Insect morphology - Knowledge

1936:

vannal fold is posterior to the postcubitus, but proximally it crosses the base of the first vannal vein. In the cicada, the vannal fold lies immediately behind the first vannal vein (lV). These small variations in the actual position of the vannal fold, however, do not affect the unity of action of the vannal veins, controlled by the flexor sclerite (3Ax), in the flexion of the wing. In the hindwings of most Orthoptera, a secondary vena dividens forms a rib in the vannal fold. The vannus is usually triangular in shape, and its veins typically spread out from the third axillary like the ribs of a fan. Some of the vannal veins may be branched, and secondary veins may alternate with the primary veins. The vannal region is usually best developed in the hindwing, in which it may be enlarged to form a sustaining surface, as in Plecoptera and Orthoptera. The great fan-like expansions of the hindwings of Acrididae are clearly the vannal regions, since their veins are all supported on the third axillary sclerites on the wing bases, though Martynov (1925) ascribes most of the fan areas in Acrididae to the jugal regions of the wings. The true jugum of the acridid wing is represented only by the small membrane (Ju) mesad of the last vannal vein. The jugum is more highly developed in some other Orthoptera, as in the Mantidae. In most of the higher insects with narrow wings, the vannus becomes reduced, and the vannal fold is lost, but even in such cases, the flexed wing may bend along a line between the postcubitus and the first vannal vein.

1817:

more generalized insects, the postcubitus is always associated proximally with the cubitus and is never intimately connected with the flexor sclerite (3Ax) of the wing base. In Neuroptera, Mecoptera, and Trichoptera, the postcubitus may be more closely associated with the vannal veins, but its base is always free from the latter. The postcubitus is usually unbranched; primitively, it is two-branched. The vannal veins (lV to nV) are the anal veins immediately associated with the third axillary, and are directly affected by the movement of this sclerite that brings about the flexion of the wings. In number, the vannal veins vary from one to 12, according to the expansion of the vannal area of the wing. The vannal tracheae usually arise from a common tracheal stem in nymphal insects, and the veins are regarded as branches of a single anal vein. Distally, the vannal veins are either simple or branched. The jugal vein (J) of the jugal lobe of the wing is often occupied by a network of irregular veins, or it may be entirely membranous; sometimes it contains one or two distinct, small veins, the first jugal vein, or vena arcuata, and the second jugal vein, or vena cardinalis (2J).

2122:

the basicosta. The coxa is attached to the body by an articular membrane, the coxal corium, which surrounds its base. These two articulations are perhaps the primary dorsal and ventral articular points of the subcoxo-coxal hinge. In addition, the insect coxa has often an anterior articulation with the anterior, ventral end of the trochantin, but the trochantinal articulation does not coexist with a sternal articulation. The pleural articular surface of the coxa is borne on a mesal inflection of the coxal wall. If the coxa is movable on the pleural articulation alone, the coxal articular surface is usually inflected to a sufficient depth to give leverage to the abductor muscles inserted on the outer rim of the coxal base. Distally the coxa bears an anterior and a posterior articulation with the trochanter. The outer wall of the coxa is often marked by a suture extending from the base to the anterior trochanteral articulation. In some insects, the coxal suture falls in line with the pleural suture. In such cases, the coxa appears to be divided into two parts corresponding to the episternum and epimeron of the pleuron. The coxal suture is absent in many insects.

2063:

are normally radial to the base of the wing, allowing adjacent sections of a wing to be folded over or under each other. The commonest fold line is the jugal fold, situated just behind the third anal vein, although, most Neoptera have a jugal fold just behind vein 3A on the forewings. It is sometimes also present on the hindwings. Where the anal area of the hindwing is large, as in Orthoptera and Blattodea, the whole of this part may be folded under the anterior part of the wing along a vannal fold a little posterior to the claval furrow. In addition, in Orthoptera and Blattodea, the anal area is folded like a fan along the veins, the anal veins being convex, at the crests of the folds, and the accessory veins concave. Whereas the claval furrow and jugal fold are probably homologous in different species, the vannal fold varies in position in different taxa. Folding is produced by a muscle arising on the pleuron and inserted into the third axillary sclerite in such a way that when it contracts, the sclerite pivots about its points of articulation with the posterior notal process and the second axillary sclerite.

1964:

articular membrane contain several small articular sclerites, collectively known as the pteralia. The pteralia include an anterior humeral plate at the base of the costal vein, a group of axillaries (Ax) associated with the subcostal, radial, and vannal veins, and two less definite median plates (m, m') at the base of the mediocubital area. The axillaries are specifically developed only in wing-flexing insects, where they constitute the flexor mechanism of the wing operated by the flexor muscle arising on the pleuron. Characteristic of the wing base is also a small lobe on the anterior margin of the articular area proximal to the humeral plate, which, in the forewing of some insects, is developed into a large, flat, scale-like flap, the tegula, overlapping the base of the wing. Posteriorly, the articular membrane often forms an ample lobe between the wing and the body, and its margin is generally thickened and corrugated, giving the appearance of a ligament, the so-called axillary cord, continuous mesally with the posterior marginal scutellar fold of the tergal plate bearing the wing.

2126:

meron. The meron may be greatly enlarged by an extension distally in the posterior wall of the coxa; in the Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera, and Lepidoptera, the meron is so large that the coxa appears to be divided into an anterior piece, the so-called "coxa genuina," and the meron, but the meron never includes the region of the posterior trochanteral articulation, and the groove delimiting it is always a part of the basicostal suture. A coxa with an enlarged meron has an appearance similar to one divided by a coxal suture falling in line with the pleural suture, but the two conditions are fundamentally quite different and should not be confused. The meron reaches the extreme of its departure from the usual condition in the Diptera. In some of the more generalized flies, as in the Tipulidae, the meron of the middle leg appears as a large lobe of the coxa projecting upward and posteriorly from the coxal base; in higher members of the order, it becomes completely separated from the coxa and forms a plate of the lateral wall of the mesothorax.

1813:

insects, the media anterior has been lost, and the usual "media" is the four-branched media posterior with the common basal stem. In the Ephemerida, according to present interpretations of the wing venation, both branches of the media are retained, while in Odonata, the persisting media is the primitive anterior branch. The stem of the media is often united with the radius, but when it occurs as a distinct vein, its base is associated with the distal median plate (m') or is continuously sclerotized with the latter. The cubitus, the sixth vein of the wing, is primarily two-branched. The primary forking takes place near the base of the wing, forming the two principal branches (Cu1, Cu2). The anterior branch may break up into several secondary branches, but commonly it forks into two distal branches. The second branch of the cubitus (Cu2) in Hymenoptera, Trichoptera, and Lepidoptera, was mistaken by Comstock and Needham for the first anal. Proximally, the main stem of the cubitus is associated with the distal median plate (m') of the wing base.

1859:

branches. The concave vein will fork into two concave veins (with the interpolated vein being convex) and the regular alteration of the veins is preserved. The veins of the wing appear to fall into an undulating pattern according to whether they tend to fold up or down when the wing is relaxed. The basal shafts of the veins are convex, but each vein forks distally into an anterior convex branch and a posterior concave branch. Thus, the costa and subcosta are regarded as convex and concave branches of a primary first vein, Rs is the concave branch of the radius, posterior media is the concave branch of the media, Cu1 and Cu2 are respectively convex and concave, while the primitive postcubitus and the first vannal have each an anterior convex branch and a posterior concave branch. The convex or concave nature of the veins has been used as evidence in determining the identities of the persisting distal branches of the veins of modern insects, but it has not been demonstrated to be consistent for all wings.

1160:. The labrum is raised away from the mandibles by two muscles arising in the head and inserted medially into the anterior margin of the labrum. It is closed against the mandibles in part by two muscles arising in the head and inserted on the posterior lateral margins on two small sclerites, the tormae, and, at least in some insects, by a resilin spring in the cuticle at the junction of the labrum with the clypeus. Until recently, the labrum generally was considered to be associated with the first head segment. However, recent studies of the embryology, gene expression, and nerve supply to the labrum show it is innervated by the tritocerebrum of the brain, which is the fused ganglia of the third head segment. This is formed from the fusion of parts of a pair of ancestral appendages found on the third head segment, showing their relationship. Its ventral, or inner, surface is usually membranous and forms the lobe-like epipharynx, which bears mechanosensilla and chemosensilla. 2155:

larvae it preserves the primitive form of a simple segment. The subsegments of the adult insect tarsus are usually freely movable on one another by inflected connecting membranes, but the tarsus never has intrinsic muscles. The tarsus of adult pterygote insects having fewer than five subsegments is probably specialized by the loss of one or more subsegments or by a fusion of adjoining subsegments. In the tarsi of Acrididae, the long basal piece is composed of three united tarsomeres, leaving the fourth and the fifth. The basal tarsomere is sometimes conspicuously enlarged and is distinguished as the basitarsus. On the under surfaces of the tarsal subsegments in certain Orthoptera, there are small pads, the tarsal pulvilli, or euplantulae. The tarsus is occasionally fused with the tibia in larval insects, forming a tibiotarsal segment; in some cases, it appears to be eliminated or reduced to a rudiment between the tibia and the pretarsus.

2027:

end of the second axillary, and posteriorly (b) with the posterior wing process of the tergum (PNP), or with a small fourth axillary when the latter is present. Distally, the third axillary is prolonged in a process always associated with the bases of the group of veins in the anal region of the wing, here termed the vannal veins (V). The third axillary, therefore, is usually the posterior hinge plate of the wing base and is the active sclerite of the flexor mechanism, which directly manipulates the vannal veins. The contraction of the flexor muscle (D) revolves the third axillary on its mesal articulations (b, f), and thereby lifts its distal arm; this movement produces the flexion of the wing. The fourth axillary sclerite is not a constant element of the wing base. When present, it is usually a small plate intervening between the third axillary and the posterior notal wing process and is probably a detached piece of the latter.

706:. The occipital suture is well-founded in species of Orthoptera, but not so much in other orders. Where found, the occipital suture is the arched, horseshoe-shaped groove on the back of the head ending at the posterior of each mandible. The postoccipital suture is a landmark on the posterior surface of the head, and is typically near the occipital foremen. In pterygotes, the postocciput forms the extreme posterior, often U-shaped, which forms the rim of the head extending to the postoccipital suture. In pterygotes, such as those of Orthoptera, the occipital foramen and the mouth are not separated. The three types of occipital closures, or points under the occipital foramen that separate the two lower halves of the postgena, are the hypostomal bridge, the postgenal bridge, and the gula. The hypostomal bridge is usually found in insects with hypognathous orientation. The postgenal bridge is found in the adults of species of higher 1230:

the superlinguae (singular: superlingua). It divides the cavity into a dorsal food pouch, or cibarium, and a ventral salivarium into which the salivary duct opens. It is commonly found fused to the libium. Most of the hypopharynx is membranous, but the adoral face is sclerotized distally, and proximally contains a pair of suspensory sclerites extending upwards to end in the lateral wall of the stomodeum. Muscles arising on the frons are inserted into these sclerites, which distally are hinged to a pair of lingual sclerites. These, in turn, have inserted into them antagonistic pairs of muscles arising on the tentorium and labium. The various muscles serve to swing the hypopharynx forwards and back, and in the cockroach, two more muscles run across the hypopharynx and dilate the salivary orifice and expand the salivarium.

2130:

vertical plane, giving a slight movement of production and reduction at the joint, though only a reductor muscle is present. In the Odonata, both nymphs and adults, there are two trochanteral segments, but they are not movable on each other; the second contains the reductor muscle of the femur. The usual single trochanteral segment of insects, therefore, probably represents the two trochanters of other arthropods fused into one apparent segment since it is not likely that the primary coxotrochanteral hinge has been lost from the leg. In some of the Hymenoptera, a basal subdivision of the femur simulates a second trochanter, but the insertion of the reductor muscle on its base attests that it belongs to the femoral segment, since as shown in the odonate leg, the reductor has its origin in the true second trochanter.

1210:. Both cardo and stipes are loosely joined to the head by a membrane, so they are capable of movement. Distally on the stipes are two lobes, an inner lacinea, and an outer galea, one or both of which may be absent. More laterally on the stipes is a jointed, leglike palp made up of many segments; in Orthoptera, there are five. Anterior and posterior rotator muscles are inserted on the cardo, and ventral adductor muscles arising on the tentorium are inserted on both the cardo and stipes. Arising in the stipes are flexor muscles of the lacinea and galea and another lacineal flexor arises in the cranium, but neither the lacinea nor the galea has an extensor muscle. The palp has levator and depressor muscles arising in the stipes, and each segment of the palp has a single muscle causing flexion of the next segment. 1226:, but with the appendages of the two sides fused by the midline, so they come to form a median plate. The basal part of the labium, equivalent to the maxillary cardines and possibly including a part of the sternum of the labial segment, is called the postmentum. This may be subdivided into a proximal submentum and a distal mentum. Distal to the postmentum, and equivalent to the fused maxillary stipites, is the prementum. The prementum closes the preoral cavity from behind. Terminally, it bears four lobes, two inner glossae, and two outer paraglossae, which are collectively known as the ligula. One or both pairs of lobes may be absent or they may be fused to form a single median process. A palp arises from each side of the prementum, often being three-segmented. 2023:

apex of which (e) is always associated with the base of the subcostal vein (Sc), though it is not united with the latter. The body of the sclerite articulates laterally with the second axillary. The second axillary sclerite (2Ax) is more variable in form than the first axillary, but its mechanical relations are no less definite. It is obliquely hinged to the outer margin of the body of the first axillary, and the radial vein (R) is always flexibly attached to its anterior end (d). The second axillary presents both a dorsal and ventral sclerotization in the wing base; its ventral surface rests upon the fulcral wing process of the pleuron. The second axillary, therefore, is the pivotal sclerite of the wing base, and it specifically manipulates the radial vein.

1809:

with the humeral plate. The trachea of the costal vein is perhaps a branch of the subcostal trachea. Located after the costa is the third vein, the subcosta, which branches into two separate veins: the anterior and posterior. The base of the subcosta is associated with the distal end of the neck of the first axillary. The fourth vein is the radius, which is branched into five separate veins. The radius is generally the strongest vein of the wing. Toward the middle of the wing, it forks into a first undivided branch (R1) and a second branch, called the radial sector (Ra), which subdivides dichotomously into four distal branches (R2, R3, R4, R5). Basally, the radius is flexibly united with the anterior end of the second axillary (2Ax).

1171:, or an indentation hardness of about 30 kg/mm); thus, many termites and beetles have no physical difficulty in boring through foils made from such common metals as copper, lead, tin, and zinc. The cutting edges are typically strengthened by the addition of zinc, manganese, or rarely, iron, in amounts up to about 4% of the dry weight. They are typically the largest mouthparts of chewing insects, being used to masticate (cut, tear, crush, chew) food items. They open outwards (to the sides of the head) and come together medially. In carnivorous, chewing insects, the mandibles can be modified to be more knife-like, whereas in herbivorous chewing insects, they are more typically broad and flat on their opposing faces (e.g., 1620:

phragma) are plate-like apodemes that extend inwards below the antecostal sutures, marking the primary intersegmental folds between segments; phragmata provide attachment for the longitudinal flight muscles. Each alinotum (sometimes confusingly referred to as a "notum") may be traversed by sutures that mark the position of internal strengthening ridges and commonly divide the plate into three areas: the anterior prescutum, the scutum, and the smaller posterior scutellum. The lateral pleural sclerites are believed to be derived from the subcoxal segment of the ancestral insect leg. These sclerites may be separate, as in silverfish, or fused into an almost continuous sclerotic area, as in most winged insects.

