitosis; D, ring mitosis; E, dispersed mitosis; F, asymmetrical mitosis; G, lag-type mitosis; and H, micronuclei. H&E stain. 2740: 650:

that give the cell cues to proceed or not, from one phase to another. Cells may also temporarily or permanently leave the cell cycle and enter

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generally undergo a closed mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. Most animal cells undergo a shape change, known as

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Bütschli, Schneider and Fol might have also claimed the discovery of the process presently known as "mitosis". In 1873, the German zoologist

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Ribeiro KC, Pereira-Neves A, Benchimol M (June 2002). "The mitotic spindle and associated membranes in the closed mitosis of trichomonads".

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Chan GK, Yen TJ (2003). "The mitotic checkpoint: a signaling pathway that allows a single unattached kinetochore to inhibit mitotic exit".

2773: 2631: 2241:"Image-based analysis of living mammalian cells using label-free 3D refractive index maps reveals new organelle dynamics and dry mass flux" 1206:

Regeneration: Some organisms can regenerate body parts. The production of new cells in such instances is achieved by mitosis. For example,

825:. At the onset of prophase, chromatin fibers condense into discrete chromosomes that are typically visible at high magnification through a 759:

plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the formation of a

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Lancaster OM, Baum B (October 2014). "Shaping up to divide: coordinating actin and microtubule cytoskeletal remodelling during mitosis".

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repair (HRR), is more accurate than NHEJ in repairing double-strand breaks. HRR is active during the S and G2 phases of interphase when

1576:. On occasion, when cells experience nondisjunction, they fail to complete cytokinesis and retain both nuclei in one cell, resulting in 4811: 4812:"Computerized Calculation of Mitotic Count Distribution in Canine Cutaneous Mast Cell Tumor Sections: Mitotic Count Is Area Dependent" 1148:, which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell. In plants, this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the 6263: 6157: 2732:

Bütschli, O. (1876). Studien über die ersten Entwicklungsvorgänge der Eizelle, die Zelleilung und die Conjugation der Infusorien.

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was a general rule for cell multiplication in plants", a view later rejected in favour of Mohl's model, due to contributions of

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Shi Q, King RW (October 2005). "Chromosome nondisjunction yields tetraploid rather than aneuploid cells in human cell lines".

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Lancaster OM, Le Berre M, Dimitracopoulos A, Bonazzi D, Zlotek-Zlotkiewicz E, Picone R, Duke T, Piel M, Baum B (May 2013).

4865:"Computer-assisted mitotic count using a deep learning–based algorithm improves interobserver reproducibility and accuracy" 1672: 1291: 3365: 2844: 1253:

in case of closed pleuromitosis: "extranuclear" (spindle located in the cytoplasm) or "intranuclear" (in the nucleus).

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Prescott DM, Bender MA (March 1962). "Synthesis of RNA and protein during mitosis in mammalian tissue culture cells".

5964: 4524: 3525: 3037: 1333: 5931: 5505:"Sister chromatids are preferred over homologs as substrates for recombinational repair in Saccharomyces cerevisiae" 2585: 1136:

is not a phase of mitosis, but rather a separate process necessary for completing cell division. In animal cells, a

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containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. The different stages of mitosis altogether define the

1857: 638:), and finally divides (M) before restarting the cycle. All these phases in the cell cycle are highly regulated by 3245:"Injection of anticentromere antibodies in interphase disrupts events required for chromosome movement at mitosis" 1746:

green, and membrane and retraction fibers in black. Rounding also occurs in live tissue, as described in the text.

1597:(or endoreplication) occurs when chromosomes duplicate but the cell does not subsequently divide. This results in 4738:

Vitrat N, Cohen-Solal K, Pique C, Le Couedic JP, Norol F, Larsen AK, Katz A, Vainchenker W, Debili N (May 1998).

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Santaguida S, Amon A (August 2015). "Short- and long-term effects of chromosome mis-segregation and aneuploidy".

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Kops GJ, Weaver BA, Cleveland DW (October 2005). "On the road to cancer: aneuploidy and the mitotic checkpoint".

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When mitosis begins, the chromosomes condense and become visible. In some eukaryotes, for example animals, the

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to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis. This occurs during the

4960:"Interkinetic nuclear migration is a broadly conserved feature of cell division in pseudostratified epithelia" 775:. This band marks the position where the cell will eventually divide. The cells of higher plants (such as the 2963: 2798: 950: 275:. During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated during interphase, condense and attach to 5957: 2094: 659: 2814: 2177: 1366:, which show exclusively closed mitosis. Following, the occurrence of the forms of mitosis in eukaryotes: 1358:

have no nucleus. Bacteria and archaea undergo a different type of division. Within each of the eukaryotic

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Cheeseman IM, Desai A (January 2008). "Molecular architecture of the kinetochore-microtubule interface".

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Heywood P (June 1978). "Ultrastructure of mitosis in the chloromonadophycean alga Vacuolaria virescens".

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microtubule-binding structure that forms on the chromosomal centromere during late prophase. A number of

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were made during 18th and 19th centuries, with various degrees of accuracy. In 1835, the German botanist

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Lloyd C, Chan J (February 2006). "Not so divided: the common basis of plant and animal cell division".

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where the spindle forms inside the nucleus, or the microtubules penetrate the intact nuclear envelope.

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into two daughter cells. The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes—complexes of tightly coiled

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Albertson R, Riggs B, Sullivan W (February 2005). "Membrane traffic: a driving force in cytokinesis".

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During mitotic progression, typically after the anaphase onset, the cell may undergo cytokinesis. In

289: 38: 5292:"Changes in Ect2 localization couple actomyosin-dependent cell shape changes to mitotic progression" 5012:"Developmental roles for Srf, cortical cytoskeleton and cell shape in epidermal spindle orientation" 3097:"The chromosome cycle: coordinating replication and segregation. Second in the cycles review series" 2737: 6479: 5921: 5656:

Sonoda E, Sasaki MS, Buerstedde JM, Bezzubova O, Shinohara A, Ogawa H, et al. (January 1998).

2940: 2713: 2590: 2295:"Tripolar mitosis in human cells and embryos: occurrence, pathophysiology and medical implications" 2069: 1861: 866:

before a new round of mitosis begins, giving a pair of centrosomes. The two centrosomes polymerize

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Winey M, Mamay CL, O'Toole ET, Mastronarde DN, Giddings TH, McDonald KL, McIntosh JR (June 1995).

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in ciliates and in animal placental tissues results in a random distribution of parental alleles.

6064: 5609:"p53 is linked directly to homologous recombination processes via RAD51/RecA protein interaction" 4810:

Bertram CA, Aubreville M, Gurtner C, Bartel A, Corner SM, Dettwiler M, et al. (March 2020).

4000: 1168: 855: 634:), continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes (S), grows more and prepares for mitosis (G 575: 473: 17: 2758: 3204:

Shibata A (2017). "Regulation of repair pathway choice at two-ended DNA double-strand breaks".