1616:, thoracic segment, abutting the abdomen, is the metathorax, which bears the third pair of legs and the posterior wings. Each segment is delineated by an intersegmental suture. Each segment has four basic regions. The dorsal surface is called the tergum (or notum, to distinguish it from the abdominal terga). The two lateral regions are called the pleura (singular: pleuron), and the ventral aspect is called the sternum. In turn, the notum of the prothorax is called the pronotum, the notum for the mesothorax is called the mesonotum and the notum for the metathorax is called the metanotum. Continuing with this logic, there are also the mesopleura and metapleura, as well as the mesosternum and metasternum. 1552: 1381: 1542:), the elongated and fused labial glossae form a hairy tongue, which is surrounded by the maxillary galeae and the labial palps to form a tubular proboscis containing a food canal. In feeding, the tongue is dipped into the nectar or honey, which adheres to the hairs, and then is retracted so the adhering liquid is carried into the space between the galeae and labial palps. This back-and-forth glossal movement occurs repeatedly. Movement of liquid to the mouth results from the action of the cibarial pump, facilitated by each retraction of the tongue pushing liquid up the food canal either for feeding requirements or to have a suitable media for laying their egg. 1644:

hindwing articulates between the metanotum and metapleuron. The legs arise from the mesopleuron and metapleura. The mesothorax and metathorax each have a pleural suture (mesopleural and metapleural sutures) that runs from the wing base to the coxa of the leg. The sclerite anterior to the pleural suture is called the episternum (serially, the mesepisternum and metepisternum). The sclerite posterior to the suture is called the epimiron (serially, the mesepimiron and metepimiron). Spiracles, the external organs of the respiratory system, are found on the pterothorax, usually one between the pro- and mesopleoron, as well as one between the meso- and metapleuron.

492: 2872:

sac. The follicles connect to the vas deferens by the vas efferens, and the two tubular vasa deferentia connect to a median ejaculatory duct that leads to the outside. A portion of the vas deferens is often enlarged to form the seminal vesicle, which stores the sperm before they are discharged into the female. The seminal vesicles have glandular linings that secrete nutrients for nourishment and maintenance of the sperm. The ejaculatory duct is derived from an invagination of the epidermal cells during development and, as a result, has a cuticular lining. The terminal portion of the ejaculatory duct may be sclerotized to form the intromittent organ, the

1715:, hemolymph can flow into the wings. As the wing develops, the dorsal and ventral integumental layers become closely apposed over most of their area, forming the wing membrane. The remaining areas form channels, the future veins, in which the nerves and tracheae may occur. The cuticle surrounding the veins becomes thickened and more heavily sclerotized to provide strength and rigidity to the wing. Hairs of two types may occur on the wings: microtrichia, which are small and irregularly scattered, and macrotrichia, which are larger, socketed, and may be restricted to veins. The scales of Lepidoptera and Trichoptera are highly modified macrotrichia. 2212:. During the embryonic stage of many insects and the postembryonic stage of primitive insects, 11 abdominal segments are present. In modern insects there is a tendency toward reduction in the number of the abdominal segments, but the primitive number of 11 is maintained during embryogenesis. Variation in abdominal segment number is considerable. If the Apterygota are considered to be indicative of the ground plan for pterygotes, confusion reigns: adult Protura have 12 segments, Collembola have 6. The orthopteran family Acrididae has 11 segments, and a fossil specimen of Zoraptera has a 10-segmented abdomen. 1561: 2237: 1367: 1486: 1027: 1249: 607: 1495: 809: 1351: 2031:

separated from each other by an oblique line (bf), which forms a prominent convex fold during flexion of the wing. The proximal plate (m) is usually attached to the distal arm of the third axillary and perhaps should be regarded as a part of the latter. The distal plate (m') is less constantly present as a distinct sclerite and may be represented by a general sclerotization of the base of the mediocubital field of the wing. When the veins of this region are distinct at their bases, they are associated with the outer median plate.

1698: 1276: 1948:

of other insects (A, D); the larger inner squama (d) arises from the posterior scutellar margin of the tergum of the wing-bearing segment and forms a protective, hood-like canopy over the halter. In the flexed wing, the outer squama of the alula is turned upside down above the inner squama, the latter not being affected by the movement of the wing. In many Diptera, a deep incision of the anal area of the wing membrane behind the single vannal vein sets off a proximal alar lobe distal to the outer squama of the alula.

773: 1285: 2067:

Activity of the same muscle in flight affects the power output of the wing and so it is also important in flight control. In orthopteroid insects, the elasticity of the cuticle causes the vannal area of the wing to fold along the veins. Consequently, energy is expended in unfolding this region when the wings are moved to the flight position. In general, wing extension probably results from the contraction of muscles attached to the basilar sclerite or, in some insects, to the subalar sclerite.

955: 920: 909: 599:

the clypeus. Laterally it is limited by the fronto-genal sulcus, if present, and the boundary with the vertex, by the ecdysial cleavage line, if it is visible. If there is a median ocellus, it generally is on the frons, though in some insects such as many Hymenoptera, all three ocelli appear on the vertex. A more formal definition is that it is the sclerite from which the pharyngeal dilator muscles arise, but in many contexts that too, is not helpful. In the anatomy of some taxa, such as many

1957: 966: 944: 931: 1724: 1294: 3082:) carry a bubble of air with them whenever they dive beneath the water surface. This bubble may be held under the elytra, or it may be trapped against the body using specialized hairs. The bubble usually covers one or more spiracles so the insect can breathe air from the bubble while submerged. An air bubble provides an insect with only a short-term supply of oxygen, but thanks to its unique physical properties, oxygen will diffuse into the bubble and displacing the nitrogen, called 761: 898: 876: 865: 33: 999: 988: 977: 887: 2216:

that are serially homologous with the distal part of the thoracic legs. And, mesally, one or two pairs of protrusible (or exsertile) vesicles on at least some abdominal segments. These vesicles are derived from the coxal and trochanteral endites (inner annulated lobes) of the ancestral abdominal appendages. Aquatic larvae and nymphs may have gills laterally on some to most abdominal segments. Of the rest of the abdominal segments consist of the reproductive and anal parts.

1396: 1868: 6087: 2561:(element 30 in numbered diagram) in an insect's mouth produce saliva. The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium, located behind the hypopharynx. By moving its mouthparts (element 32 in numbered diagram) the insect can mix its food with saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like 1477: 6444: 1932:. When the vannal fold has the usual position anterior to the group of anal veins, the remigium contains the costal, subcostal, radial, medial, cubital, and postcubital veins. In the flexed wing, the remigium turns posteriorly on the flexible basal connection of the radius with the second axillary, and the base of the mediocubital field is folded medially on the axillary region along the plica basalis (bf) between the median plates (m, m') of the wing base. 3341:

the opposite direction. This forces the male to lie on its back in order for its genitalia to remain engaged with those of the female, or the torsion of the male genitals allows the male to mate while remaining upright. This leads to flies having more reproduction abilities than most insects and at a much quicker rate. Flies come in great populations due to their ability to mate effectively and in a short period of time especially during the mating season.

3399:) there are two separate places for insemination and oviposition, both occurring on the same sterna as the monotrysian type, 9/10. In most species the genitalia are flanked by two soft lobes, although they may be specialized and sclerotized in some species for ovipositing in area such as crevices and inside plant tissue. Hormones and the glands that produce them run the development of butterflies and moths as they go through their life cycle, called the 1240: 1267: 6454: 1337: 2476: 1570: 1468: 420: 500: 1882:, which flex during flight. Between the flexion and the fold lines, the fundamental distinction is often blurred, as fold lines may permit some flexibility or vice versa. Two constants, found in nearly all insect wings, are the claval (a flexion line) and jugal folds (or fold line), forming variable and unsatisfactory boundaries. Wing folding can be very complicated, with transverse folding occurring in the hindwings of 794:). This can only be countered by increasing lens size and number. To see with a resolution comparable to our simple eyes, humans would require compound eyes that would each reach the size of their heads. Compound eyes fall into two groups: apposition eyes, which form multiple inverted images, and superposition eyes, which form a single erect image. Compound eyes grow at their margins with the addition of new ommatidia. 742:, singular), up to 30,000 in a single compound eye of, for example, large dragonflies. This type of eye gives less resolution than eyes found in vertebrates, but it gives an acute perception of movement and usually possesses UV- and green sensitivity, and may have additional sensitivity peaks in other regions of the visual spectrum. Often an ability to detect the E-vector of polarized light exists in 2082: 2543: 1258: 2585:, increase the surface area of the wall and allow more nutrients to be absorbed; they tend to be close to the origin of the midgut. In some insects, the role of the microvilli and where they are located may vary. For example, specialized microvilli producing digestive enzymes may more likely be near the end of the midgut, and absorption near the origin or beginning of the midgut. 2884:. The base of the aedeagus may be the partially sclerotized phallotheca, also called the phallosoma or theca. In some species the phallotheca contains a space, called the endosoma (internal holding pouch), into which the tip end of the aedeagus may be withdrawn (retracted). The vas deferens is sometimes drawn into (folded into) the phallotheca together with a seminal vesicle. 1855:

specific locations occurs. The more constant cross-veins are the humeral cross-vein (h) between the costa and subcosta, the radial cross-vein (r) between R and the first fork of Rs, the sectorial cross-vein (s) between the two forks of R8, the median cross-vein (m-m) between M2 and M3, and the mediocubital cross-vein (m-cu) between the media and the cubitus.

1437:

the head when the insect is at rest and is extended only when feeding. The maxillary palpi are reduced or even vestigial. They are conspicuous and five-segmented in some of the more basal families and are often folded. The shape and dimensions of the proboscis have evolved to give different species wider and therefore more advantageous diets. There is an

1940:

jugal area of the forewing is developed as a free lobe, it projects beneath the humeral angle of the hindwing and thus serves to yoke the two wings together. In the Jugatae group of Lepidoptera, it bears a long finger-like lobe. The jugal region was termed the neala ("new wing") because it is a secondary and recently developed part of the wing.

3471:. There are three different tracheae supplying oxygen diffusing oxygen throughout the species body: The dorsal, ventral, and visceral. The dorsal tracheae supply oxygen to the dorsal musculature and vessels, while the ventral tracheae supply the ventral musculature and nerve cord, and the visceral tracheae supply the guts, fat bodies, and 2208:

adjacent sterna or pleura by a membrane. Spiracles are located in the pleural area. Variation of this ground plan includes the fusion of terga or terga and sterna to form continuous dorsal or ventral shields or a conical tube. Some insects bear a sclerite in the pleural area called a laterotergite. Ventral sclerites are sometimes called

2830:, which vary in size and number by species. The number of eggs that the insect is able to make vary by the number of ovarioles with the rate that eggs can be developed being also influenced by ovariole design. In meroistic ovaries, the eggs-to-be divide repeatedly and most of the daughter cells become helper cells for a single 339:. This is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has two layers, the outer is the exocuticle while the inner is the endocuticle. The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from numerous layers of fibrous chitin and proteins, crisscrossing each other in a sandwich pattern, while the exocuticle is rigid and 2843:. Spermathecae are tubes or sacs in which sperm can be stored between the time of mating and the time an egg is fertilized. Paternity testing of insects has revealed that some, and probably many, female insects use the spermatheca and various ducts to control or bias sperm used in favor of some males over others. 1315:, which are enclosed by the labium. When mosquito bites, maxillae penetrate the skin and anchor the mouthparts, thus allowing other parts to be inserted. The sheath-like labium slides back, and the remaining mouthparts pass through its tip and into the tissue. Then, through the hypopharynx, the mosquito injects 1755:

that has been modified (and streamlined) by natural selection for 200 million years. According to current dogma, the archedictyon contained six to eight longitudinal veins. These veins (and their branches) are named according to a system devised by John Comstock and George Needham—the Comstock-Needham system:

1206:, which are used to sense the characteristics of potential foods. The maxillae occupy a lateral position, one on each side of the head behind the mandibles. The proximal part of the maxilla consists of a basal cardo, which has a single articulation with the head, and a flat plate, the stipes, hinged to the 2745:

Body fluids enter through one-way valved ostia, which are openings situated along the length of the combined aorta and heart organ. Pumping of the haemolymph occurs by waves of peristaltic contraction, originating at the body's posterior end, pumping forwards into the dorsal vessel, out via the aorta

2401:

to the touch of a heated probe and an unheated one. The larvae reacted to the touch of the heated probe with a stereotypical rolling behavior that was not exhibited when the larvae were touched by the unheated probe. Although nociception has been demonstrated in insects, there is not a consensus that

2125:

The inflection of the coxal wall bearing the pleural articular surface divides the lateral wall of the basicoxite into a prearticular part and a postarticular part, and the two areas often appear as two marginal lobes on the base of the coxa. The posterior lobe is usually the larger and is termed the

2062:

When at rest, the wings are held over the back in most insects, which may involve longitudinal folding of the wing membrane and sometimes also transverse folding. Folding may sometimes occur along the flexion lines. Though fold lines may be transverse, as in the hindwings of beetles and earwigs, they

2018:

The humeral plate is usually a small sclerite on the anterior margin of the wing base, movable and articulated with the base of the costal vein. Odonata have their humeral plates greatly enlargened, with two muscles arising from the episternum inserted into the humeral plates and two from the edge of

1963:

The various movements of the wings, especially in insects that flex their wings horizontally over their backs when at rest, demand a more complicated articular structure at the wing base than a mere hinge of the wing with the body. Each wing is attached to the body by a membranous basal area, but the

1947:

At the posterior angle of the wing base in some Diptera, there is a pair of membranous lobes (squamae, or calypteres) known as the alula. The alula is well developed in the house fly. The outer squama (c) arises from the wing base behind the third axillary sclerite (3Ax) and represents the jugal lobe

1858:

The veins of insect wings are characterized by a convex-concave placement, such as those seen in mayflies (i.e., concave is "down" and convex is "up"), which alternate regularly and by their branching; whenever a vein forks there is always an interpolated vein of the opposite position between the two

1754:

The archedictyon is the name given to a hypothetical scheme of wing venation proposed for the very first winged insect. It is based on a combination of speculation and fossil data. Since all winged insects are believed to have evolved from a common ancestor, the archediction represents the "template"

1710:

Each of the wings consists of a thin membrane supported by a system of veins. The membrane is formed by two layers of integument closely apposed, while the veins are formed where the two layers remain separate and the cuticle may be thicker and more heavily sclerotized. Within each of the major veins

1647:

The ventral view or sternum follows the same convention, with the prosternum under the prothorax, the mesosternum under the mesothorax and the metasternum under the metathorax. The notum, pleura, and sternum of each segment have a variety of different sclerites and sutures, varying greatly from order

1643:

Because the mesothorax and metathorax hold the wings, they have a combined name called the pterothorax (pteron = wing). The forewing, which goes by different names in different orders (e.g., the tegmina in Orthoptera and elytra in Coleoptera), arises between the mesonotum and the mesopleuron, and the

746:

of light. There can also be an additional two or three ocelli, which help detect low light or small changes in light intensity. The image perceived is a combination of inputs from the numerous ommatidia, located on a convex surface, thus pointing in slightly different directions. Compared with simple

598:

of the vertex. The frons varies in size relative to the insect, and in many species, the definition of its borders is arbitrary, even in some insect taxa that have well-defined head capsules. In most species, though, the frons is bordered at its anterior by the frontoclypeal or epistomal sulcus above

386:

From the embryonic stages, a layer of columnar or cuboidal epithelial cells gives rise to the external cuticle and an internal basement membrane. The majority of insect material is inside of the endocuticle. The cuticle provides muscular support and acts as a protective shield as the insect develops.

2215:

Generally, the first seven abdominal segments of adults (the pregenital segments) are similar in structure and lack appendages. However, apterygotes (bristletails and silverfish) and many immature aquatic insects have abdominal appendages. Apterygotes possess a pair of styles; rudimentary appendages

1816:

The postcubitus (Pcu) is the first anal of the Comstock and Needham system. The postcubitus, however, has the status of an independent wing vein and should be recognized as such. In nymphal wings, its trachea arises between the cubital trachea and the group of vannal tracheae. In the mature wings of

1436:

In species of Lepidoptera, it consists of two tubes held together by hooks and separable for cleaning. Each tube is inwardly concave, thus forming a central tube through which moisture is sucked. Suction is affected by the contraction and expansion of a sac in the head. The proboscis is coiled under

3340:

being located below the genitals, or, in the case of 360° torsion, to the sperm duct being wrapped around the gut, despite the external organs being in their usual position. When flies mate, the male initially flies on top of the female, facing in the same direction, but then turns round to face in

2121:

strengthens the base of the coxa and is commonly enlarged on the outer wall to give insertion to muscles; on the mesal half of the coxa, however, it is usually weak and often confluent with the coxal margin. The trochanteral muscles that take their origin in the coxa are always attached distally to

2026:

The third axillary sclerite (3Ax) lies in the posterior part of the articular region of the wing. Its form is highly variable and often irregular, but the third axillary is the sclerite on which is inserted the flexor muscle of the wing (D). Mesally, it articulates anteriorly (f) with the posterior

1939:

The jugal region, or neala, is a region of the wing that is usually a small membranous area proximal to the base of the vannus strengthened by a few small, irregular vein-like thickenings; but when well developed, it is a distinct section of the wing and may contain one or two jugal veins. When the

1935:

The vannus is bordered by the vannal fold, which typically occurs between the postcubitus and the first vannal vein. In Orthoptera, it usually has this position. In the forewing of Blattidae, however, the only fold in this part of the wing lies immediately before the postcubitus. In Plecoptera, the

1512:

are a complex structure consisting of many grooves, called pseudotracheae, which sop up liquids. Salivary secretions from the labella assist in dissolving and collecting food particles so they can be more easily taken up by the pseudotracheae or laid their egg on the suitable media; this is thought

1507:

The mouthparts of insects that feed on fluids are modified in various ways to form a tube through which liquid can be drawn into the mouth and usually another through which saliva passes. The muscles of the cibarium or pharynx are strongly developed to form a pump. In nonbiting flies, the mandibles

1229:

The hypopharynx is a median lobe immediately behind the mouth, projecting forwards from the back of the preoral cavity; it is a lobe of uncertain origin, but perhaps associated with the mandibular segment; in apterygotes, earwigs, and nymphal mayflies, the hypopharynx bears a pair of lateral lobes,

574:

is made of the coronal, frontal, and epicranial sutures plus the ecdysial and cleavage lines, which vary among different species of insects. The ecdysial suture is longitudinally placed on the vertex, separating the epicranial halves of the head to the left and right sides. Depending on the insect,

530:

The head capsule bears most of the sensory organs, including the antennae, ocelli, and compound eyes, along with the mouthparts. In the adult insect, the head capsule appears unsegmented, though embryological studies show it to consist of six segments that bear the paired head appendages, including

3009:

diffuses out of the cell into the tracheole. While cockroaches do not have lungs and thus do not actively breathe in the vertebrate lung manner, in some very large species the body musculature may contract rhythmically to forcibly move air out and in the spiracles; this may be considered a form of

2871:

the two maturing testes are secondarily fused into one structure during the later stages of larval development, although the ducts leading from them remain separate. However, most male insects have a pair of testes, inside of which are sperm tubes or follicles that are enclosed within a membranous

2022:

The first axillary sclerite (lAx) is the anterior hinge plate of the wing base. Its anterior part is supported on the anterior notal wing process of the tergum (ANP); its posterior part articulates with the tergal margin. The anterior end of the sclerite is generally produced as a slender arm, the

1808:

The costa (C) is the leading marginal vein on most insects, although a small vein, the precosta, is sometimes found above the costa. In almost all extant insects, the precosta is fused with the costa; the costa rarely ever branches because it is at the leading edge, which is associated at its base

2700:

rather than physically taking in the oxygen. Some species of insect that are submerged also have adaptations to aid in respiration. As larvae, many insects have gills that can extract oxygen dissolved in water, while others need to rise to the water surface to replenish air supplies, which may be

2369:

The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair per segment. This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments. Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction. Some cockroaches have

2137:

is the third segment of the insect leg, is usually the longest and strongest part of the limb, but it varies in size from the huge hind femur of leaping Orthoptera to a very small segment such as is present in many larval forms. The volume of the femur is generally correlated with the size of the

3390:

are complex and unclear. In females there are three types of genitalia based on the relating taxa: monotrysian, exoporian, and dytresian. In the monotrysian type there is an opening on the fused segments of the sterna 9 and 10, which act as insemination and oviposition. In the exoporian type (in

2253:

The organs concerned specifically with mating and the deposition of eggs are known collectively as the external genitalia, although they may be largely internal. The components of the external genitalia of insects are very diverse in form and often have considerable taxonomic value, particularly

2030:

The median plates (m, m') are also sclerites that are not so definitely differentiated as specific plates as are the three principal axillaries, but they are important elements of the flexor apparatus. They lie in the median area of the wing base distal to the second and third axillaries and are

1812:

The fifth vein of the wing is the media. In the archetype pattern (A), the media forks into two main branches, a media anterior (MA), which divides into two distal branches (MA1, MA2), and a median sector, or media posterior (MP), which has four terminal branches (M1, M2, M3, M4). In most modern

1022:

The insect mouthparts consist of the maxilla, labium, and in some species, the mandibles. The labrum is a simple, fused sclerite, often called the upper lip, and moves longitudinally. It is hinged to the clypeus. The mandibles (jaws) are a highly sclerotized pair of structures that move at right

617:

is a sclerite between the face and labrum, which is dorsally separated from the frons by the frontoclypeal suture in primitive insects. The clypeogenal suture laterally demarcates the clypeus, with the clypeus ventrally separated from the labrum by the clypeolabral suture. The clypeus differs in

3259:) have ears just beneath the pronotal shield or neck membrane. The ears of both families are to ultrasonic frequencies, with strong evidence that they function to detect the presence of bats via their ultrasonic echolocation. Even though beetles constitute a large order and live in a variety of 2534:

From there, the pharynx passes food to the esophagus, which could be just a simple tube passing it on to the crop and proventriculus, and then on ward to the midgut, as in most insects. Alternately, the foregut may expand into a very enlarged crop and proventriculus, or the crop could just be a

2257:

The terminalia of adult female insects include internal structures for receiving the male copulatory organ and his spermatozoa and external structures used for oviposition (egg-laying; section 5.8). Segments 8 and 9 bear the genitalia; segment 10 is visible as a complete segment in many "lower"

2154:

of insects corresponds to the penultimate segment of a generalized arthropod limb, which is the segment called the propodite in Crustacea. In adult insects, it is commonly subdivided into two to five subsegments, or tarsomeres, but in the Protura, some Collembola, and most holometabolous insect

2066:

As a result, the distal arm of the third axillary sclerite rotates upwards and inwards, so that finally its position is completely reversed. The anal veins are articulated with this sclerite in such a way that when it moves they are carried with it and become flexed over the back of the insect.

1619:

The tergal plates of the thorax are simple structures in apterygotes and many immature insects but are variously modified in winged adults. The pterothoracic nota each have two main divisions: the anterior, wing-bearing alinotum and the posterior, phragma-bearing postnotum. Phragmata (singular:

2207:

The ground plan of the abdomen of an adult insect typically consists of 11–12 segments and is less strongly sclerotized than the head or thorax. Each segment of the abdomen is represented by a sclerotized tergum, sternum, and perhaps a pleurite. Terga are separated from each other and from the

1854:

All the veins of the wing are subject to secondary forking and union by cross-veins. In some orders of insects, the cross-veins are so numerous, the whole venational pattern becomes a close network of branching veins and cross-veins. Ordinarily, however, a definite number of cross-veins having

2142:

is characteristically a slender segment in adult insects, only a little shorter than the femur or the combined femur and trochanter. Its proximal end forms a more or less distinct head bent toward the femur, a device allowing the tibia to be flexed close against the undersurface of the femur.

2129:

The trochanter is the basal segment of the telopodite; it is always a small segment in the insect leg, freely movable by a horizontal hinge on the coxa, but more or less fixed to the base of the femur. When movable on the femur the trochantero femoral hinge is usually vertical or oblique in a

1943:

The auxiliary region containing the axillary sclerites has, in general, the form of a scalene triangle. The base of the triangle (a-b) is the hinge of the wing with the body; the apex (c) is the distal end of the third axillary sclerite; the longer side is anterior to the apex. Point d on the

2721:

and fats) and skeletal function. It also plays an essential part in the moulting process. An additional role of the haemolymph in some orders, can be that of predatory defence. It can contain unpalatable and malodourous chemicals that will act as a deterrent to predators. Haemolymph contains

1432:

and is an adaption found in some insects for sucking. The muscles of the cibarium or pharynx are strongly developed and form the pump. In Hemiptera and many Diptera, which feed on fluids within plants or animals, some components of the mouthparts are modified for piercing, and the elongated

3287:

produces juvenile hormone III in close proximity to the neurohemal dorsal aorta. The digestive system of earwigs is like all other insects, consisting of a fore-, mid-, and hindgut, but earwigs lack gastric caecae which are specialized for digestion in many species of insect. Long, slender

391:). Enzymatic molting fluid is then released between the old cuticle and epidermis, which separates the exocuticle by digesting the endocuticle and sequestering its material for the new cuticle. When the new cuticle has formed sufficiently, the epicuticle and reduced exocuticle are shed in 3463:, where muscles contraction produces heat, which is transferred to the rest of the body when conditions are unfavorable. In lepidopteran species, hemolymph is circulated through the veins in the wings by some form of pulsating organ, either by the heart or by the intake of air into the 3419:, where it is also stored. Some glands are specialized to perform certain task such as producing silk or producing saliva in the palpi. While the corpora cardiaca produce PTTH, the corpora allata also produces juvenile hormones, and the prothorocic glands produce moulting hormones. 2838:

Accessory glands or glandular parts of the oviducts produce a variety of substances for sperm maintenance, transport, and fertilization, as well as for protection of eggs. They can produce glue and protective substances for coating eggs or tough coverings for a batch of eggs called

1023:

angles to the body, used for biting, chewing, and severing food. The maxillae are paired structures that can also move at right angles to the body and possess segmented palps. The labium (lower lip) is the fused structure that moves longitudinally and has a pair of segmented palps.

3335:

The genitalia of female flies are rotated to a varying degree from the position found in other insects. In some flies this is a temporary rotation during mating, but in others it is a permanent torsion of the organs that occurs during the pupal stage. This torsion may lead to the

2695:

is released in a continuous cycle. In discontinuous gas exchange, however, the insect takes in oxygen while it is active and small amounts of carbon dioxide are released when the insect is at rest. Diffusive ventilation is simply a form of continuous gas exchange that occurs by

2629:(element 20). It is then emptied directly into the alimentary canal, at the junction between the midgut and hindgut. The number of Malpighian tubules possessed by a given insect varies between species, ranging from only two tubules in some insects to over 100 tubules in others. 1735:, for instance, only the subcosta and part of the radius are present. Conversely, an increase in venation may occur by the branching of existing veins to produce accessory veins or by the development of additional, intercalary veins between the original ones, as in the wings of 1685:

can be rapid, maneuverable, and versatile, possibly due to the changing shape, extraordinary control, and variable motion of the insect wing. Insect orders use different flight mechanisms; for example, the flight of a butterfly can be explained using steady-state, nontransitory

850:

can have over 140. The general shape of the antennae is also quite variable, but the first segment (the one attached to the head) is always called the scape, and the second segment is called the pedicel. The remaining antennal segments or flagellomeres are called the flagellum.

635:, and forms the lateral and ventral parts of the occipital arch. The occipital arch is a narrow band forming the posterior edge of the head capsule arching dorsally over the foramen. The subgenal area is usually narrow, located above the mouthparts; this area also includes the 523:. The main exception is in those species whose larvae are not fully sclerotized, mainly some holometabola; but even most unsclerotized or weakly sclerotized larvae tend to have well-sclerotized head capsules, for example, the larvae of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. The larvae of 4926: 2059:) the jugal lobe of the forewing covers a portion of the hindwing (jugal coupling), or the margins of the forewing and hindwing overlap broadly (amplexiform coupling), or the hindwing bristles, or frenulum, hook under the retaining structure or retinalucum on the forewing. 2158:

For the most part, the femur and tibia are the longest leg segments but variations in the lengths and robustness of each segment relate to their functions. For example, gressorial and cursorial, or walking and running type insects respectively, usually have well-developed

1508:

are absent and other structures are reduced; the labial palps have become modified to form the labellum, and the maxillary palps are present, although sometimes short. In Brachycera, the labellum is especially prominent and used for sponging liquid or semiliquid food. The

3344:

The female lays her eggs as close to the food source as possible, and development is very rapid, allowing the larva to consume as much food as possible in a short period of time before transforming into the adult. The eggs hatch soon after being laid, or the flies are

387:

However, since it cannot grow, the external sclerotized part of the cuticle is periodically shed in a process called "molting". As the time for molting approaches, most of the exocuticle material is reabsorbed. In molting, the old cuticle separates from the epidermis (

1634:

The pronotum of the prothorax may be simple in structure and small in comparison with the other nota, but in beetles, mantids, many bugs, and some Orthoptera, the pronotum is expanded, and in cockroaches, it forms a shield that covers part of the head and mesothorax.

3238:

are hearing organs. Such an organ is generally a membrane (tympanum) stretched across a frame backed by an air sac and associated sensory neurones. In the order Coleoptera, tympanal organs have been described in at least two families. Several species of the genus

3061:

in beetles contains all the types found in insects, varying between different species. With three thoracic and seven or eight abdominal ganglia can be distinguished to that in which all the thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused to form a composite structure.

2624:

to form fecal pellets. The rectum absorbs 90% of the water in these fecal pellets, and the dry pellet is then eliminated through the anus (element 17), completing the process of digestion. The uric acid is formed using hemolymph waste products diffused from the

2523:(any part may be highly modified), which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut. Here, digestion starts as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands. As the salivary glands produce fluid and 1047:

The mouthparts and rest of the head can be articulated in at least three different positions: prognathous, opisthognathous, and hypognathous. In species with prognathous articulation, the head is vertically aligned with the body, such as species of

2834:

in the cluster. In panoistic ovaries, each egg-to-be produced by stem germ cells develops into an oocyte; there are no helper cells from the germ line. Production of eggs by panoistic ovaries tends to be slower than that by meroistic ovaries.

3207:

have well developed, like other carabid beetles, pygidial glands that empty from the lateral edges of the intersegment membranes between the seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The gland is made of two containing chambers. The first holds

643:. The vertex extends anteriorly above the bases of the antennae as a prominent, pointed, concave rostrum. The posterior wall of the head capsule is penetrated by a large aperture, the foramen. Through it passes the organ systems, such as the 212:

due to their shared evolutionary history. Three physical features separate insects from other arthropods: they have a body divided into three regions (called tagmata) (head, thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of legs, and mouthparts located

3005:, the tracheal tubes branching continually like a tree until their finest divisions, tracheoles, are associated with each cell, allowing gaseous oxygen to dissolve in the cytoplasm lying across the fine cuticle lining of the tracheole. CO 1213:

In mandibulate mouthparts, the labium is a quadrupedal structure, although it is formed from two fused secondary maxillae. It can be described as the floor of the mouth. With the maxillae, it assists with the manipulation of food during

1678:

have foldable wings, and their muscles act on the thorax wall and power the wings indirectly. These muscles can contract multiple times for each single nerve impulse, allowing the wings to beat faster than would ordinarily be possible.

1060:. The mouthparts vary greatly between insects of different orders, but the two main functional groups are mandibulate and haustellate. Haustellate mouthparts are used for sucking liquids and can be further classified by the presence of 2467:– each of which performs a different process of digestion. In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax, adjacent to the foregut. 1064:, which include piercing-sucking, sponging, and siphoning. The stylets are needle-like projections used to penetrate plant and animal tissues. The stylets and the feeding tube form the modified mandibles, maxilla, and hypopharynx. 2608:(mayflies and dragonflies) show a transition between apterygotes and neopterans, where the middle part of the midgut epithelium is derived from yolk cells and the anterior and posterior parts are formed through bipolar formation. 2146:

The terms profemur, mesofemur, and metafemur refer to the femora of the front, middle and hind legs of an insect, respectively. Similarly, protibia, mesotibia, and metatibia refer to the tibiae of the front, middle and hind legs.