2049: 1223: 1055: 954: 3520:. Vol. 15 of Protein Reviews. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 15. 2538:

Ross, Anna E. "Human Anatomy & Physiology I: A Chronology of the Description of Mitosis".

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An abnormal (tripolar) mitosis (12 o'clock position) in a precancerous lesion of the stomach (

1050:, polar microtubules push against each other, causing the cell to elongate. In late anaphase, 6396: 6147: 4695:

Italiano JE, Shivdasani RA (June 2003). "Megakaryocytes and beyond: the birth of platelets".

4314: 2215: 2208: 1865: 1774: 1751: 1731: 1606: 647: 646:, and other cell cycle proteins. The phases follow one another in strict order and there are 328: 120: 62:

For the type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms used to produce gametes, see

3967: 3754:"Three-dimensional ultrastructural analysis of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitotic spindle" 2153: 1551:

cells that have too few or too many of one or more chromosomes, a condition associated with

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Interphase nucleus (left), condensing chromosomes (middle) and condensed chromosomes (right)

5406: 5395:"Quantification of surface tension and internal pressure generated by single mitotic cells" 5351: 5068: 4971: 4549: 4422:

Draviam VM, Xie S, Sorger PK (April 2004). "Chromosome segregation and genomic stability".

4039: 3916: 3209: 1801: 1793: 1602: 1362:, mitosis of the open form can be found, as well as closed mitosis, except for unicellular 1214: 953:. When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore, the motor activates, using energy from 709:

is either partially accomplished or after it is completed, since HRR requires two adjacent

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Nova Acta der Kaiserlich Leopoldinisch-Carolinischen Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher

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Raikov IB (1994). "The diversity of forms of mitosis in protozoa: A comparative review".

2074: 1832:. Due to its importance in mitosis, the molecular components and dynamics of the mitotic 667: 293: 5410: 5355: 5072: 4975: 4553: 4043: 3920: 3213: 6409: 6214: 5943:– Visualize the entire cell lineage tree and all of the cell divisions of the nematode 5731: 5706: 5682: 5657: 5624: 5580: 5553: 5529: 5504: 5482: 5427: 5394: 5375: 5316: 5291: 5264: 5239: 5092: 5036: 5011: 4937: 4902: 4889: 4864: 4844: 4720: 4672: 4647: 4625: 4573: 4492: 4287: 4262: 4201: 4176: 4063: 3975: 3838: 3778: 3753: 3731: 3650: 3572: 3458: 3431: 3328: 3277: 3244: 3121: 3096: 2932: 2597: 2486: 2461: 2437: 2412: 2359: 2267: 2240: 2132: 1938: 1910: 1656: 1007: 832: 351:, bacteria and archaea which lack a true nucleus, divide by a different process called 59:

Process in which chromosomes are replicated and separated into two new identical nuclei

5819: 5813: 5771:. London: Published by New Science Press in association with Oxford University Press. 5633: 5608: 4612: 4595: 4392: 3638: 3541:

Basto R, Lau J, Vinogradova T, Gardiol A, Woods CG, Khodjakov A, Raff JW (June 2006).

3407: 3383:"Sequential entry of components of the gene expression machinery into daughter nuclei" 3382: 3351: 2397: 1359: 530:, which segregates the DNA from the cytoplasm, disintegrates into small vesicles. The 417:. A few years later, he discovered and described mitosis based on those observations. 6404: 5911: 5870: 5823: 5772: 5736: 5687: 5638: 5585: 5534: 5474: 5432: 5367: 5321: 5269: 5215: 5177: 5156:"Mitotic rounding alters cell geometry to ensure efficient bipolar spindle formation" 5136: 5084: 5041: 4989: 4906: 4894: 4848: 4836: 4761: 4712: 4708: 4677: 4617: 4565: 4520: 4496: 4484: 4439: 4404: 4396: 4357: 4292: 4206: 4142: 4098: 4055: 3979: 3934: 3879: 3830: 3783: 3723: 3688: 3642: 3607: 3564: 3521: 3498: 3494: 3463: 3412: 3361: 3320: 3282: 3264: 3225: 3167: 3126: 3033: 2936: 2689: 2516: 2491: 2442: 2351: 2316: 2272: 2219: 1922: 1792:

that 1) rigidifies the cell periphery and 2) facilitates generation of intracellular

1593: 1577: 1245: 871: 772: 509: 281: 276: 116: 5658:"Rad51-deficient vertebrate cells accumulate chromosomal breaks prior to cell death" 5240:"RhoA is required for cortical retraction and rigidity during mitotic cell rounding" 4941: 4724: 4629: 4067: 3842: 3735: 3654: 1893: 395:

In animal cells, cell division with mitosis was discovered in frog, rabbit, and cat

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In animal tissue, most cells round up to a near-spherical shape during mitosis. In

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Asexual reproduction: Some organisms produce genetically similar offspring through

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The primary result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the transfer of a parent cell's

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Stürzbecher HW, Donzelmann B, Henning W, Knippschild U, Buchhop S (April 1996).

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Fischer-Friedrich E, Hyman AA, Jülicher F, Müller DJ, Helenius J (August 2014).

1605:. Endoreduplication is found in many species and appears to be a normal part of 248:

of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other.

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Chan GK, Liu ST, Yen TJ (November 2005). "Kinetochore structure and function".

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have a short lifespan (only about 3 months) and new RBCs are formed by mitosis.

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vital for proper cell function. Because each resultant daughter cell should be

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Cadart C, Zlotek-Zlotkiewicz E, Le Berre M, Piel M, Matthews HK (April 2014).

4984: 4959: 4880: 4756: 4739: 4435: 4094: 3968: 3929: 3684: 3243:

Bernat, R. L.; Borisy, G. G.; Rothfield, N. F.; Earnshaw, W. C. (1990-10-01).

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ceases during prophase and does not resume until late anaphase to early G

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contraction, both of which are governed upstream by signaling pathways

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to the two divisions involved in the halving process of the number of

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Prasanth KV, Sacco-Bubulya PA, Prasanth SG, Spector DL (March 2003).

1817: 1761: 1757: 1722: 1680: 1598: 1076: 1067: 992: 983: 971: 893:

At the beginning of prometaphase in animal cells, phosphorylation of

851: 840: 822: 734: 666:

to carry out specific functions for the organism, as is the case for

531: 312: 297: 272: 264: 229: 225: 217: 5470: 5392: 5112: 5027: 4470: 4121:"New insights into cell cycle control from the Drosophila endocycle" 3719: 3380: 3316: 2347: 6435: 6375: 6360: 6329: 6315: 6045: 6027: 6013: 5999: 5786:

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5552:

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2654:[On Waclaw Mayzel and his observation of mitotic division] 1877: 1869: 1849: 1777:

is thought to play a protective role in ensuring accurate mitosis.