1030:

The development of insect mouthparts from the primitive chewing mouthparts of a grasshopper in the center (A), to the lapping type (B) of a bee, the siphoning type (C) of a butterfly and the sucking type (D) of a female mosquito.

622:

forms the sclerotized area on each side of the head below the compound eyes extending to the gular suture. Like many parts making up the insect's head, the gena varies among species, with its boundaries difficult to establish. In

3439:, had midgut ceca, although this is lost in current butterflies and moths. Instead, all the digestive enzymes other than initial digestion, are immobilized at the surface of the midgut cells. In larvae, long-necked and stalked 3373:

take various forms, and in some cases develop inside a silk cocoon. After emerging from the pupa, the adult fly rarely lives more than a few days, and serves mainly to reproduce and to disperse in search of new food sources.

3715: 2819:, and ducts connecting these parts. The ovaries make eggs and accessory glands produce the substances to help package and lay the eggs. Spermathecae store sperm for varying periods of time and, along with portions of the 2746:

and then into the head where it flows out into the haemocoel. The haemolymph is circulated to the appendages unidirectionally with the aid of muscular pumps or accessory pulsatile organs usually found at the base of the

2254:

among species that appear structurally similar in other respects. The male external genitalia have been used widely to aid in distinguishing species, whereas the female external genitalia may be simpler and less varied.

1944:

anterior side of the triangle marks the articulation of the radial vein with the second axillary sclerite. The line between d and c is the plica basalis (bf), or fold of the wing at the base of the mediocubital field.

3434:

follows and leads to the posterior of the pharynx and in some species forms a form of crop. The midgut is short and straight, with the hindgut being longer and coiled. Ancestors of lepidopteran species, stemming from

2358:, or a cluster of nerve cells outside of the brain. The first three pairs of ganglia are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into a structure of three pairs of ganglia under the insect's 3447:

ions, which are absorbed from leaves ingested by the larvae. Most butterflies and moths display the usual digestive cycle, however species that have a different diet require adaptations to meet these new demands.

1151:

is a broad lobe forming the roof of the preoral cavity, suspended from the clypeus in front of the mouth and forming the upper lip. On its inner side, it is membranous and may be produced into a median lobe, the

2569:. Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source. 2442:

before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion. The main structure of an insect's digestive system is a long-enclosed tube called the

2258:

insects but always lacks appendages. Most female insects have an egg-laying tube, or ovipositor; it is absent in termites, parasitic lice, many Plecoptera, and most Ephemeroptera. Ovipositors take two forms:

2101:. The coxa in its more symmetrical form, has the shape of a short cylinder or truncate cone, though commonly it is ovate and may be almost spherical. The proximal end of the coxa is girdled by a submarginal 410:

or laterals. Hardened plates in the exoskeleton are called sclerites, which are subdivisions of the major regions – tergites, sternites, and pleurites, for respective regions tergum, sternum, and pleuron.

252:

except the deep ocean. This article describes the basic insect body and some variations of the different body parts; in the process, it defines many of the technical terms used to describe insect bodies.

566:

are normally found. This is because the primary axis of the head is rotated 90° to become parallel to the primary axis of the body. In some species, this region is modified and assumes a different name.

2644:. Instead, the insect respiratory system uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their 1306:

Mouthparts can have multiple functions. Some insects combine piercing parts along with sponging ones which are then used to pierce through tissues of plants and animals. Female mosquitoes feed on blood

1524:

are of a chewing and lapping-sucking type. Lapping is a mode of feeding in which liquid or semiliquid food adhering to a protrusible organ, or "tongue", is transferred from substrate to mouth. In the

3136:. For means of finding a mate also, fireflies (Lampyridae) utilized modified fat body cells with transparent surfaces backed with reflective uric acid crystals to biosynthetically produce light, or 1928:, which is responsible for most of the flight, powered by the thoracic muscles. The posterior portion of the remigium is sometimes called the clavus; the two other posterior fields are the anal and 1167:. The mandibles cut and crush food, and may be used for defense; generally, they have an apical cutting edge, and the more basal molar area grinds the food. They can be extremely hard (around 3 on 2750:

or wings and sometimes in the legs, with pumping rates accelerating with periods of increased activity. Movement of haemolymph is particularly important for thermoregulation in orders such as

2648:(element 8 in numbered diagram). Since oxygen is delivered directly, the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen, and is therefore greatly reduced. The insect circulatory system has no 2047:) is a row of small hooks on the forward margin of the hindwing, or "hamuli", which lock onto the forewing, keeping them held together (hamulate coupling). In some other insect species (e.g., 4285:

Campbell, Frank L.; Priestly, June D. (1970). "Flagellar Annuli of Blattella germanica (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae).–Changes in Their Numbers and Dimensions during Postembryonic Development".

1674:

is not very well understood, relying on turbulent aerodynamic effects. The primitive insect groups use muscles that act directly on the wing structure. The more advanced groups making up the

2660:. Toward the thorax, the dorsal tube (element 14) divides into chambers and acts like the insect's heart. The opposite end of the dorsal tube is like the aorta of the insect circulating the 4689: 4619:

Agosta, Salvatore J.; Janzen, Daniel H. (2004). "Body size distributions of large Costa Rican dry forest moths and the underlying relationship between plant and pollinator morphology".

3722: 2939:

than to other cockroaches, and current research strongly supports this hypothesis of relationships. All species studied so far carry the obligate mutualistic endosymbiont bacterium

297:, and reproduction. Although the general function of the three body regions is the same across all insect species, there are major differences in basic structure, with wings, legs, 4715: 248:); have no eyes or many; well-developed wings or none; and legs modified for running, jumping, swimming, or even digging. These modifications allow insects to occupy almost every 2709:

Insect blood or haemolymph's main function is that of transport and it bathes the insect's body organs. Making up usually less than 25% of an insect's body weight, it transports

2179:

of one or more pairs of legs usually are modified for swimming (natatorial) with fringes of long, slender hairs. Many ground-dwelling insects, such as mole crickets (Orthoptera:

2274:

The terminal abdominal segments have excretory and sensory functions in all insects, besides the reproductive function in adults. The small segment 11 may be represented by an

1967:

The articular sclerites, or pteralia, of the wing base of the wing-flexing insects and their relations to the body and the wing veins, shown diagrammatically, are as follows:

747:

eyes, compound eyes possess very large view angles and better acuity than the insect's dorsal ocelli, but some stemmatal (= larval eyes), for example, those of sawfly larvae (

5543:

De Carlo; J. A. (1983). "Hemipteros acuáticos y semiacuáticos. Estudio en grupos en las partes de igual función de los aparatos genitales masculinos de especies estudiadas".

2410:

An insect uses its digestive system for all steps in food processing: digestion, absorption, and feces delivery and elimination. Most of this food is ingested in the form of

2531:), strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into the buccal cavity, lubricating the food like the salivarium does, and helping blood feeders, and xylem and phloem feeders. 2191:), have the tibiae of the forelegs (protibiae) enlarged and modified for digging (fossorial), whereas the forelegs of some predatory insects, such as mantispid lacewings ( 1441:

scaling relationship between the body mass of Lepidoptera and length of the proboscis from which an interesting adaptive departure is the unusually long-tongued hawk moth

4964:

Eisemann, WK; Jorgensen, W. K.; Merritt, D. J.; Rice, M. J.; Cribb, B. W.; Webb, P. D.; Zalucki, M. P.; et al. (1984). "Do insects feel pain? — A biological view".

2199:), are specialized for seizing prey, or raptorial. The tibia and basal tarsomere of each hindleg of honey bees are modified for the collection and carriage of pollen. 2039:

In many insect species, the forewing and hindwing are coupled together, which improves the aerodynamic efficiency of flight. The most common coupling mechanism (e.g.,

3884: 2947: 2811:

Female insects are able make eggs, receive and store sperm, manipulate sperm from different males, and lay eggs. Their reproductive systems are made up of a pair of

679: 5230:"Revisiting the formation of midgut epithelium in Zygentoma (Insecta) from a developmental study of the firebrat Thermobia domestica (Packard, 1873) (Lepismatidae)" 2163:

and tibiae on all legs, whereas jumping (saltatorial) insects such as grasshoppers have disproportionately developed metafemora and metatibiae. In aquatic beetles (

2581:(element 13 in numbered diagram), also known as the mesenteron, where the majority of digestion takes place. Microscopic projections from the midgut wall, called 1311:) making them disease vectors. The mosquito mouthparts consist of the proboscis, paired mandibles and maxillae. The maxillae form needle-like structures, called 5899:"Physiology of insect diapause. II. Interaction between the pupal brain and prothoracic glands in the metamorphosis of the giant silkworm "Platysamia cecropia"" 1052:; while in a hypognathous type, the head is aligned horizontally adjacent to the body. An opisthognathous head is positioned diagonally, such as in species of 2138:

tibial muscles contained within it, but it is sometimes enlarged and modified in shape for other purposes than that of accommodating the tibial muscles. The

531:

the mouthparts, each pair on a specific segment. Each such pair occupies one segment, though not all segments in modern insects bear any visible appendages.

2301:: a pair of appendages which articulate laterally on segment 11; typically, these are annulated and filamentous but have been modified (e.g. the forceps of 1433:

structures are called stylets. The combined tubular structures are referred to as the proboscis, although specialized terminology is used in some groups.

691: 687: 675: 3034:

species, the predatory larvae defecate enzymes on their prey, with digestion being extraorally. The alimentary canal basically comprises a short narrow

2288:: paired plate-like appendages also derived from the sternum at the side of the tip of the abdomen, often most apparent in certain basal orders such as 683: 4449: 3467:. Air is taken in through spiracles along the sides of the abdomen and thorax supplying the trachea with oxygen as it goes through the lepidopteran's 1179:, the mandibles are modified to such an extent as to not serve any feeding function but are instead used to defend mating sites from other males. In 571: 603:, the front of the head is fairly clearly distinguished and tends to be broad and sub-vertical; that median area commonly is taken to be the frons. 5883: 5403: 5364: 2209: 575:

the suture may come in different shapes: like either a Y, U or V. Those diverging lines that make up the ecdysial suture are called the frontal or

4693: 2901:

climates. Some species are in close association with human dwellings and widely found around garbage or in the kitchen. Cockroaches are generally

5562:

Andersen, N. Møller (1991). "Marine insects: genital morphology, phylogeny and evolution of sea skaters, genus Halobates (Hemiptera: Gerridae)".

2951:, an Australian cave dwelling species without eyes, pigment or wings, and which recent genetic studies indicates are very primitive cockroaches. 2110: 1879: 1452:

predicted the existence and proboscis length of this moth before its discovery based on his knowledge of the long-spurred Madagascan star orchid

5276: 4198:

Okada, J; Toh, Y (2001). "Peripheral representation of antennal orientation by the scapal hair plate of the cockroach Periplaneta americana".

3628: 2964:, excluding the head. Thus cockroaches, like all insects, are not dependent on the mouth and windpipe to breathe. The valves open when the 2114: 2102: 1929: 4836: 4155:

Krause, A.F.; Winkler, A.; Dürr, V. (2013). "Central drive and proprioceptive control of antennal movements in the walking stick insect".

4723: 2118: 2106: 2098: 1875: 636: 4746: 3220:. These chemicals mix and result in an explosive ejection, forming temperatures of around 100 C, with the breakdown of hydroquinone to H 1739:(grasshoppers and crickets). Large numbers of cross-veins are present in some insects, and they may form a reticulum as in the wings of 1925: 823:, sometimes called "feelers", are flexible appendages located on the insect's head which are used for sensing the environment. Insects 671: 628: 3843:

Smith, John Bernhard, Explanation of terms used in entomology Publisher: Brooklyn entomological society 1906 (May be downloaded from:

1612:. The middle segment is the mesothorax; its major features are the second pair of legs and the anterior wings, if any. The third, the 3858: 2738:

blood in that it does not contain any red blood cells and therefore is without high oxygen carrying capacity, and is more similar to

4233:

Staudacher, E.; Gebhardt, M.J.; Dürr, V. (2005). "Antennal movements and mechanoreception: Neurobiology of active tactile sensors".

3074:, and is then taken into increasingly finer fibers. Pumping movements of the body force the air through the system. Some species of 3357:; in the more derived species, the head is not distinguishable from the rest of the body. Maggots are limbless, or else have small 5818: 5669: 1886:

and Coleoptera, and in some insects, the anal area can be folded like a fan. The four different fields found on insect wings are:

3311:. The lateral ducts are where the eggs leave the body, while the spermatheca is where sperm is stored. Unlike other insects, the 5979: 4336: 375:, it becomes much harder. The difference between the unmodified and modified forms is evident when comparing the body wall of a 6412: 3327:). In some species these long ovarioles branch off the lateral duct, while in others, short ovarioles appear around the duct. 5794: 5496: 5431: 5387: 5335: 5158: 5116: 4603: 4542: 4254: 3828: 3699: 4562: 5074: 1395: 1380: 3891: 3751:

Imms' General Textbook of Entomology: Volume 1: Structure, Physiology and Development Volume 2: Classification and Biology

3315:, or genital opening is behind the seventh abdominal segment. The ovaries are primitive in that they are polytrophic (the 1513:

to occur by capillary action. The liquid food is then drawn up from the pseudotracheae through the food channel into the

1222:, extends out to snatch prey back to the head, where the mandibles can eat it. The labium is similar in structure to the 2880:, which descend from the primordial pole cells very early during embryogenesis. The aedeagus can be quite pronounced or 1323:

to stop the blood from clotting. And finally, the labrum (upper lip) is used to suck up the blood. Species of the genus

6111: 4078:

Mayer, G. (2006). "Structure and development of onychophoran eyes: What is the ancestral visual organ in arthropods?".

3494: 1163:

Chewing insects have two mandibles, one on each side of the head. The mandibles are positioned between the labrum and

6007: 5867: 5830: 5527: 5310: 5197: 4819: 4572: 4484: 4459: 4423: 4139: 3758: 3676: 3612: 3365:. This lack of features is an adaptation to a food-rich environment, such as within rotting organic matter, or as an 3443:

are found in the anterior and posterior midgut regions, respectively. In insects, the goblet cells excrete positive

281:. The head is specialized for sensory input and food intake; the thorax, which is the anchor point for the legs and 5185: 2927:

that digest the cellulose, allowing them to extract the nutrients. The similarity of these symbionts in the genus

2876:. The remainder of the male reproductive system is derived from embryonic mesoderm, except for the germ cells, or 6106: 5049: 4500: 1551: 6225: 3499: 3263:, examples of hearing is surprisingly lacking in species, though it is likely that most are just undiscovered. 2447:(or gut), which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal directs food in one direction: from the 1168: 619: 3159:

A notable number of species have developed special glands that produce chemicals for deterring predators (see

751:) with an acuity of 4 degrees and very high polarization sensitivity, match the performance of compound eyes. 579:

sutures. Not all species of insects have frontal sutures, but in those that do, the sutures split open during

240:

There is enormous variation in body structure amongst insect species. Individuals can range from 0.3 mm (

6182: 3086:, however the volume of the bubble eventually diminishes, and the beetle will have to return to the surface. 2637: 2455:. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into three sections – the 1164: 703: 335:, which is a thin, waxy, water-resistant outer layer that lacks chitin, and the layer under it is called the 4008:"Optics and phylogeny: is there an insight? The evolution of superposition eyes in the Decapoda (Crustacea)" 3104:

Different glands specialize for different pheromones produced for finding mates. Pheromones from species of

2679:

demonstrated by different groups of insects. Gas exchange patterns in insects can range from continuous and

1350: 618:

shape and size, such as species of Lepidoptera with a large clypeus with elongated mouthparts. The cheek or

6424: 6349: 6344: 6339: 1613: 1605: 1148: 699: 595: 591: 17: 5229: 3249:

have ears on the dorsal surface of the first abdominal segment beneath the wing; two tribes in the family

3022:

of beetles is primarily based on plants, which they for the most part feed upon, with mostly the anterior

6354: 6139: 5626:"Evidence for Cocladogenesis Between Diverse Dictyopteran Lineages and Their Intracellular Endosymbionts" 1142: 1130: 695: 614: 491: 403: 5138: 1327:

are characterized by their long palpi (two parts with widening end), almost reaching the end of labrum.