1630: 1619: 1572: 1530: 1400: 1363: 1351: 1207: 1030: 1021: 809: 805: 792: 698: 690: 651: 619: 607: 582:

and the following five mitotic stages of the M phase that includes

414: 301: 268: 256: 75: 685:

during interphase by two principal processes. The first process,

6444: 6324: 5983: 5936: 4740:"Endomitosis of human megakaryocytes are due to abortive mitosis" 2064: 1915: 1809: 1781: 1566: 1514: 1510: 1452: 1396: 1355: 1118: 1042: 941: 910: 867: 862:. A cell inherits a single centrosome at cell division, which is 756: 694: 671: 639: 627: 615: 514: 500: 344: 305: 205: 127: 71: 63: 4737: 4340:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease

3751: 909:, and it occurs in some multicellular organisms. Fungi and some 658:

to stop dividing. This can occur when cells become overcrowded (

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1805: 1785: 1570:, and the latter will have only one copy, a condition known as 1552: 1543: 1497: 1488: 1448: 1346:

Nuclear division takes place only in cells of organisms of the

1188: 1160: 1114: 554:

between the two developing nuclei to produce two new cells. In

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also reach their overall maximal condensation level, to help

914: 894: 846:

Close to the nucleus of an animal cell are structures called

764: 399:

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4244:"Binary Fission and other Forms of Reproduction in Bacteria" 3804:

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1764:, an efficient rounding process is correlated with proper 6268: 6232: 6222: 6195: 6173: 1905:

Some types of cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

1542:

Errors can occur during mitosis, especially during early

488: 177: 5785: 5289: 2652:"Kilka słów o doktorze Wacławie Mayzlu i jego odkryciu" 1683:

in the area of the mitotic figure) indicates high risk

5595:

observable hematological defects in embryos or adults.

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534:, which makes ribosomes in the cell, also disappears. 5386: 2626:

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974:. All chromosomes (blue) but one have arrived at the 323:

breaks down before the chromosomes separate, whereas

180: 174: 4514: 2759:"Otto Bütschli (1848–1920) Where we will genuflect?" 2609:"Notes and memoranda: The late professor von Mohl". 1626:

go through endomitosis during cell differentiation.

1601:

cells or, if the chromosomes duplicates repeatedly,

168: 2333: 1937:Mitotic cells can be visualized microscopically by 689:(NHEJ), can join the two broken ends of DNA in the 678:cells have the ability to re-enter the cell cycle. 319:cells generally undergo an open mitosis, where the 165: 159: 5865:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 5858: 5807: 4694: 4645: 3350: 3348: 2207: 729:Stages of early mitosis in a vertebrate cell with 5452: 5450: 5448: 5446: 4646:Lee HO, Davidson JM, Duronio RJ (November 2009). 3902:"Anaphase B precedes anaphase A in the mouse egg" 2688:. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Interpress. p. 187. 2288: 2286: 1726:Cell shape changes through mitosis for a typical 142:b. nuclei preparing for division (spireme-stage) 6461: 5193: 5191: 5005: 5003: 4421: 4248:Cornell College of Agriculture and Life Sciences 3974:(5th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 3003:p. 85: Already in 1887, Weismann gave the names 1780:Rounding forces are driven by reorganization of 1487:occurs with different variants in some amoebae ( 146:e. pair of daughter-cells shortly after division 66:. For excessive constriction of the pupils, see 5912:A Flash animation comparing Mitosis and Meiosis 5704: 5285: 5283: 4957: 4920:Sauer FC (1935). "Mitosis in the neural tube". 4593: 4375:Wassmann, Katja; Benezra, Robert (2001-02-01). 4374: 4260: 3806:"The dynamic kinetochore-microtubule interface" 2459: 1730:cultured on a flat surface. The cell undergoes 1183:Mitosis occurs in the following circumstances: 751:In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a 5937:WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the 5498: 5496: 5443: 5337: 5335: 5237: 4456: 3705: 3480: 3432:"Mitotic bookmarking by transcription factors" 3184: 2583: 2410: 2283: 2154:"Mitosis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 1525: 932:begin to search for and attach to chromosomal 5965: 5805: 5502: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5197: 5188: 5147: 5108: 5106: 5000: 4424:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 4381:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 4263:"The cell biology of open and closed mitosis" 4074: 3895: 3893: 3799: 3797: 3429: 3344: 3342: 3032:. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing. 2734:Abh.d. Senckenb. Naturf. Ges. Frankfurt a. M. 2462:"The cell biology of open and closed mitosis" 1734:during spindle assembly and then divides via 1673:mitotic count in breast cancer classification 602:The interphase is a much longer phase of the 5927:General K-12 classroom resources for Mitosis 5922:Studying Mitosis in Cultured Mammalian Cells 5886:"Overview of the Cell Cycle and Its Control" 5698: 5280: 5200:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 5052: 4953: 4951: 4688: 4596:"Endoreplication cell cycles: more for less" 4177:"Measurement of Red Cell Lifespan and Aging" 4118: 4114: 4112: 3965: 3747: 3745: 3534: 3143: 2807: 2628:Dermatopathology: Practical & Conceptual 2379: 2377: 2375: 2373: 1788:(actomyosin) into a contractile homogeneous 1742:is depicted in red, DNA/chromosomes purple, 740: 5493: 5332: 4415: 4377:"Mitotic checkpoints: from yeast to cancer" 4162:The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition 4023: 3666: 3664: 3618: 3583: 3090: 3088: 3062:The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition 2404: 701:phases of interphase. The second process, 315:and varies between organisms. For example, 23: 5972: 5958: 5226: 5103: 4958:Meyer EJ, Ikmi A, Gibson MC (March 2011). 4648:"Endoreplication: polyploidy with purpose" 4159: 3959: 3899: 3890: 3794: 3670: 3339: 3144:Zhou J, Yao J, Joshi HC (September 2002). 3094: 2910: 2611:Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science 1423:); it seems to be the most primitive type. 144:c. dividing cells showing mitotic figures 24: 6264:Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein 5730: 5681: 5632: 5579: 5569: 5528: 5426: 5315: 5263: 5171: 5130: 5035: 4983: 4948: 4913: 4888: 4830: 4755: 4671: 4611: 4510: 4508: 4506: 4478: 4351: 4286: 4200: 4136: 4109: 4001:"Chromosome condensation through mitosis" 3928: 3824: 3777: 3742: 3558: 3457: 3447: 3406: 3302: 3276: 3161: 3120: 2984: 2877: 2683: 2485: 2453: 2436: 2411:De Souza CP, Osmani SA (September 2007). 2370: 2310: 2266: 2256: 1804:. Generation of pressure is dependent on 1712: 440:, the part of meiosis most like mitosis. 292:. Other errors during mitosis can induce 4589: 4587: 3966:Miller KR, Levine J (2000). "Anaphase". 3863: 3661: 3349:Raven PH, Evert RF, Eichhorn SE (2005). 3298: 3296: 3137: 3085: 3029:Botany: an Introduction to Plant Biology 2649: 2562: 2199: 1900: 1892: 1839: 1721: 1655: 1529: 1113: 1105: 1071: 1025: 987: 965: 804: 796: 724: 458: 126: 110: 94: 82: 32:This is an accepted version of this page 5979: 5856: 5845:(2nd ed.). Sinaeur Associates, Inc 5707:"The evolution of meiosis from mitosis" 5705:Wilkins AS, Holliday R (January 2009). 4539: 4029: 3869: 3589: 3203: 3025: 2613:, v. XV, New Series, p. 178-181, 1875. 2534: 2532: 843:also disappears during early prophase. 14: 6462: 5836: 5766: 5503:Kadyk LC, Hartwell LH (October 1992). 5238:Maddox AS, Burridge K (January 2003). 4785:Stanford University School of Medicine 4641: 4639: 4503: 4459:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology 4174: 3708:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology 3305:Nature Reviews. 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Sinauer Associates. 4119:Lilly MA, Duronio RJ (April 2005). 3430:Kadauke S, Blobel GA (April 2013). 2953: 2838: 1235: 91:(phases ordered counter-clockwise). 56: 5759: 5625:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1996.tb00550.x 2993:types been rightly established?". 2413:"Mitosis, not just open or closed" 57: 6491: 5905: 4175:Franco, Robert (27 August 2012). 4011:from the original on 13 June 2007 2508: 1428:Closed extranuclear pleuromitosis 1372:Closed intranuclear pleuromitosis 471:Time-lapse video of mitosis in a 371:, described cell division in the 300:(programmed cell death) or cause 134:cells in different phases of the 4922:Journal of Comparative Neurology 4709:10.1046/j.1538-7836.2003.00290.x 3185:Biology Online (28 April 2020). 3007:to the usual cell division, and 2673:from the original on 2012-10-27. 2386:European Journal of Protistology 2020: 2005: 1990: 1975: 1960: 1717: 1696: 1638:Karyokinesis without cytokinesis 1332: 1318: 1304: 1290: 1274: 1258: 681:DNA double-strand breaks can be 567: 155: 5794:(4th ed.). Garland Science 5747: 5649: 5600: 5545: 4855: 4803: 4792:from the original on 2019-09-11 4772: 4731: 4533: 4450: 4368: 4327: 4303: 4254: 4236: 4217: 4168: 4153: 3992: 3948:from the original on 2018-07-24 3872:Progress in Cell Cycle Research 3852:from the original on 2017-08-18 3699: 3509: 3474: 3423: 3374: 3236: 3197: 3178: 3068: 3049: 3019: 2978: 2947: 2904: 2871: 2827:from the original on 2017-09-28 2790: 2779:from the original on 2014-08-08 2750: 2726: 2702: 2677: 2643: 2620: 2603: 2577: 2556: 2502: 2188:from the original on 2015-11-14 2105:from the original on 2018-10-28 1897:Mitosis and meiosis differences 1836:is an area of active research. 