6483: 6086: 3404: 2801: 2684: 2262:

The anal-genital part of the abdomen. which consists generally of segments 8 or 9 to the abdominal apex

2225: 2094: 1583: 164: 2734:(anterior) pulsations, which are located dorsally just under the surface of the body. It differs from 2495:(element 27 in numbered diagram), or stomodaeum. The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of 1608:

segment, closest to the head, is the prothorax; its major features are the first pair of legs and the

1366: 6462: 2600:), the midgut epithelium is derived entirely from yolk cells. In the majority of the flying insects ( 835:

on the antennae allow insects to sense smells, temperature, humidity, pressure, and even potentially

516: 495:

Larva of beetle, family Cerambycidae, showing sclerotised epicranium; rest of body hardly sclerotised

359:, a derivative of glucose. In its unmodified form, chitin is translucent, pliable, and resilient. In 5325: 5096: 3922: 839:. Some insects, including bees and some groups of flies, can also detect sound with their antennae. 6101: 5695: 5280: 2626: 2480: 290: 138: 3116:

from eversible glands on the abdominal apex. Other species produce different types of pheromones.

2280:(usually a dorsal plate or filament above the anus of certain insects); other appendages include: 1202:

is a cupped or scoop-like structure, which sits over the outer edge of the labium. They also have

5752: 4837:"A New Method of Studying the Wing Veins of the Mayflies and Some Results Therefrom (Ephemerida)" 3098: 1125:. However, most adult Lepidoptera have siphoning mouthparts, while their larvae (commonly called 790:

impose a limit on the possible resolution that can be obtained (assuming they do not function as

660: 274: 5589:

Eggleton, P (2001). "Termites and trees: a review of recent advances in termite phylogenetics".

4598:. Gale virtual reference library. Vol. 4 (2nd ed.). Springer Reference. p. 4345. 2236: 831:) that cover them. However, touch is not the only thing that antennae can detect; numerous tiny 6429: 6334: 5279:. NC State University: Department of Entomology, NC State University. p. 1. Archived from 4847: 3149: 2363: 1454: 310: 183: 5357: 4589: 2668:, inside the body cavity. Air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen called 6220: 6000: 4750: 3909: 3632: 3361:. The eyes and antennae are reduced or absent, and the abdomen also lacks appendages such as 3071: 3046:. After there is a midgut, that varies in dimensions between species, with a large amount of 2961: 2669: 2231: 1670:

to have developed flight capability, and this has played an important part in their success.

1560: 1509: 1089:

mouthparts lack stylets and are used to suck liquids and are commonly found among species of

803: 88: 4913: 3430:

sucking pump as they need it for the food they eat, which are for the most part liquids. An

3279:, three thoracic ganglia, and six abdominal ganglia. Strong neurone connections connect the 3112:

lining the inner surface of the apical abdominal segments or amino acid-based pheromones of

1077:

mouthparts have stylets and are used to penetrate solid tissue and then suck up liquid food.

221:. This position of the mouthparts divides them from their closest relatives, the non-insect 6377: 6020: 5241: 4661: 4312: 4087: 4052: 3484: 3464: 3067: 2956: 2856: 2645: 1071:

mouthparts, among the most common in insects, are used for biting and grinding solid foods.

743: 201: 84: 6280: 5625: 3862: 2620:(element 16 in numbered diagram), or proctodaeum, undigested food particles are joined by 1485: 1198:. Maxillae can have hairs and "teeth" along their inner margins. At the outer margin, the 8: 6392: 6260: 6118: 6056: 6039: 5519: 5513: 3936:

Meyer-Rochow, V.B. (1974). "Structure and function of the larval eye of the sawfly larva

3383: 3191:

released from an opening at the end of the abdomen. While African carabid beetles (e.g.,

3160: 356: 6285: 5624:

Lo, Nathan; Claudio Bandi; Hirofumi Watanabe; Christine Nalepa; Tiziana Beninat (2003).

5245: 4665: 4091: 4056: 2656:, and instead consists of little more than a single, perforated dorsal tube that pulses 1248: 6407: 6295: 5946:"A temperature-induced switch from diffusive to convective ventilation in the honeybee" 5918: 5877: 5728: 5606: 5575: 5421: 5397: 5345: 5150: 5108: 5030: 4981: 4946: 4531: 4413: 4362: 4180: 4129: 3468: 3452: 3289: 3272: 3101:

of the beetle is driven by a tube-like heart attached to the top inside of the thorax.

2714: 2351: 1443: 1187:, the mandibles are elongated and toothed, used as hunting (and defensive) appendages. 1026: 808: 644: 538:

displays the greatest variety of features found in the heads of insects, including the

245: 5017: 5000: 4246: 3984: 2376:

has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen. Some insects, like the house fly

1711:

is a nerve and a trachea, and, since the cavities of the veins are connected with the

606: 6453: 6303: 6237: 6123: 6069: 6049: 5926: 5863: 5826: 5790: 5733: 5650: 5523: 5492: 5427: 5383: 5331: 5306: 5257: 5193: 5154: 5112: 5022: 4815: 4674: 4649: 4634: 4599: 4568: 4538: 4480: 4455: 4419: 4340: 4250: 4215: 4172: 4168: 4135: 4103: 3988: 3957: 3953: 3844: 3824: 3754: 3695: 3672: 3608: 3489: 3213: 3204: 3141: 3083: 3051: 2784: 2747: 2076: 1357: 1183:, the mandibles also serve a defensive function (particularly in soldier castes). In 1083:

mouthparts are used to sponge and suck liquids, and lack stylets (e.g. most Diptera).

1017: 820: 550:, or the apex (dorsal region), is situated between the compound eyes of insects with 372: 298: 188: 50: 5610: 4184: 1494: 6447: 6382: 6177: 5993: 5957: 5910: 5723: 5715: 5640: 5598: 5571: 5249: 5146: 5104: 5034: 5012: 4973: 4938: 4669: 4630: 4294: 4242: 4207: 4164: 4095: 4060: 4019: 3980: 3949: 3460: 3416: 3400: 3280: 3260: 3167:'s (of Carabidae) defensive glands, located at the posterior, produce a variety of 2723: 2444: 2246: 1336: 1312: 1061: 547: 539: 249: 3408: 1275: 6205: 6189: 6172: 5898: 5784: 4621: 4593: 3602: 3396: 3137: 2941: 2390: 1697: 1429: 1219: 1199: 562:

insects, the vertex is not found between the compound eyes, but rather where the

555: 270: 5623: 4985: 1284: 343:. The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many soft-bodied insects, especially the 6457: 6275: 6247: 6232: 6210: 3504: 3412: 3407:(Prothoracicotropic hormone) operates the species life cycle and diapause (see 3284: 3235: 3058: 3039: 3002: 2965: 2790: 2713:, nutrients and wastes and has a role in, osmoregulation, temperature control, 2692: 2558: 2520: 2516: 2419: 2343: 2180: 1744: 1538: 1449: 1406: 1320: 1184: 836: 748: 340: 322: 261:

Insects, like all arthropods, have no interior skeleton; instead, they have an

5253: 4099: 4064: 4024: 4007: 2823:, can control sperm use. The ducts and spermathecae are lined with a cuticle. 772: 583:, which provides an opening for the new instar to emerge from the integument. 6477: 6318: 6255: 6160: 6155: 6076: 6034: 5326:

Richard W. Merritt, Kenneth W. Cummins, and Martin B. Berg (editors) (2007).

3992: 3975:

Völkel, R.; Eisner, M.; Weible, K.J. (2003). "Miniaturized imaging systems".

3346: 3164: 3113: 2877: 2718: 2589: 2504: 2411: 2321: 2241: 2176: 2151: 2090: 1682: 1671: 1657: 652: 208:. The terminology used to describe insects is similar to that used for other 175: 159: 154: 149: 5857: 5645: 4211: 1293: 954: 919: 908: 6402: 6313: 6308: 6044: 5930: 5737: 5719: 5654: 5261: 5228:

Mtow, Shodo; Tsutsumi, Tadaaki; Masumoto, Mika; Machida, Ryuichiro (2023).

5026: 4999:

Tracey, J; Wilson, RI; Laurent, G; Benzer, S; et al. (18 April 2003).

4298: 4219: 4176: 4107: 3366: 3255: 3209: 3153: 3140:. The light produce is highly efficient, as it is produced by oxidation of 2911: 2676: 2536: 2439: 2427: 2372: 2347: 2188: 1956: 1732: 1687: 1667: 965: 943: 930: 791: 735: 600: 551: 524: 508: 269:

that protects and supports the body. The insect body is divided into three

64: 5962: 5945: 4650:"Allometry and functional constraints on proboscis lengths in butterflies" 3961: 2935:

are such that it has been suggested that they are more closely related to

1723: 897: 875: 864: 6419: 6270: 6265: 6167: 5985: 3440: 3436: 3392: 3304: 3200: 3168: 3117: 2986: 2898: 2868: 2816: 2759: 2755: 2657: 2605: 2582: 2566: 2382:, have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion. 2354:. The head capsule is made up of six fused segments, each with a pair of 2056: 2052: 2044: 2040: 1663: 1529: 1308: 1215: 1195: 1176: 1172: 1126: 1122: 1110: 1090: 998: 987: 976: 886: 843: 787: 760: 711: 656: 640: 559: 376: 368: 348: 282: 262: 109: 104: 32: 2954:

Cockroaches, like all insects, breathe through a system of tubes called

2393:. This was discovered in 2003 by studying the variation in reactions of 2324:), and a few fossil insects. A similar structure in nymphal stoneflies ( 1666:

located on the second and third thoracic segments. Insects are the only

1476: 631:

is the area immediately posteriad, or posterior or lower on the gena of

519:

in most insects is enclosed in a hard, heavily sclerotized, exoskeletal

511:, without epicranium, almost without sclerotisation apart from its jaws. 5922: 5602: 4977: 4950: 4889: 4864: 3509: 3387: 3316: 3250: 3145: 3125: 3109: 3075: 3050:, with a hingut, with varying lengths. There are typically four to six 3031: 2902: 2864: 2735: 2597: 2484: 2435: 2431: 2398: 2386: 2325: 2317: 2192: 2164: 1883: 1867: 1748: 1736: 1601: 1597: 1153: 1118: 1106: 1102: 1057: 1049: 739: 719: 715: 535: 424: 336: 332: 234: 99: 94: 3070:. Air enters a series of tubes along the body through openings called 2730:. It is transported around the body by combined heart (posterior) and 1796:– fifth longitudinal vein, one to three branches reach the wing margin 1788:– fourth longitudinal vein, one to four branches reach the wing margin 1266: 1239: 6397: 6387: 6372: 6064: 5179: 5177: 5175: 3631:. The University of Nebraska Department of Entomology. Archived from 3456: 3444: 3431: 3423: 3308: 3241: 3105: 3090: 3027: 3019: 2975: 2916: 2827: 2727: 2697: 2680: 2661: 2621: 2593: 2546: 2512: 2359: 2184: 2168: 2048: 1780:– third longitudinal vein, one to five branches reach the wing margin 1629: 1593: 1525: 1514: 1438: 1425: 1386: 1114: 1053: 847: 648: 632: 504: 428: 360: 294: 286: 209: 76: 5914: 5825:(5 (illustrated) ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 55. 5377: 4942: 4339:. University of Minnesota (Department of Entomology). Archived from 2265:

substitutional, composed of extensible posterior abdominal segments.

1648:

to order, and they will not be discussed in detail in this section.

285:(if present), is specialized for locomotion; and the abdomen is for 3353:, have no true legs, and little demarcation between the thorax and 3324: 3312: 3276: 3217: 3172: 3129: 3030:) most digestion occurs in the crop by means of midgut enzymes. In 2979: 2924: 2920: 2873: 2860: 2710: 2601: 2378: 2355: 2276: 2196: 1772:– second longitudinal vein (behind the costa), typically unbranched 1712: 1675: 1569: 1467: 1411: 1342: 1157: 842:

The number of segments in an antenna varies amongst insects, with

832: 813: 723: 543: 499: 419: 388: 241: 222: 123: 70: 5217:(1 ed.). Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 24–29. 5172: 2475: 1743:(dragonflies and damselflies) and at the base of the forewings of 6016: 5447: 5445: 5443: 4418:(4th ed.). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. 3427: 3426:, the anterior region of the foregut has been modified to form a 3354: 3300: 3180: 3133: 3043: 3035: 2936: 2932: 2840: 2820: 2812: 2763: 2751: 2722:

molecules, ions and cells; regulating chemical exchanges between

2617: 2578: 2562: 2528: 2508: 2500: 2492: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2415: 2289: 1740: 1691: 1223: 1191: 1098: 707: 667: 624: 580: 563: 407: 392: 364: 363:, however, it is often modified, becoming embedded in a hardened 352: 328: 278: 230: 226: 55: 4560: 627:, it is between the compound eyes, clypeus, and mouthparts. The 5451: 4749:. Department of Entomology, NC State University. Archived from 3362: 3358: 3350: 3320: 3176: 3063: 3023: 2852: 2831: 2688: 2653: 2524: 2496: 2394: 2302: 2297: 2160: 1589: 1533: 1316: 399: 380: 266: 205: 5693: 5440: 4918: 3349:, with the larva hatching inside the mother. Larval flies, or 1727:

Venation of insect wings, based on the Comstock-Needham system

5215:

A Contribution to The Biology of North American Vespine Wasps

4927:"Discontinuous respiration in insects: role of the spiracles" 4043:

Scourfield, a protochordate? from the Silurian of Scotland".

3472: 3296: 3283:

to the brain and frontal ganglion, where the closely related

3184: 3121: 3094: 3047: 2990: 2739: 2731: 2665: 2542: 2448: 2172: 2139: 2134: 1924:

Most veins and cross-veins occur in the anterior area of the

1609: 1207: 587: 398:

The four principal regions of an insect body segment are the

344: 4963: 4479:. Vol. 1 (1 ed.). Science Publishers. p. 48. 3292:

can be found between the junction of the mid- and hind gut.

2081: 1257: 5694:

Lo, N; Beninati, T; Stone, F; Walker, J; Sacchi, L (2007).

5486: 5227: 4134:(4th ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 3748: 3370: 3337: 3188: 3026:

performing digestion. However, in predatory species (e.g.,

2906: 2649: 2641: 2550: 2452: 1731:

In some minuscule insects, the venation may be reduced. In

1401: 1372: 1203: 828: 786:

Because the individual lenses are so small, the effects of

726:, which typically display prognathous-oriented mouthparts. 4612: 3657:(2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. p. 12. 3459:, or insect blood, is used to circulate heat in a form of 2851:

The main component of the male reproductive system is the

371:. In its pure form, it is leathery, but when encrusted in 4998: 3275:

is typical of insects. There is a brain, a subesophageal

2919:

themselves but have symbiotic relationships with various

2826:

The ovaries are made up of a number of egg tubes, called

2539:, or fluid filled structure, as in some Diptera species. 2423: 1662:

Most phylogenetically advanced insects have two pairs of

1521: 1180: 5489:

Borror and DeLong's introduction to the study of insects

5454:

Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects

4722:. University of Sydney. February 4, 2010. Archived from 2887: 2503:

as protection from tough food. The foregut includes the

2034: 5380:

An Introduction To The Aquatic Insects Of North America

5328:

An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America

5001:"painless, a Drosophila gene essential for nociception" 4720:

School of Biological Sciences Online Learning Resources

4269: 2316:, which arises from the tip of the epiproct in certain 5476:(6th ed.). New Jersey USA: Pearson/Prentice Hall. 4232: 3216:, with the second holding just hydrogen peroxide plus 2971:

level in the insect rises to a high level; then the CO

527:

however, tend to have hardly any head capsule at all.