882: 308:can arise from such mutations. 74:. 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Cancer 2050:Chromosome abnormality 1909:There are prokaryotic 1906: 1898: 1866:homologous chromosomes 1856:repair recombinogenic 1747: 1713:Related cell processes 1664: 1539: 1472:Semiopen pleuromitosis 1224:vegetative propagation 1130: 1111: 1080: 1056:chromosome segregation 1034: 996: 979: 928:In late prometaphase, 864:duplicated by the cell 813: 802: 737: 648:cell cycle checkpoints 505:Chromosome duplication 480: 147: 124: 121:mesenchymal stem cells 108: 92: 87:Mitosis in the animal 6424:Other cellular phases 6148:CDK-activating kinase 5917:Khan Academy, lecture 5256:10.1083/jcb.200207130 4934:10.1002/cne.900620207 3449:10.1186/1756-8935-6-6 3359:W. H. 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Tübingen. 2563:von Mohl H (1835). 2429:10.1128/EC.00178-07 2075:Mitotic bookmarking 1475:is typical of most 1444:Closed orthomitosis 1217:. For example, the 493:genetic information 304:. Certain types of 294:mitotic catastrophe 224:, which divide the 188:) is a part of the 29:Page version status 6410:Spindle checkpoint 6215:P53 p63 p73 family 5861:Biological Science 5767:Morgan DL (2007). 5399:Scientific Reports 5296:Developmental Cell 5160:Developmental Cell 5119:Developmental Cell 4320:2019-01-02 at the 4279:10.4161/nucl.24676 3819:(Pt 23): 5461–77. 3208:. 803–805: 51–55. 3156:(Pt 18): 3547–55. 3005:Aequationstheilung 2929:10.1007/BF02956384 2743:2018-08-09 at the 2719:2018-08-11 at the 2637:2019-04-02 at the 2549:2016-05-12 at the 2515:. APH Publishing. 2478:10.4161/nucl.24676 2129:biology.clc.uc.edu 1983:Early prometaphase 1927:duplication of DNA 1907: 1899: 1748: 1665: 1540: 1131: 1112: 1081: 1035: 997: 980: 946:polar microtubules 833:Gene transcription 814: 803: 767:filaments (called 738: 513:bound together by 481: 148: 125: 123:undergoing mitosis 109: 93: 35: 6457: 6456: 6453: 6452: 6405:Restriction point 5876:978-0-13-081923-9 5837:Cooper G (2000). 5829:978-0-8053-6624-2 5778:978-0-9539181-2-6 5419:10.1038/srep06213 4548:(7061): 1038–42. 4193:10.1159/000342232 3985:978-0-13-436265-6 3826:10.1242/jcs.01536 3516:Olson MO (2011). 3353:Biology of Plants 3163:10.1242/jcs.00029 2797:Sharp LW (1921). 2757:Fokin SI (2013). 2695:978-83-223-1876-8 2630:, Vol. 8, No. 2. 2522:978-81-313-0416-7 2299:Acta Histochemica 2225:978-0-13-423476-2 1834:actomyosin cortex 1740:actomyosin cortex 1652:Diagnostic marker 1594:Endoreduplication 1578:binucleated cells 1506:Open orthomitosis 1246:spindle apparatus 755:stage. In highly 510:sister chromatids 468: 386:in their interior 282:live cell imaging 117:live cell imaging 26: 16:(Redirected from 6487: 6304: 6303: 5974: 5967: 5960: 5951: 5950: 5900: 5898: 5897: 5880: 5864: 5853: 5851: 5850: 5833: 5811: 5809:"The Cell Cycle" 5802: 5800: 5799: 5782: 5754: 5751: 5745: 5744: 5734: 5702: 5696: 5695: 5685: 5662:The EMBO Journal 5653: 5647: 5646: 5636: 5619:(8): 1992–2002. 5613:The EMBO Journal 5604: 5598: 5597: 5583: 5573: 5549: 5543: 5542: 5532: 5500: 5491: 5490: 5454: 5441: 5440: 5430: 5390: 5384: 5383: 5350:(7329): 226–30. 5339: 5330: 5329: 5319: 5287: 5278: 5277: 5267: 5235: 5224: 5223: 5195: 5186: 5185: 5175: 5151: 5145: 5144: 5134: 5110: 5101: 5100: 5067:(7462): 359–62. 5056: 5050: 5049: 5039: 5007: 4998: 4997: 4987: 4955: 4946: 4945: 4917: 4911: 4910: 4892: 4859: 4853: 4852: 4834: 4816: 4807: 4801: 4800: 4798: 4797: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4759: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4675: 4643: 4634: 4633: 4615: 4591: 4582: 4581: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4512: 4501: 4500: 4482: 4454: 4448: 4447: 4419: 4413: 4412: 4372: 4366: 4365: 4355: 4331: 4325: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4290: 4258: 4252: 4251: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4221: 4215: 4214: 4204: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4157: 4151: 4150: 4140: 4116: 4107: 4106: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4038:(5716): 1735–9. 4027: 4021: 4020: 4018: 4016: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3973: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3954: 3953: 3947: 3932: 3906: 3897: 3888: 3887: 3867: 3861: 3860: 3858: 3857: 3851: 3828: 3810: 3801: 3792: 3791: 3781: 3749: 3740: 3739: 3703: 3697: 3696: 3668: 3659: 3658: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3587: 3581: 3580: 3562: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3513: 3507: 3506: 3478: 3472: 3471: 3461: 3451: 3427: 3421: 3420: 3410: 3378: 3372: 3371: 3356: 3346: 3337: 3336: 3300: 3291: 3290: 3280: 3255:(4): 1519–1533. 3240: 3234: 3233: 3201: 3195: 3194: 3182: 3176: 3175: 3165: 3141: 3135: 3134: 3124: 3092: 3083: 3082: 3078:The Human Genome 3072: 3066: 3065: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3023: 3017: 3016: 3001:. Rome: 81–117. 2982: 2976: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2962:. Archived from 2951: 2945: 2944: 2939:. Archived from 2908: 2902: 2901: 2899: 2884: 2875: 2869: 2849: 2848: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2833: 2832: 2811: 2805: 2804: 2794: 2788: 2787: 2785: 2784: 2778: 2763: 2754: 2748: 2730: 2724: 2706: 2700: 2699: 2681: 2675: 2674: 2672: 2657: 2647: 2641: 2624: 2618: 2607: 2601: 2598:full text online 2595: 2586:"Mohl, Hugo von" 2581: 2575: 2574: 2560: 2554: 2536: 2527: 2526: 2506: 2500: 2499: 2489: 2457: 2451: 2450: 2440: 2408: 2402: 2401: 2381: 2368: 2367: 2331: 2325: 2324: 2314: 2290: 2281: 2280: 2270: 2260: 2251:(12): e3000553. 2236: 2230: 2229: 2213: 2203: 2197: 2196: 2194: 2193: 2174: 2168: 2167: 2165: 2164: 2150: 2144: 2143: 2141: 2140: 2131:. Archived from 2120: 2114: 2113: 2111: 2110: 2091: 2024: 2009: 1994: 1979: 1964: 1816:(ROCK)-mediated 1705:chromatin bridge 1700: 1677:lag-type mitosis 1336: 1322: 1308: 1294: 1278: 1262: 1242:nuclear envelope 1236:Forms of mitosis 1142:contractile ring 899:nuclear envelope 854:surrounded by a 827:light microscope 777:flowering plants 769:preprophase band 571: 528:nuclear envelope 517:proteins at the 469: 422:Walther Flemming 321:nuclear envelope 313:eukaryotic cells 187: 186: 183: 182: 179: 176: 173: 170: 167: 164: 161: 21: 6495: 6494: 6490: 6489: 6488: 6486: 6485: 6484: 6480:1835 in science 6460: 6459: 6458: 6449: 6439: 6419: 6391: 6338: 6333: 6319: 6299: 6293: 6237: 6209: 6152: 6059: 5986: 5978: 5908: 5903: 5895: 5893: 5877: 5848: 5846: 5830: 5797: 5795: 5779: 5762: 5760:Further reading 5757: 5752: 5748: 5703: 5699: 5654: 5650: 5605: 5601: 5550: 5546: 5501: 5494: 5471:10.1038/ncb3098 5455: 5444: 5391: 5387: 5340: 5333: 5288: 5281: 5236: 5227: 5196: 5189: 5152: 5148: 5111: 5104: 5057: 5053: 5028:10.1038/Ncb2163 5008: 5001: 4964:Current Biology 4956: 4949: 4918: 4914: 4860: 4856: 4814: 4808: 4804: 4795: 4793: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4750:(10): 3711–23. 