5858:

Hoell, H.V., Doyen, J.T. & Purcell, A.H. (1998).

5518:(3 ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 5075:"General Entomology – Digestive and Excritory system" 3295:

The reproductive system of females consist of paired

2726:, haemolymph is encased in the insect body cavity or 301:, and mouthparts being variable from group to group. 5860:

Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity, 2nd ed

5700:

endosymbionts: the phylogenetically divergent genus

5423:

Essential Entomology; An order by order introduction

4331: 4329: 827:

feel with their antennae because of the fine hairs (

5561: 5511: 5300: 4914:

Amateur Entomologist's Society: epiproct definition

3744: 3742: 3600: 2479:Stylized diagram of insect digestive tract showing 4805: 4803: 4801: 4799: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4791: 4789: 4787: 4530: 3974: 3845:https://archive.org/details/explanationofter00smit 2370:just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp 5491:(7th ed.). Australia: Thomson, Brooks/Cole. 5487:Triplehorn, Charles A; Johnson, Norman F (2005). 5137:Terra, Walter R.; Ferreira, Clélia (2009-01-01), 4785: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4775: 4773: 4771: 4769: 4767: 4561:Evans, Arthur V.; Bellamy, Charles (April 2000). 4326: 4154: 3929: 3818: 3814: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3792: 3790: 3671:(4th edition) Benjamin Cummings, New Work. p. 69 3001:, the tracheal system brings the air directly to 2491:The first section of the alimentary canal is the 6475: 5982:Overview of insect external and internal anatomy 5943: 5467: 5465: 5463: 5052:. Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety 4809: 4443: 4441: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4284: 4270:Servadei, A.; Zangheri, S.; Masutti, L. (1972). 3968: 3819:Resh, Vincent H.; Ring T. Carde (July 1, 2009). 3788: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3739: 5816: 5480: 5456:. Brooks / Thomson Cole: Brooks / Thomson Cole. 5145:, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 273–281, 4401: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4383: 3152:(adenosine triphosphate) and oxygen, producing 2774:These glands are part of the endocrine system: 2389:, cells that detect and transmit sensations of 2019:the epimeron inserted into the axillary plate. 734:Most insects have one pair of large, prominent 5419: 5141:, in Resh, Vincent H.; Cardé, Ring T. (eds.), 4764: 4708: 4533:The Lepidoptera: Form, function, and diversity 4287:Annals of the Entomological Society of America 4123: 4121: 4119: 4117: 3882: 2960:. The tracheae of insects are attached to the 2430:. These macromolecules must be broken down by 2244:is enlarged into a "genital bulb", as seen in 1097:Mandibular mouthparts are found in species of 854:General insect antenna types are shown below: 6001: 5862:. Oxford University Press. pp. 493–499. 5823:Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment 5687: 5617: 5545:Revista de la Sociedad Entomológica Argentina 5542: 5471: 5460: 5378:Merritt, RW, KW Cummins, and MB Berg (2007). 5136: 5094: 4454:(2 ed.). Springer-Verlag New York, LLC. 4432: 4411: 3767: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3576: 3574: 3572: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3544: 2978:out of the tracheae to the outside and fresh 2604:), it is derived from bipolar formation. The 1834:– run between adjacent branches of the radius 5944:Lighton, J. R. B.; Lovegrove, B. G. (1990). 5882:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5783:Gillot, C. (1995). "Butterflies and moths". 5402:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4924: 4618: 4380: 3935: 3607:(3 ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 3542: 3540: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3524: 2897:Cockroaches are most common in tropical and 2577:Once food leaves the crop, it passes to the 2097:, the femur, the tibia, the tarsus, and the 666:On the posterior aspect of the head are the 309:"Frons" redirects here. For other uses, see 45:Tagmata: A – Head, B – Thorax, C – Abdomen. 5505: 5095:Terra, Walter R.; Ferreira, Clélia (2009), 4477:Principles and Practices of Animal Taxonomy 4114: 2915:; these roaches are incapable of digesting 1874:Wing areas are delimited and subdivided by 1751:(katydids and grasshoppers, respectively). 729: 590:is that part of the head capsule that lies 27:Description of the physical form of insects 6015: 6008: 5994: 5789:(2 ed.). Springer. pp. 246–266. 5452:Triplehorn, C. A.; Johnson, N. F. (2005). 5415: 5413: 4834: 4360: 2867:insects have a single testis, and in some 1218:or chewing or, in the unusual case of the 5961: 5778: 5776: 5774: 5744: 5727: 5668:Leung, Chee Chee Leung (March 22, 2007). 5644: 5564:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 5363:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5330:(4th ed.). Kendall Hunt Publishers. 5192:(1 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 496pp. 5069: 5067: 5016: 4692:. University of Minnesota. Archived from 4673: 4524: 4522: 4520: 4518: 4367:Beetles (Coleoptera) and coleopterologist 4071: 4023: 3653:Resh, Vincent H.; Cardé, Ring T. (2009). 3652: 3521: 3195:some of which used to comprise the genus 2105:suture that forms internally a ridge, or 5896: 5588: 5143:Encyclopedia of Insects (Second Edition) 4682: 4556: 4554: 4447: 4305: 4197: 3850: 3837: 3823:(2 ed.). U. S. A.: Academic Press. 3089:Like other insect species, beetles have 2549:defecating. Note the contraction of the 2541: 2474: 2305:) or reduced in different insect orders. 2235: 2080: 1955: 1866: 1722: 1696: 1025: 816:, showing fine sensory hairs on antennae 807: 605: 498: 490: 418: 31: 5937: 5853: 5851: 5849: 5410: 4587: 4581: 4127: 4038: 3661: 2701:held or trapped in special structures. 1190:Situated beneath the mandibles, paired 14: 6476: 5817:Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut (Jan 15, 1997). 5782: 5771: 5319: 5212: 5183: 5064: 4528: 4515: 4474: 3749:Richards, O. W.; Davies, R.G. (1977). 2795: 2632: 2109:, and sets off a marginal flange, the 2089:The typical and usual segments of the 1878:, along which the wings can fold, and 351:). Chemically, chitin is a long-chain 5989: 5667: 5661: 5515:The Insects: An Outline of Entomology 5426:. New York: Oxford University Press. 5305:. New York: Oxford University Press. 5274: 5234:Arthropod Structure & Development 5050:"Sentience and pain in invertebrates" 5047: 4744: 4738: 4647: 4551: 4077: 4005: 3883:Volkel, R.; Eisner, M.; Weible, K.J. 3710: 3708: 3604:The Insects: An Outline of Entomology 3199:) employ the same chemicals as ants: 2888:Internal morphology of different taxa 2704: 2675:There are many different patterns of 2219: 2035:Coupling, folding, and other features 1804:– unbranched veins behind the cubitus 5846: 5512:Gullan, P.J.; P.S. Cranston (2005). 5301:Chown, S.L.; S.W. Nicholson (2004). 4966:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 4865:"profemur, profemora – BugGuide.Net" 4315:. The Amateur Entomologists' Society 3601:Gullan, P.J.; P.S. Cranston (2005). 2588:In the wingless (apterygote) orders 1826:– run between the costa and subcosta 738:composed of units called ommatidia ( 265:, a hard outer layer made mostly of 200:is the study and description of the 5382:. Kendall Hunt Publishing Company. 5294: 5275:Meyer, John R. (17 February 2006). 4415:The Insects: Structure and function 4131:The Insects: Structure and Function 4080:Arthropod Structure and Development 3861:. Lander University. Archived from 3856: 3386:of butterflies and moths, the male 2769: 2553:, which provides internal pressure. 2405: 2346:of an insect can be divided into a 2269: 1850:– run between the media and cubitus 1301: 24: 5750: 5576:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1991.tb00896.x 5190:Insect Physiology and Biochemistry 5184:Nation, James L. (November 2001). 5151:10.1016/b978-0-12-374144-8.00083-7 5109:10.1016/b978-0-12-374144-8.00083-7 4810:Snodgrass, R. E. (December 1993). 4567:. University of California Press. 4564:An Inordinate Fondness for Beetles 4361:Kirejtshuk, A.G. (November 2002). 3890:. SUSS MicroOptics. Archived from 3705: 3495:External morphology of Lepidoptera 3323:alternate along the length of the 2855:, suspended in the body cavity by 2687:. During continuous gas exchange, 2414:and other complex substances like 1842:– run between the radius and media 714:, while the gula is found on some 256: 25: 6495: 5973: 4745:Meyer, John R. (5 January 2007). 4272:Entomologia generale ed applicata 2337: 846:having 3-6 segments, while adult 327:The insect's outer skeleton, the 6452: 6443: 6442: 6085: 4925:Schneiderman, Howard A. (1960). 4675:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01299.x 4635:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2005.13504.x 4475:Kapoor, V.C. C. (January 1998). 4448:Gilliott, Cedric (August 1995). 4169:10.1016/j.jphysparis.2012.06.001 3716:"external morphology of Insects" 2815:, accessory glands, one or more 1568: 1559: 1550: 1493: 1484: 1475: 1466: 1394: 1379: 1365: 1349: 1335: 1331:Diversity of piercing mouthparts 1292: 1283: 1274: 1265: 1256: 1247: 1238: 997: 986: 975: 964: 953: 942: 929: 918: 907: 896: 885: 874: 863: 804:Antenna (Biology) § Insects 771: 759: 367:matrix, which forms much of the 5950:Journal of Experimental Biology 5890: 5810: 5633:Molecular Biology and Evolution 5582: 5555: 5536: 5371: 5268: 5221: 5206: 5139:"Chapter 74 – Digestive System" 5130: 5088: 5041: 4992: 4957: 4907: 4882: 4857: 4828: 4812:Principles of Insect Morphology 4641: 4493: 4468: 4354: 4278: 4263: 4226: 4200:Journal of Experimental Biology 4191: 4148: 4032: 3999: 3876: 3411:). This hormone is produced by 2402:insects feel pain consciously. 2240:The abdominal terminus of male 2183:), nymphal cicadas (Hemiptera: 2093:are divided into the coxa, one 2085:Diagram of a typical insect leg 659:, connecting the head with the 5103:, Elsevier, pp. 273–281, 4592:. In Capinera, John L. (ed.). 3885:"Miniaturized imaging systems" 3681: 3646: 3621: 3500:External morphology of Odonata 3377: 2664:, arthropods' fluid analog of 2525:carbohydrate-digesting enzymes 2483:, from an insect of the order 1764:– the leading edge of the wing 1638: 1136: 331:, consists of two layers; the 316: 135:nerve cord (abdominal ganglia) 126:(intestine, rectum & anus) 13: 1: 5753:"How do cockroaches breathe?" 5048:Sømme, LS (14 January 2005). 5018:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00272-1 4247:10.1016/S0065-2806(05)32002-9 4235:Advances in Insect Physiology 3985:10.1016/S0167-9317(03)00102-3 3515: 3266: 3156:, carbon dioxide, and light. 3013: 2332: 1011: 6425:Standard anatomical position 6350:Glossary of plant morphology 6345:Glossary of dinosaur anatomy 6340:Anatomical terms of location 5670:"Cave may hold missing link" 5303:Insect Physiological Ecology 4501:"Mosquito biting mouthparts" 4157:Journal of Physiology, Paris 4039:Ritchie, Alexander (1985). " 3954:10.1016/0022-1910(74)90087-0 3942:Journal of Insect Physiology 3130:fatty-acid-derived aldehydes 2892: 2434:into smaller molecules like 2385:At least a few insects have 2077:Arthropod leg § Insects 1623: 1419: 7: 4648:Kunte, Krushnamegh (2007). 3977:Microelectronic Engineering 3857:Fox, Richard (6 Oct 2006). 3478: 3403:. The first insect hormone 3281:neurohemal corpora cardiaca 3038:, a widened expansion, the 2328:) is of uncertain homology. 1705: 1502: 1143:Mandible (insect mouthpart) 797: 625:dragonflies and damselflies 304: 10: 6500: 5474:Fundamentals of Entomology 4595:Encyclopedia of Entomology 4274:. CEDAM. pp. 492–530. 3330: 3232:propelling the excretion. 2905:with the exception of the 2802:Insect reproductive system 2799: 2685:discontinuous gas exchange 2611: 2470: 2229: 2226:Insect reproductive system 2223: 2202: 2074: 1701:Cross-section of wing vein 1655: 1627: 1584:Thorax (arthropod anatomy) 1581: 1140: 1015: 801: 778:Compound eye cross-section 534:Of all the insect orders, 320: 308: 6463:Index of anatomy articles 6438: 6365: 6327: 6294: 6246: 6198: 6148: 6132: 6094: 6083: 6027: 5254:10.1016/j.asd.2023.101237 4890:"protibia – BugGuide.Net" 4747:"External Anatomy: WINGS" 4100:10.1016/j.asd.2006.06.003 4065:10.1080/03115518508618961 4025:10.1163/18759866-06704001 2806: 2572: 1951: 1862: 1577: 928: 858:Types of insect antennae 837:sense themselves in space 218: 6112:morphological plasticity 6102:Bacterial cell structure 5897:Williams, C. M. (1947). 5213:Duncan, Carl D. (1939). 4503:. allmosquitos.com. 2011 4012:Contributions to Zoology 2945:, with the exception of 2909:-eating species such as 2777:1. Neurosecretory cells 2640:is accomplished without 2314:median appendix dorsalis 1718: 1651: 1592:has three segments: the 730:Compound eyes and ocelli 406:or ventral, and the two 244:) to 30 cm across ( 169:fore-gut (crop, gizzard) 5696:"Cockroaches that lack 5420:McGavin, G. C. (2001). 5101:Encyclopedia of Insects 4590:"Butterflies and moths" 4588:Heppner, J. B. (2008). 4212:10.1242/jeb.204.24.4301 3821:Encyclopedia of Insects 3667:Campbell, N. A. (1996) 3655:Encyclopedia of Insects 3099:open circulatory system 3042:and a poorly developed 2985:diffuses in. Unlike in 2948:Nocticola australiensis 2846: 2397:of the common fruitfly 2310:central caudal filament 2187:), and scarab beetles ( 2070: 1801:Anal veins (A1, A2, A3) 1194:manipulate food during 680:posterior tentorial pit 414: 6430:Transcendental anatomy 6335:Anatomical terminology 5720:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0614 5472:Elzinga, R.J. (2004). 4814:. Cornell Univ Press. 4537:. Oxford Univ. Press. 4412:Chapman, R.F. (1998). 4128:Chapman, R.F. (1998). 4006:Gaten, Edward (1998). 3917:Cite journal requires 3692:A Survey of Entomology 2742:found in vertebrates. 2554: 2488: 2364:subesophageal ganglion 2250: 2086: 1960: 1871: 1728: 1702: 1455:Angraecum sesquipedale 1234:Diversity of mandibles 1044: 817: 610: 512: 496: 488: 311:Frons (disambiguation) 194: 184:subesophageal ganglion 6107:cellular morphologies 5963:10.1242/jeb.154.1.509 5646:10.1093/molbev/msg097 5077:. NC state University 4696:on September 27, 2011 4041:Ainiktozoon loganense 3629:"O. Orkin Insect zoo" 3285:median corpus allatum 3273:neuroendocrine system 3228:+ quinone, with the O 3161:Defense and predation 2863:. The more primitive 2545: 2478: 2239: 2232:Lepidoptera genitalia 2084: 1959: 1870: 1726: 1700: 1029: 811: 766:Ocellus cross-section 609: 502: 494: 422: 35: 6378:Anatomical variation 6061:Microscopic anatomy 5819:"Insect Respiration" 5283:on 27 September 2009 5277:"Circulatory System" 4529:Scoble, MJ. (1992). 