4736: 4732: 4693: 4689: 4658:(21): 2461–77. 4644: 4637: 4592: 4585: 4538: 4534: 4527: 4513: 4504: 4471:10.1038/nrm4025 4455: 4451: 4420: 4416: 4373: 4369: 4346:(12): 1921–30. 4332: 4328: 4322:Wayback Machine 4308: 4304: 4259: 4255: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4222: 4218: 4173: 4169: 4158: 4154: 4131:(17): 2765–75. 4117: 4110: 4079: 4075: 4028: 4024: 4014: 4012: 3997: 3993: 3986: 3964: 3960: 3951: 3949: 3945: 3909:Current Biology 3904: 3898: 3891: 3868: 3864: 3855: 3853: 3849: 3808: 3802: 3795: 3750: 3743: 3720:10.1038/nrm2310 3704: 3700: 3669: 3662: 3623: 3619: 3588: 3584: 3539: 3535: 3528: 3514: 3510: 3479: 3475: 3428: 3424: 3379: 3375: 3368: 3347: 3340: 3317:10.1038/nrm1831 3301: 3294: 3241: 3237: 3202: 3198: 3183: 3179: 3142: 3138: 3107:(11): 1028–34. 3093: 3086: 3073: 3069: 3054: 3050: 3040: 3024: 3020: 2983: 2979: 2969: 2967: 2952: 2948: 2909: 2905: 2897: 2882: 2876: 2872: 2867:Perseus Project 2843: 2839: 2830: 2828: 2813: 2812: 2808: 2795: 2791: 2782: 2780: 2776: 2761: 2755: 2751: 2745:Wayback Machine 2731: 2727: 2721:Wayback Machine 2707: 2703: 2696: 2682: 2678: 2670: 2655: 2648: 2644: 2639:Wayback Machine 2625: 2621: 2608: 2604: 2582: 2578: 2561: 2557: 2551:Wayback Machine 2537: 2530: 2523: 2507: 2503: 2458: 2454: 2417:Eukaryotic Cell 2409: 2405: 2382: 2371: 2348:10.1038/nrc1714 2332: 2328: 2291: 2284: 2237: 2233: 2226: 2204: 2200: 2191: 2189: 2176: 2175: 2171: 2162: 2160: 2152: 2151: 2147: 2138: 2136: 2121: 2117: 2108: 2106: 2093: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2079: 2045: 2040: 2039: 2038: 2035: 2025: 2016: 2010: 2001: 1995: 1986: 1980: 1971: 1965: 1935: 1891: 1842: 1812:nucleation and 1766:mitotic spindle 1754: 1720: 1715: 1708: 1701: 1689:Cervical cancer 1654: 1617: 1528: 1447:is found among 1381:Prasinomonadida 1342: 1340: 1337: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1286: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1270: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1251:central spindle 1238: 1233: 1201:red blood cells 1177: 1146:Golgi apparatus 1138:cleavage furrow 1127:cleavage furrow 1104: 1098: 1070: 1064: 1024: 1018: 1002:metaphase plate 986: 976:metaphase plate 970:A cell in late 964: 951:molecular motor 891: 885: 870:to help form a 838: 819: 795: 789: 749: 743: 723: 707:DNA replication 677: 662:) or when they 655: 637: 633: 623: 611: 600: 594: 589: 588: 587: 577: 572: 503:of interphase. 459: 457: 452: 446: 434:August Weismann 361: 214:DNA replication 158: 154: 145: 143: 141: 139: 79: 60: 55: 54: 53: 52: 51: 50: 34: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6493: 6483: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6455: 6454: 6451: 6450: 6448: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6433: 6427: 6425: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6401: 6399: 6393: 6392: 6390: 6389: 6384: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6363: 6358: 6348: 6346: 6340: 6339: 6337: 6336: 6331: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6310: 6301: 6295: 6294: 6292: 6291: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6245: 6243: 6239: 6238: 6236: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6219: 6217: 6211: 6210: 6208: 6207: 6189: 6162: 6160: 6154: 6153: 6151: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6069: 6067: 6061: 6060: 6058: 6057: 6043: 6025: 6011: 5996: 5994: 5988: 5987: 5977: 5976: 5969: 5962: 5954: 5948: 5947: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5907: 5906:External links 5904: 5902: 5901: 5881: 5875: 5854: 5834: 5828: 5803: 5783: 5777: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5755: 5746: 5697: 5668:(2): 598–608. 5648: 5599: 5544: 5515:(2): 387–402. 5492: 5442: 5405:(6213): 6213. 5385: 5331: 5279: 5225: 5187: 5146: 5102: 5051: 4999: 4947: 4928:(2): 377–405. 4912: 4875:(2): 211–226. 4854: 4825:(2): 214–226. 4802: 4771: 4730: 4703:(6): 1174–82. 4687: 4635: 4606:(3): 297–306. 4583: 4532: 4525: 4502: 4449: 4414: 4367: 4326: 4302: 4253: 4235: 4216: 4187:(5): 302–307. 4167: 4152: 4108: 4073: 4022: 3991: 3984: 3958: 3889: 3862: 3793: 3764:(6): 1601–15. 3741: 3698: 3679:(11): 589–98. 3660: 3617: 3582: 3553:(7): 1375–86. 3533: 3526: 3508: 3473: 3422: 3393:(3): 1043–57. 3373: 3367:978-0716710073 3366: 3338: 3292: 3235: 3196: 3191:Biology Online 3177: 3136: 3084: 3067: 3048: 3038: 3018: 2977: 2956:"Karyokinesis" 2946: 2943:on 2018-08-11. 2903: 2900:on 2016-03-04. 2870: 2837: 2806: 2789: 2749: 2725: 2701: 2694: 2676: 2666:(3): 405–407. 2642: 2619: 2602: 2576: 2555: 2528: 2521: 2501: 2452: 2403: 2369: 2342:(10): 773–85. 2326: 2282: 2231: 2224: 2198: 2182:www.nature.com 2169: 2145: 2115: 2099:britannica.com 2085: 2083: 2080: 2078: 2077: 2072: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2037: 2036: 2026: 2019: 2017: 2011: 2004: 2002: 1996: 1989: 1987: 1981: 1974: 1972: 1968:Early prophase 1966: 1959: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1934: 1931: 1890: 1887: 1841: 1838: 1750:Main article: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1709: 1702: 1695: 1669:histopathology 1653: 1650: 1644:cells called 1642:multinucleated 1624:megakaryocytes 1615: 1561:nondisjunction 1527: 1524: 1523: 1522: 1509:is typical in 1502: 1480: 1468: 1459:, unicellular 1440: 1437:Dinoflagellata 1433:Trichomonadida 1424: 1395:, many fungi ( 1385:Kinetoplastida 1375:is typical of 1344: 1343: 1338: 1331: 1329: 1324: 1317: 1315: 1310: 1303: 1301: 1296: 1289: 1287: 1280: 1273: 1271: 1264: 1257: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1227: 1211: 1204: 1196: 1176: 1173: 1100:Main article: 1097: 1094: 1079:during mitosis 1066:Main article: 1063: 1060: 1033:during mitosis 1020:Main article: 1017: 1014: 995:during mitosis 982:Main article: 963: 960: 923:closed mitosis 895:nuclear lamins 887:Main article: 884: 881: 876:Motor proteins 836: 817: 812:during mitosis 791:Main article: 788: 785: 745:Main article: 742: 739: 722: 719: 675: 653: 635: 631: 621: 609: 596:Main article: 593: 590: 574: 573: 566: 565: 564: 456: 453: 448:Main article: 445: 442: 360: 357: 353:binary fission 277:spindle fibers 212:(during which 58: 47:26 August 2024 36: 30: 27: 25: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6492: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6422: 6416: 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4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4418: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4371: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4330: 4323: 4319: 4316: 4312: 4306: 4298: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4249: 4245: 4239: 4231: 4227: 4220: 4212: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4171: 4163: 4156: 4148: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4115: 4113: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4089:(2): 92–101. 4088: 4084: 4077: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4026: 4010: 4006: 4005:Science Daily 4002: 3995: 3987: 3981: 3977: 3972: 3971: 3962: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3915:(5): 437–44. 3914: 3910: 3903: 3896: 3894: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3866: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3807: 3800: 3798: 3789: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3748: 3746: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3702: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3667: 3665: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3633:(3): 157–72. 3632: 3628: 3621: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3586: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3537: 3529: 3527:9781461405146 3523: 3519: 3518:The Nucleolus 3512: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3426: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3377: 3369: 3363: 3360: 3355: 3354: 3345: 3343: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3311:(2): 147–52. 3310: 3306: 3299: 3297: 3288: 3284: 3279: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3239: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3200: 3192: 3188: 3181: 3173: 3169: 3164: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3140: 3132: 3128: 3123: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3091: 3089: 3081:. Wiley-Liss. 3080: 3079: 3071: 3063: 3059: 3052: 3045: 3041: 3039:9780030302220 3035: 3031: 3030: 3022: 3015: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2981: 2966:on 2018-05-03 2965: 2961: 2957: 2950: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2907: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2881: 2874: 2868: 2864: 2863: 2858: 2857:Scott, Robert 2854: 2850: 2841: 2826: 2822: 2821: 2816: 2810: 2802: 2801: 2793: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2753: 2746: 2742: 2739: 2736:10, 213-452. 2735: 2729: 2722: 2718: 2715: 2711: 2705: 2697: 2691: 2687: 2680: 2669: 2665: 2662:(in Polish). 2661: 2653: 2646: 2640: 2636: 2633: 2629: 2623: 2616: 2612: 2606: 2599: 2593: 2592: 2587: 2580: 2572: 2568: 2567: 2559: 2552: 2548: 2545: 2541: 2535: 2533: 2524: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2509:Patil, C. s. 2505: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2456: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2423:(9): 1521–7. 2422: 2418: 2414: 2407: 2399: 2395: 2392:(3): 253–69. 2391: 2387: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2330: 2322: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2305:(1): 111–25. 2304: 2300: 2296: 2289: 2287: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2264: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2235: 2227: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2211: 2202: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2173: 2159: 2155: 2149: 2135:on 2012-10-27 2134: 2130: 2126: 2119: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2090: 2086: 2076: 2073: 2071: 2068: 2066: 2063: 2061: 2060:DREAM complex 2058: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2048: 2047: 2033: 2029: 2023: 2018: 2014: 2008: 2003: 1999: 1993: 1988: 1984: 1978: 1973: 1969: 1963: 1958: 1957: 1953: 1951: 1947: 1944: 1940: 1930: 1928: 1924: 1919: 1917: 1912: 1903: 1895: 1886: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1862:recombination 1860:primarily by 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1773:. Therefore, 1772: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1753: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1724: 1718:Cell rounding 1706: 1699: 1694: 1693: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1663: 1662:breast cancer 1658: 1649: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1633: 1632: 1627: 1625: 1621: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1595: 1590: 1587: 1586: 1581: 1579: 1575: 1574: 1569: 1568: 1563: 1562: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1537: 1536:H&E stain 1532: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1507: 1503: 1500: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1485: 1481: 1478: 1474: 1473: 1469: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1457:Microsporidia 1454: 1450: 1446: 1445: 1441: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1429: 1425: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1393:Haplosporidia 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1373: 1369: 1368: 1367: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1335: 1330: 1321: 1316: 1313:pleuromitosis 1307: 1302: 1293: 1288: 1285:pleuromitosis 1283:extranuclear 1277: 1272: 1269:pleuromitosis 1267:intranuclear 1261: 1256: 1255: 1254: 1252: 1247: 1243: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1209: 1205: 1202: 1197: 1194: 1193:multicellular 1190: 1186: 1185: 1184: 1181: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1157: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1108: 1103: 1093: 1090: 1086: 1078: 1074: 1069: 1059: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1044: 1040: 1032: 1028: 1023: 1013: 1010: 1009: 1003: 994: 990: 985: 977: 973: 968: 959: 956: 952: 947: 943: 942:proteinaceous 939: 935: 931: 926: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 890: 880: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 844: 842: 834: 830: 828: 824: 811: 807: 799: 794: 784: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 748: 736: 732: 727: 718: 714: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 679: 673: 669: 665: 664:differentiate 661: 657: 649: 645: 641: 629: 625: 617: 616:S (synthesis) 613: 605: 599: 585: 581: 576: 570: 563: 561: 557: 553: 549: 544: 542: 537: 533: 529: 524: 522: 521: 516: 512: 511: 506: 502: 498: 494: 491:that contain 490: 486: 479: 476: 475: 451: 441: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 418: 416: 412: 411:Otto Bütschli 407: 405: 404:Wacław Mayzel 402: 398: 393: 391: 387: 383: 379: 378: 374: 370: 369:Hugo von Mohl 366: 365:cell division 356: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 309: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 285: 283: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 249: 247: 243: 242:mitotic phase 239: 235: 234:cell membrane 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 202:Cell division 199: 195: 191: 185: 152: 137: 133: 129: 122: 118: 113: 106: 102: 97: 90: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 48: 44: 40: 33: 28: 19: 6366:Prometaphase 6351: 5944: 5941:Cell Lineage 5938: 5894:. Retrieved 5889: 5860: 5847:. Retrieved 5842: 5814: 5796:. Retrieved 5791: 5768: 5749: 5714: 5710: 5700: 5665: 5661: 5651: 5616: 5612: 5602: 5593: 5561: 5557: 5547: 5512: 5508: 5462: 5458: 5402: 5398: 5388: 5347: 5343: 5299: 5295: 5247: 5243: 5203: 5199: 5163: 5159: 5149: 5122: 5118: 5064: 5060: 5054: 5019: 5015: 4967: 4963: 4925: 4921: 4915: 4872: 4868: 4857: 4822: 4818: 4805: 4794:. Retrieved 4783: 4774: 4747: 4743: 4733: 4700: 4696: 4690: 4655: 4651: 4603: 4599: 4545: 4541: 4535: 4516: 4462: 4458: 4452: 4430:(2): 120–5. 