4299:10.1093/aesa/63.1.81 4206:(Pt 24): 4301–4309. 3753:. Berlin: Springer. 3485:Morphology (biology) 2780:2. Corpora cardiaca 2567:extra-oral digestion 1462:Siphoning mouthparts 1033:Legend: a – antennae 42:Legend of body parts 6393:Form classification 6261:Neanderthal anatomy 6119:Colonial morphology 6057:Comparative anatomy 6040:Superficial anatomy 5246:2023ArtSD..7301237M 4835:Spieth, HT (1932). 4666:2007FuEco..21..982K 4337:"Insect Morphology" 4092:2006ArtSD..35..231M 4057:1985Alch....9..117R 3409:the relates section 3384:reproductive system 3148:in the presence of 2796:Reproductive system 2633:Respiratory systems 2432:catabolic reactions 1546:Sponging mouthparts 859: 357:N-acetylglucosamine 117:dorsal tube (heart) 81:dorsal blood vessel 6408:History of anatomy 6095:Bacteria and fungi 5751:Kunkel, Joseph G. 5603:10.1007/pl00001766 5356:has generic name ( 5097:"Digestive System" 4978:10.1007/BF01963580 4844:Entomological News 4654:Functional Ecology 3979:. 67–68: 461–472. 3859:"External Anatomy" 3469:respiratory system 3453:circulatory system 3290:malpighian tubules 3205:Bombardier beetles 3108:are produced from 3066:is obtained via a 3052:Malpighian tubules 2993:for transporting O 2785:Prothoracic glands 2717:, storage (water, 2705:Circulatory system 2638:Insect respiration 2627:Malpighian tubules 2596:(and the hexapods 2555: 2489: 2352:ventral nerve cord 2312:, prolongation or 2251: 2220:External genitalia 2087: 1961: 1899:Anal area (vannus) 1872: 1729: 1703: 1520:The mouthparts of 1444:Xanthopan morganii 1045: 857: 833:sensory structures 818: 611: 513: 497: 489: 471::maxillary palps; 379:(unmodified) to a 195: 87:tubes (trunk with 6484:Insect morphology 6471: 6470: 6304:Amphibian anatomy 6296:Other vertebrates 6238:Arthropod cuticle 6216:Insect morphology 6211:Gastropod anatomy 6124:Lichen morphology 6050:brain morphometry 5980:Insect Morphology 5796:978-0-306-44967-3 5757:The Cockroach FAQ 5498:978-0-03-096835-8 5433:978-0-19-850002-5 5389:978-0-7575-4128-5 5337:978-0-7575-5049-2 5160:978-0-12-374144-8 5118:978-0-12-374144-8 4605:978-1-4020-6242-1 4544:978-1-4020-6242-1 4313:"Insect antennae" 4256:978-0-12-024232-0 3830:978-0-12-374144-8 3700:978-0-595-22143-1 3490:Insect physiology 3214:hydrogen peroxide 3124:, and species of 3084:passive diffusion 2481:malpighian tubule 2320:, many mayflies ( 1358:Cimex lectularius 1319:, which contains 1018:Insect mouthparts 1009: 1008: 688:hypostomal suture 676:occipital foramen 633:pterygote insects 373:calcium carbonate 198:Insect morphology 172:thoracic ganglion 114:mid-gut (stomach) 38:Insect morphology 16:(Redirected from 6491: 6456: 6446: 6445: 6383:Anatomical plane 6281:Elephant anatomy 6178:Plant morphology 6089: 6010: 6003: 5996: 5987: 5986: 5968: 5967: 5965: 5941: 5935: 5934: 5894: 5888: 5887: 5881: 5873: 5855: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5839: 5814: 5808: 5807: 5805: 5803: 5780: 5769: 5768: 5766: 5764: 5748: 5742: 5741: 5731: 5691: 5685: 5684: 5682: 5680: 5665: 5659: 5658: 5648: 5630: 5621: 5615: 5614: 5591:Insectes Sociaux 5586: 5580: 5579: 5559: 5553: 5552: 5540: 5534: 5533: 5509: 5503: 5502: 5484: 5478: 5477: 5469: 5458: 5457: 5449: 5438: 5437: 5417: 5408: 5407: 5401: 5393: 5375: 5369: 5368: 5361: 5355: 5351: 5349: 5341: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5298: 5292: 5291: 5289: 5288: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5225: 5219: 5218: 5210: 5204: 5203: 5181: 5170: 5169: 5168: 5167: 5134: 5128: 5127: 5126: 5125: 5092: 5086: 5085: 5083: 5082: 5071: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5045: 5039: 5038: 5020: 4996: 4990: 4989: 4972:(2): 1420–1423. 4961: 4955: 4954: 4922: 4916: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4900: 4886: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4875: 4861: 4855: 4854: 4852: 4846:. Archived from 4841: 4832: 4826: 4825: 4807: 4762: 4761: 4759: 4758: 4742: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4731: 4726:on April 9, 2011 4716:"Fly Mouthparts" 4712: 4706: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4645: 4639: 4638: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4585: 4579: 4578: 4558: 4549: 4548: 4536: 4526: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4508: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4445: 4430: 4429: 4409: 4378: 4377: 4375: 4374: 4358: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4348: 4333: 4324: 4323: 4321: 4320: 4309: 4303: 4302: 4282: 4276: 4275: 4267: 4261: 4260: 4230: 4224: 4223: 4195: 4189: 4188: 4163:(1–2): 116–129. 4152: 4146: 4145: 4125: 4112: 4111: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4036: 4030: 4029: 4027: 4003: 3997: 3996: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3948:(8): 1565–1591. 3933: 3927: 3926: 3920: 3915: 3913: 3905: 3903: 3902: 3896: 3889: 3880: 3874: 3873: 3871: 3870: 3854: 3848: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3816: 3765: 3764: 3746: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3733: 3727: 3721:. Archived from 3720: 3712: 3703: 3689: 3685: 3679: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3650: 3644: 3643: 3641: 3640: 3625: 3619: 3618: 3598: 3461:thermoregulation 3424:digestive system 3417:corpora cardiaca 3401:endocrine system 3301:lateral oviducts 3110:epithelial cells 3020:digestive system 2770:Endocrine system 2691:is taken in and 2683:ventilation, to 2445:alimentary canal 2406:Digestive system 2270:Other appendages 2247:Panorpa communis 2012: 2008: 1995: 1988: 1981: 1974: 1914: 1907: 1900: 1893: 1848: 1847:M-Cu cross-veins 1840: 1832: 1824: 1823:C-Sc cross-veins 1802: 1794: 1786: 1778: 1770: 1762: 1733:chalcidoid wasps 1572: 1563: 1554: 1497: 1488: 1479: 1470: 1430:maxillary galeae 1398: 1383: 1369: 1353: 1339: 1302:Piercing-sucking 1296: 1287: 1278: 1269: 1260: 1251: 1242: 1075:Piercing-sucking 1035:c – compound eye 1001: 990: 979: 968: 957: 946: 933: 922: 911: 900: 889: 878: 867: 860: 856: 775: 763: 684:postgenal bridge 250:ecological niche 246:great owlet moth 225:, which include 139:Malpighian tubes 69:brain (cerebral 21: 6499: 6498: 6494: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6489: 6488: 6474: 6473: 6472: 6467: 6434: 6361: 6355:leaf morphology 6323: 6290: 6286:Giraffe anatomy 6242: 6206:Decapod anatomy 6194: 6190:Soil morphology 6173:Plant life-form 6144: 6128: 6090: 6081: 6023: 6014: 5976: 5971: 5942: 5938: 5915:10.2307/1538279 5895: 5891: 5875: 5874: 5870: 5856: 5847: 5837: 5835: 5833: 5815: 5811: 5801: 5799: 5797: 5781: 5772: 5762: 5760: 5759:. UMass Amherst 5749: 5745: 5708:Biology Letters 5698:Blattabacterium 5692: 5688: 5678: 5676: 5666: 5662: 5628: 5622: 5618: 5587: 5583: 5560: 5556: 5551:(1/4): 149–154. 5541: 5537: 5530: 5510: 5506: 5499: 5485: 5481: 5470: 5461: 5450: 5441: 5434: 5418: 5411: 5395: 5394: 5390: 5376: 5372: 5362: 5353: 5352: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5299: 5295: 5286: 5284: 5273: 5269: 5226: 5222: 5211: 5207: 5200: 5182: 5173: 5165: 5163: 5161: 5135: 5131: 5123: 5121: 5119: 5093: 5089: 5080: 5078: 5073: 5072: 5065: 5055: 5053: 5046: 5042: 4997: 4993: 4962: 4958: 4943:10.2307/1539265 4923: 4919: 4912: 4908: 4898: 4896: 4888: 4887: 4883: 4873: 4871: 4863: 4862: 4858: 4850: 4839: 4833: 4829: 4822: 4808: 4765: 4756: 4754: 4753:on 16 July 2011 4743: 4739: 4729: 4727: 4714: 4713: 4709: 4699: 4697: 4688: 4687: 4683: 4646: 4642: 4617: 4613: 4606: 4586: 4582: 4575: 4559: 4552: 4545: 4527: 4516: 4506: 4504: 4499: 4498: 4494: 4487: 4473: 4469: 4462: 4446: 4433: 4426: 4410: 4381: 4372: 4370: 4359: 4355: 4346: 4344: 4335: 4334: 4327: 4318: 4316: 4311: 4310: 4306: 4283: 4279: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4231: 4227: 4196: 4192: 4153: 4149: 4142: 4126: 4115: 4076: 4072: 4037: 4033: 4004: 4000: 3973: 3969: 3934: 3930: 3918: 3916: 3907: 3906: 3900: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3881: 3877: 3868: 3866: 3855: 3851: 3842: 3838: 3831: 3817: 3768: 3761: 3747: 3740: 3731: 3729: 3725: 3718: 3714: 3713: 3706: 3687: 3686: 3682: 3666: 3662: 3651: 3647: 3638: 3636: 3627: 3626: 3622: 3615: 3599: 3522: 3518: 3481: 3397:Mnesarchaeoidea 3380: 3333: 3309:genital chamber 3269: 3236:Tympanal organs 3231: 3227: 3223: 3144:by the enzymes 3138:bioluminescence 3068:tracheal system 3016: 3008: 3000: 2996: 2989:that depend on 2983: 2974: 2969: 2942:Blattabacterium 2895: 2890: 2849: 2809: 2804: 2798: 2772: 2707: 2658:peristaltically 2635: 2614: 2575: 2559:salivary glands 2473: 2420:polysaccharides 2408: 2379:Musca domestica 2340: 2335: 2272: 2234: 2228: 2222: 2210:laterosternites 2205: 2195:) and mantids ( 2079: 2073: 2037: 2010: 2006: 2005:Median plates ( 2000:Fourth Axillary 1993: 1987:Second Axillary 1986: 1979: 1972: 1954: 1912: 1905: 1898: 1891: 1865: 1846: 1839:R-M cross-veins 1838: 1830: 1822: 1800: 1792: 1784: 1776: 1768: 1760: 1721: 1708: 1660: 1654: 1641: 1632: 1626: 1586: 1580: 1573: 1564: 1555: 1505: 1498: 1489: 1480: 1471: 1428:is formed from 1422: 1415: 1399: 1390: 1384: 1375: 1370: 1361: 1354: 1345: 1340: 1304: 1297: 1288: 1279: 1270: 1261: 1252: 1243: 1220:dragonfly nymph 1156:, bearing some 1145: 1139: 1042: 1040: 1038: 1036: 1034: 1032: 1020: 1014: 1002: 991: 980: 969: 958: 947: 934: 923: 912: 901: 890: 879: 868: 806: 800: 784: 783: 782: 781: 780: 779: 776: 768: 767: 764: 732: 572:ecdysial suture 556:opisthognathous 447::compound eye; 417: 325: 319: 314: 307: 259: 257:Anatomy summary 193: 46: 44: 40: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6497: 6487: 6486: 6469: 6468: 6466: 6465: 6460: 6450: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6433: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6416: 6415: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6369: 6367: 6366:Related topics 6363: 6362: 6360: 6359: 6358: 6357: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6331: 6329: 6325: 6324: 6322: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6300: 6298: 6292: 6291: 6289: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6252: 6250: 6244: 6243: 6241: 6240: 6235: 6233:Spider anatomy 6230: 6229: 6228: 6223: 6213: 6208: 6202: 6200: 6196: 6195: 6193: 6192: 6187: 6186: 6185: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6164: 6163: 6152: 6150: 6146: 6145: 6143: 6142: 6136: 6134: 6130: 6129: 6127: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6115: 6114: 6109: 6098: 6096: 6092: 6091: 6084: 6082: 6080: 6079: 6074: 6073: 6072: 6067: 6059: 6054: 6053: 6052: 6042: 6037: 6031: 6029: 6025: 6024: 6013: 6012: 6005: 5998: 5990: 5984: 5983: 5975: 5974:External links 5972: 5970: 5969: 5936: 5889: 5868: 5845: 5831: 5809: 5795: 5770: 5743: 5686: 5660: 5639:(6): 907–913. 5616: 5597:(3): 187–193. 5581: 5554: 5535: 5528: 5504: 5497: 5479: 5459: 5439: 5432: 5409: 5388: 5370: 5336: 5318: 5311: 5293: 5267: 5220: 5205: 5198: 5171: 5159: 5129: 5117: 5087: 5063: 5040: 5011:(2): 261–273. 4991: 4956: 4937:(3): 494–528. 4917: 4906: 4881: 4856: 4853:on 2011-09-30. 4827: 4820: 4763: 4737: 4707: 4681: 4660:(5): 982–987. 4640: 4629:(1): 183–193. 4611: 4604: 4580: 4573: 4550: 4543: 4514: 4492: 4485: 4467: 4460: 4431: 4424: 4379: 4353: 4325: 4304: 4277: 4262: 4255: 4225: 4190: 4147: 4140: 4113: 4086:(4): 231–245. 4070: 4031: 4018:(4): 223–236. 3998: 3967: 3928: 3919:|journal= 3875: 3849: 3836: 3829: 3766: 3759: 3738: 3704: 3680: 3660: 3645: 3620: 3613: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3513: 3512: 3507: 3505:Insect ecology 3502: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3480: 3477: 3413:corpora allata 3379: 3376: 3332: 3329: 3268: 3265: 3245:in the family 3229: 3225: 3221: 3076:diving beetles 3059:nervous system 3015: 3012: 3006: 2998: 2994: 2981: 2972: 2967: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2848: 2845: 2808: 2805: 2800:Main article: 2797: 2794: 2791:Corpora allata 2771: 2768: 2706: 2703: 2693:carbon dioxide 2634: 2631: 2613: 2610: 2574: 2571: 2521:proventriculus 2472: 2469: 2412:macromolecules 2407: 2404: 2344:nervous system 2339: 2338:Nervous system 2336: 2334: 2331: 2330: 2329: 2306: 2293: 2271: 2268: 2267: 2266: 2263: 2224:Main article: 2221: 2218: 2204: 2201: 2181:Gryllotalpidae 2072: 2069: 2036: 2033: 2016: 2015: 2002: 1997: 1994:Third Axillary 1990: 1983: 1980:First Axillary 1976: 1973:Humeral plates 1953: 1950: 1922: 1921: 1916: 1909: 1902: 1895: 1864: 1861: 1852: 1851: 1843: 1835: 1827: 1806: 1805: 1797: 1789: 1781: 1773: 1765: 1745:Tettigonioidea 1720: 1717: 1707: 1704: 1656:Main article: 1653: 1650: 1640: 1637: 1628:Main article: 1625: 1622: 1579: 1576: 1575: 1574: 1567: 1565: 1558: 1556: 1549: 1547: 1539:Apis mellifera 1504: 1501: 1500: 1499: 1492: 1490: 1483: 1481: 1474: 1472: 1465: 1463: 1450:Charles Darwin 1421: 1418: 1417: 1416: 1414:for comparison 1407:Ixodes ricinus 1400: 1393: 1391: 1385: 1378: 1376: 1371: 1364: 1362: 1355: 1348: 1346: 1341: 1334: 1332: 1321:anticoagulants 1303: 1300: 1299: 1298: 1291: 1289: 1282: 1280: 1273: 1271: 1264: 1262: 1255: 1253: 1246: 1244: 1237: 1235: 1138: 1135: 1095: 1094: 1084: 1078: 1072: 1041:md – mandibles 1016:Main article: 1013: 1010: 1007: 1006: 995: 984: 973: 962: 951: 939: 938: 927: 916: 905: 894: 883: 872: 802:Main article: 799: 796: 777: 770: 769: 765: 758: 757: 756: 755: 754: 753: 749:Tenthredinidae 731: 728: 653:salivary ducts 467::labial palp; 459::pleurostoma; 416: 413: 347:stages (e.g., 323:Insect cuticle 321:Main article: 318: 315: 306: 303: 258: 255: 192: 191: 186: 181: 180:salivary gland 178: 173: 170: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 144: 141: 136: 133: 130: 127: 121: 118: 115: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 82: 79: 74: 67: 62: 61:ocelli (upper) 59: 53: 47: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6496: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6479: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6449: 6441: 6440: 6437: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6414: 6411: 6410: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6370: 6368: 6364: 6356: 6353: 6352: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6332: 6330: 6326: 6320: 6319:Shark anatomy 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6301: 6299: 6297: 6293: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6276:Horse anatomy 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6256:Human anatomy 6254: 6253: 6251: 6249: 6245: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6218: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6203: 6201: 6199:Invertebrates 6197: 6191: 6188: 6184: 6181: 6180: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6162: 6159: 6158: 6157: 6156:Plant anatomy 6154: 6153: 6151: 6147: 6141: 6138: 6137: 6135: 6131: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6104: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6093: 6088: 6078: 6077:Morphometrics 6075: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6051: 6048: 6047: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6035:Gross anatomy 6033: 6032: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6011: 6006: 6004: 5999: 5997: 5992: 5991: 5988: 5981: 5978: 5977: 5964: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5940: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5909:(2): 89–180. 