4427: 4423: 4417: 4387:(1): 83–90. 4384: 4380: 4370: 4343: 4339: 4329: 4310: 4305: 4273:(3): 160–5. 4270: 4266: 4256: 4247: 4238: 4229: 4219: 4184: 4180: 4170: 4161: 4155: 4128: 4124: 4086: 4082: 4076: 4035: 4031: 4025: 4013:. Retrieved 4004: 3994: 3969: 3961: 3950:. Retrieved 3912: 3908: 3875: 3871: 3865: 3854:. Retrieved 3816: 3812: 3761: 3757: 3714:(1): 33–46. 3711: 3707: 3701: 3676: 3672: 3630: 3626: 3620: 3595: 3591: 3585: 3550: 3546: 3536: 3517: 3511: 3489:(2): 260–8. 3486: 3482: 3476: 3439: 3435: 3425: 3390: 3386: 3376: 3352: 3308: 3304: 3252: 3248: 3238: 3205: 3199: 3190: 3180: 3153: 3149: 3139: 3104: 3101:EMBO Reports 3100: 3077: 3070: 3061: 3051: 3043: 3028: 3021: 3013:Kernsegmente 3012: 3008: 3004: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2980: 2968:. Retrieved 2964:the original 2959: 2949: 2941:the original 2920: 2916: 2906: 2895:the original 2890: 2886: 2873: 2860: 2840: 2829:. Retrieved 2818: 2809: 2799: 2792: 2781:. Retrieved 2772:(1): 22–35. 2769: 2766:Protistology 2765: 2752: 2733: 2728: 2709: 2704: 2685: 2679: 2663: 2659: 2645: 2627: 2622: 2610: 2605: 2596:; ( 2589: 2579: 2570: 2565: 2558: 2539: 2512:Cell Biology 2511: 2504: 2472:(3): 160–5. 2469: 2465: 2455: 2420: 2416: 2406: 2389: 2385: 2339: 2335: 2329: 2302: 2298: 2248: 2245:PLOS Biology 2244: 2234: 2209: 2201: 2190:. Retrieved 2181: 2172: 2161:. Retrieved 2157: 2148: 2137:. Retrieved 2133:the original 2128: 2118: 2107:. Retrieved 2098: 2089: 2055:Cytoskeleton 2027: 2012: 1997: 1982: 1967: 1936: 1920: 1908: 1843: 1779: 1755: 1744:microtubules 1676: 1666: 1637: 1636: 1629: 1628: 1592: 1591: 1589:chromosome. 1585:Anaphase lag 1583: 1582: 1571: 1565: 1559: 1557: 1541: 1505: 1504: 1496: 1493:Raphidophyta 1483: 1482: 1471: 1470: 1443: 1442: 1427: 1426: 1411:), and some 1377:Foraminifera 1371: 1370: 1345: 1341:orthomitosis 1327:orthomitosis 1299:orthomitosis 1239: 1182: 1178: 1158: 1150:phragmoplast 1132: 1088: 1082: 1047: 1038: 1036: 1006: 998: 945: 937: 934:kinetochores 929: 927: 922: 919:trichomonads 907:open mitosis 906: 892: 889:Prometaphase 883:Prometaphase 860:microtubules 845: 831: 815: 750: 715: 680: 624:(second gap) 601: 548:animal cells 545: 540: 536:Microtubules 525: 518: 508: 482: 472: 429: 428:word μίτος ( 419: 408: 394: 392:and others. 390:Robert Remak 385: 375: 362: 325:fungal cells 310: 286: 261:prometaphase 250: 241: 150: 149: 105:cell nucleus 80: 46: 37:This is the 31: 6387:Cytokinesis 6356:Preprophase 6300:checkpoints 5717:(1): 3–12. 2960:BioConcepts 2954:Toepfer G. 2923:: 248–300. 2712:36, 1-144. 1943:fluorescent 1858:DNA damages 1790:cell cortex 1771:chromosomes 1736:cytokinesis 1728:animal cell 1640:originates 1622:-producing 1611:Endomitosis 1607:development 1519:land plants 1477:Apicomplexa 1417:Spumellaria 1409:ascomycetes 1405:zygomycetes 1389:Oxymonadida 1360:supergroups 1350:domain, as 1165:slime molds 1134:Cytokinesis 1125:, with the 1123:cytokinesis 1121:undergoing 1102:Cytokinesis 1096:Cytokinesis 1052:chromosomes 938:kinetochore 897:causes the 848:centrosomes 839:phase. The 761:phragmosome 753:preprophase 747:Preprophase 731:micrographs 612:(first gap) 584:cytokinesis 578:Diagram of 556:plant cells 401:histologist 373:green algae 349:Prokaryotes 253:preprophase 222:cytokinesis 194:chromosomes 115:Label-free 101:chromosomes 6475:Cell cycle 6464:Categories 6308:Interphase 6298:Phases and 5981:Cell cycle 5945:C. elegans 5939:C. elegans 5896:2006-01-22 5849:2006-01-22 5798:2006-01-22 5206:: 109–15. 4796:2019-10-02 3952:2019-09-17 3856:2018-04-20 2887:Caryologia 2831:2019-11-12 2783:2014-08-06 2192:2015-11-16 2163:2020-11-24 2139:2019-11-12 2109:2018-11-04 2082:References 2032:cell cycle 1946:antibodies 1941:them with 1854:cell cycle 1814:Rho kinase 1808:-mediated 1798:interphase 1646:coenocytes 1513:and other 1431:occurs in 1421:Acantharia 1413:Radiolaria 1348:eukaryotic 1231:Variations 1226:in plants. 1154:phycoplast 1048:anaphase B 1039:anaphase A 913:, such as 852:centrioles 781:centrioles 757:vacuolated 735:chromatids 604:cell cycle 598:Interphase 592:Interphase 580:interphase 560:cell plate 520:centromere 450:Cell cycle 438:meiosis II 230:organelles 210:interphase 190:cell cycle 136:cell cycle 89:cell cycle 6431:Apoptosis 6381:Telophase 6371:Metaphase 6166:INK4a/ARF 5788:"Mitosis" 4907:245567911 4849:208767801 4497:205495880 4401:0959-437X 4226:"Archaea" 4015:4 October 3878:: 431–9. 3598:: 37–51. 3269:0021-9525 3206:Mutat Res 3187:"Mitosis" 2987:Polygonum 2937:163374324 2815:"mitosis" 2125:"Mitosis" 2028:Telophase 1998:Metaphase 1921:While in 1889:Evolution 1878:Mutations 1818:myosin II 1762:epidermis 1758:epithelia 1687:-related 1681:chromatin 1599:polyploid 1549:aneuploid 1544:embryonic 1517:, and in 1401:oomycetes 1325:semiopen 1311:semiopen 1169:fruit fly 1077:Telophase 1068:Telophase 1062:Telophase 993:Metaphase 984:Metaphase 972:metaphase 962:Metaphase 841:nucleolus 823:chromatin 532:nucleolus 415:nematodes 406:in 1875. 359:Discovery 302:mutations 298:apoptosis 273:telophase 265:metaphase 226:cytoplasm 218:telophase 6376:Anaphase 6361:Prophase 5984:proteins 5741:19139151 5711:Genetics 5590:28512217 5509:Genetics 5479:25621953 5437:25169063 5372:21196934 5326:22898780 5274:12538643 5220:24607328 5182:23623611 5141:24780736 5089:23873041 5046:21336301 4994:21376598 4942:84960254 4899:34965805 4841:31808382 4790:Archived 4725:24325966 4717:12871316 4682:19884253 4630:14368177 4622:11348589 4570:16222248 4489:26204159 4444:15196457 4409:11163156 4362:22771499 4318:Archived 4297:23644379 4211:23801920 4147:15838513 4125:Oncogene 4103:15695096 4068:34537906 4060:15774750 4009:Archived 3943:Archived 3939:22342753 3884:14593737 3847:Archived 3843:13939431 3835:15509863 3736:34121605 3728:18097444 3693:16214339 3655:29081466 3647:12206655 3569:16814722 3503:14488623 3468:23547918 3442:(1): 6. 3417:12631722 3325:16493420 3230:28781144 3172:12186941 3131:16264427 2825:Archived 2774:Archived 2741:Archived 2717:Archived 2668:Archived 2635:Archived 2547:Archived 2496:23644379 2447:17660363 2356:16195750 2321:25554607 2277:31856161 2186:Archived 2103:Archived 2043:See also 2013:Anaphase 1939:staining 1925:, after 1911:homologs 1870:G2 phase 1864:between 1850:G1 phase 1631:Amitosis 1620:Platelet 1573:monosomy 1453:ciliates 1397:chytrids 1364:Excavata 1352:bacteria 1208:starfish 1175:Function 1043:cohesins 1031:Anaphase 1022:Anaphase 1016:Anaphase 911:protists 903:vesicles 810:Prophase 793:Prophase 787:Prophase 711:homologs 683:repaired 674:. 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