5908: 5904: 5900: 5893: 5885: 5879: 5871: 5869:0-19-510033-6 5865: 5861: 5854: 5852: 5850: 5834: 5832:0-521-57098-0 5828: 5824: 5820: 5813: 5798: 5792: 5788: 5787: 5779: 5777: 5775: 5758: 5754: 5747: 5739: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5714:(3): 327–30. 5713: 5709: 5705: 5703: 5699: 5690: 5675: 5674:theage.com.au 5671: 5664: 5656: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5627: 5620: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5585: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5558: 5550: 5546: 5539: 5531: 5529:1-4051-1113-5 5525: 5521: 5517: 5516: 5508: 5500: 5494: 5490: 5483: 5475: 5468: 5466: 5464: 5455: 5448: 5446: 5444: 5435: 5429: 5425: 5424: 5416: 5414: 5405: 5399: 5391: 5385: 5381: 5374: 5366: 5359: 5354:|author= 5347: 5339: 5333: 5329: 5322: 5314: 5312:0-19-851549-9 5308: 5304: 5297: 5282: 5278: 5271: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5224: 5216: 5209: 5201: 5199:0-8493-1181-0 5195: 5191: 5187: 5180: 5178: 5176: 5162: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5133: 5120: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5091: 5076: 5070: 5068: 5056:September 30, 5051: 5044: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4995: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4960: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4921: 4915: 4910: 4895: 4891: 4885: 4870: 4866: 4860: 4849: 4845: 4838: 4831: 4823: 4821:0-8014-8125-2 4817: 4813: 4806: 4804: 4802: 4800: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4772: 4770: 4768: 4752: 4748: 4741: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4711: 4695: 4691: 4685: 4676: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4644: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4623: 4615: 4607: 4601: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4584: 4576: 4574:0-520-22323-3 4570: 4566: 4565: 4557: 4555: 4546: 4540: 4535: 4534: 4525: 4523: 4521: 4519: 4502: 4496: 4488: 4486:1-57808-024-X 4482: 4478: 4471: 4463: 4461:0-306-44967-6 4457: 4453: 4452: 4444: 4442: 4440: 4438: 4436: 4427: 4425:0-521-57048-4 4421: 4417: 4416: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4402: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4390: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4368: 4364: 4357: 4343:on 2011-03-03 4342: 4338: 4332: 4330: 4314: 4308: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4281: 4273: 4266: 4258: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4229: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4194: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4151: 4143: 4141:0-521-57048-4 4137: 4133: 4132: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4074: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4035: 4026: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4002: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3971: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3932: 3924: 3911: 3897:on 2008-10-01 3893: 3886: 3879: 3865:on 2011-03-14 3864: 3860: 3853: 3846: 3840: 3832: 3826: 3822: 3815: 3813: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3805: 3803: 3801: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3762: 3760:0-412-61390-5 3756: 3752: 3745: 3743: 3728:on 2011-07-19 3724: 3717: 3711: 3709: 3701: 3697: 3694:. iUniverse. 3693: 3684: 3678: 3677:0-8053-1957-3 3674: 3670: 3664: 3656: 3649: 3635:on 2009-06-02 3634: 3630: 3624: 3616: 3614:1-4051-1113-5 3610: 3606: 3605: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3591: 3589: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3575: 3573: 3571: 3569: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3559: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3520: 3511: 3508: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3483: 3482: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3449: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3385: 3375: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3347:ovoviviparous 3342: 3339: 3328: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3291: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3264: 3262: 3258: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3243: 3237: 3233: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3210:hydroquinones 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3165:Ground beetle 3162: 3157: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3114:Melolonthinae 3111: 3107: 3102: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3011: 3004: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2977: 2970: 2963: 2959: 2958: 2952: 2950: 2949: 2944: 2943: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2878:spermatogonia 2875: 2870: 2869:lepidopterans 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2844: 2842: 2836: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2803: 2793: 2792: 2787: 2786: 2781: 2778: 2775: 2767: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2743: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2720: 2719:carbohydrates 2716: 2712: 2702: 2699: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2673: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2630: 2628: 2623: 2619: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2590:Archaeognatha 2586: 2584: 2580: 2570: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2538: 2532: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2505:buccal cavity 2502: 2498: 2494: 2486: 2482: 2477: 2468: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2440:simple sugars 2437: 2433: 2429: 2428:nucleic acids 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2403: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2381: 2380: 2375: 2374: 2367: 2365: 2362:, called the 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2327: 2323: 2322:Ephemeroptera 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2304: 2300: 2299: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2282: 2281: 2279: 2278: 2264: 2261: 2260: 2259: 2255: 2249: 2248: 2243: 2242:scorpionflies 2238: 2233: 2227: 2217: 2213: 2211: 2200: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2156: 2153: 2148: 2144: 2141: 2136: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2111:coxomarginale 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2083: 2078: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2014: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1996: 1991: 1989: 1984: 1982: 1977: 1975: 1970: 1969: 1968: 1965: 1958: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1913:Axillary area 1910: 1908: 1903: 1901: 1896: 1894: 1889: 1888: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1880:flexion lines 1877: 1869: 1860: 1856: 1849: 1844: 1841: 1836: 1833: 1831:R cross-veins 1828: 1825: 1820: 1819: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1803: 1798: 1795: 1790: 1787: 1782: 1779: 1774: 1771: 1769:Subcosta (Sc) 1766: 1763: 1758: 1757: 1756: 1752: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1725: 1716: 1714: 1699: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1684: 1683:Insect flight 1680: 1677: 1673: 1672:Insect flight 1669: 1668:invertebrates 1665: 1659: 1658:Wing (insect) 1649: 1645: 1636: 1631: 1621: 1617: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1585: 1571: 1566: 1562: 1557: 1553: 1548: 1545: 1544: 1543: 1541: 1540: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1518: 1516: 1511: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1469: 1464: 1461: 1460: 1459: 1457: 1456: 1451: 1447: 1445: 1440: 1434: 1431: 1427: 1413: 1409: 1408: 1403: 1397: 1392: 1388: 1382: 1377: 1374: 1368: 1363: 1360: 1359: 1352: 1347: 1344: 1338: 1333: 1330: 1329: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1295: 1290: 1286: 1281: 1277: 1272: 1268: 1263: 1259: 1254: 1250: 1245: 1241: 1236: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1161: 1159: 1155: 1150: 1144: 1134: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1092: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1076: 1073: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1043:mx – maxillae 1028: 1024: 1019: 1005: 1000: 996: 994: 989: 985: 983: 978: 974: 972: 967: 963: 961: 956: 952: 950: 945: 941: 940: 937: 932: 926: 921: 917: 915: 910: 906: 904: 899: 895: 893: 888: 884: 882: 877: 873: 871: 866: 862: 861: 855: 852: 849: 845: 840: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 815: 812:Closeup of a 810: 805: 795: 793: 792:phased arrays 789: 774: 762: 752: 750: 745: 741: 737: 736:compound eyes 727: 725: 721: 717: 713: 710:and aculeate 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 664: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 621: 616: 608: 604: 602: 597: 593: 589: 584: 582: 578: 573: 568: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 532: 528: 526: 522: 518: 510: 506: 501: 493: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 421: 412: 409: 405: 401: 396: 394: 390: 384: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 365:proteinaceous 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 324: 312: 302: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 254: 251: 247: 243: 238: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 211: 207: 203: 202:physical form 199: 190: 187: 185: 182: 179: 177: 174: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 145: 142: 140: 137: 134: 131: 128: 125: 122: 119: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 90: 86: 83: 80: 78: 75: 72: 68: 66: 63: 60: 57: 54: 52: 49: 48: 43: 39: 34: 30: 19: 6413:19th century 6403:Hertwig rule 6314:Fish anatomy 6309:Bird anatomy 6215: 6183:reproductive 6045:Neuroanatomy 5953: 5949: 5939: 5906: 5902: 5892: 5859: 5836:. Retrieved 5822: 5812: 5800:. Retrieved 5785: 5761:. Retrieved 5756: 5746: 5711: 5707: 5701: 5697: 5689: 5677:. Retrieved 5673: 5663: 5636: 5632: 5619: 5594: 5590: 5584: 5570:(1): 21–60. 5567: 5563: 5557: 5548: 5544: 5538: 5514: 5507: 5488: 5482: 5473: 5453: 5422: 5379: 5373: 5327: 5321: 5302: 5296: 5285:. Retrieved 5281:the original 5270: 5237: 5233: 5223: 5214: 5208: 5189: 5164:, retrieved 5142: 5132: 5122:, retrieved 5100: 5090: 5079:. Retrieved 5054:. Retrieved 5043: 5008: 5004: 4994: 4969: 4965: 4959: 4934: 4930: 4920: 4909: 4897:. Retrieved 4894:bugguide.net 4893: 4884: 4872:. Retrieved 4869:bugguide.net 4868: 4859: 4848:the original 4843: 4830: 4811: 4755:. Retrieved 4751:the original 4740: 4728:. Retrieved 4724:the original 4719: 4710: 4698:. Retrieved 4694:the original 4684: 4657: 4653: 4643: 4626: 4620: 4614: 4594: 4583: 4563: 4532: 4505:. Retrieved 4495: 4476: 4470: 4450: 4414: 4371:. Retrieved 4366: 4356: 4345:. Retrieved 4341:the original 4317:. Retrieved 4307: 4290: 4286: 4280: 4271: 4265: 4238: 4234: 4228: 4203: 4199: 4193: 4160: 4156: 4150: 4130: 4083: 4079: 4073: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4015: 4011: 4001: 3976: 3970: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3931: 3910:cite journal 3899:. Retrieved 3892:the original 3878: 3867:. Retrieved 3863:the original 3852: 3839: 3820: 3750: 3730:. Retrieved 3723:the original 3691: 3688:Gene Kritsky 3683: 3668: 3663: 3654: 3648: 3637:. Retrieved 3633:the original 3623: 3603: 3450: 3441:goblet cells 3421: 3381: 3367:endoparasite 3343: 3334: 3294: 3288:(extratory) 3270: 3256:Scarabaeidae 3254: 3247:Cicindelidae 3246: 3240: 3234: 3197:Thermophilum 3196: 3192: 3169:hydrocarbons 3158: 3154:oxyluciferin 3103: 3088: 3079: 3056: 3017: 2955: 2953: 2946: 2940: 2931:to those in 2929:Cryptocercus 2928: 2912:Cryptocercus 2910: 2896: 2881: 2850: 2837: 2825: 2817:spermathecae 2810: 2788: 2782: 2779: 2776: 2773: 2744: 2708: 2677:gas exchange 2674: 2636: 2615: 2587: 2576: 2556: 2537:diverticulum 2533: 2490: 2409: 2384: 2377: 2373:Vespa crabro 2371: 2368: 2341: 2313: 2309: 2296: 2285: 2275: 2273: 2256: 2252: 2245: 2214: 2206: 2189:Scarabaeidae 2167:) and bugs ( 2157: 2149: 2145: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2088: 2065: 2061: 2038: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2004: 1999: 1992: 1985: 1978: 1971: 1966: 1962: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1923: 1918: 1911: 1904: 1897: 1890: 1873: 1857: 1853: 1845: 1837: 1829: 1821: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1799: 1793:Cubitus (Cu) 1791: 1783: 1775: 1767: 1759: 1753: 1730: 1709: 1688:aerodynamics 1681: 1661: 1646: 1642: 1633: 1618: 1587: 1537: 1519: 1506: 1453: 1442: 1435: 1423: 1405: 1356: 1324: 1305: 1228: 1212: 1189: 1177:stag beetles 1173:caterpillars 1162: 1146: 1127:caterpillars 1096: 1086: 1080: 1074: 1068: 1046: 1021: 1003: 992: 981: 970: 959: 948: 935: 924: 913: 902: 891: 880: 869: 853: 844:higher flies 841: 824: 819: 785: 744:polarization 733: 665: 612: 601:Cicadomorpha 585: 576: 569: 552:hypognathous 546:. Here, the 533: 529: 525:Cyclorrhapha 521:head capsule 520: 514: 509:Cyclorrhapha 507:, member of 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 397: 385: 383:(modified). 349:caterpillars 326: 273:: the head, 260: 239: 219:head capsule 214: 197: 196: 65:compound eye 41: 37: 29: 18:Microtrichia 6420:Physiognomy 6271:Dog anatomy 6266:Cat anatomy 6168:Plant habit 5956:: 509–516. 5802:14 November 4899:10 December 4874:10 December 3437:Hymenoptera 3393:Hepialoidea 3378:Lepidoptera 3317:nurse cells 3305:spermatheca 3201:formic acid 3093:instead of 3010:breathing. 2987:vertebrates 2899:subtropical 2760:Hymenoptera 2756:Lepidoptera 2606:Palaeoptera 2436:amino acids 2387:nociceptors 2318:apterygotes 2057:Trichoptera 2055:, and some 2053:Lepidoptera 2045:Trichoptera 2041:Hymenoptera 1930:jugal areas 1690:, and thin 1639:Pterothorax 1588:The insect 1530:Hymenoptera 1309:hemophagous 1216:mastication 1196:mastication 1175:). In male 1137:Mandibulate 1123:Lepidoptera 1111:Hymenoptera 1091:Lepidoptera 1069:Mandibulate 1039:lr – labrum 1037:lb – labium 848:cockroaches 788:diffraction 712:Hymenoptera 657:musculature 641:pleurostoma 577:frontogenal 560:prognathous 505:Syrphid fly 463::mandible; 402:or dorsal, 377:caterpillar 369:exoskeleton 341:sclerotized 317:Exoskeleton 291:respiration 263:exoskeleton 143:tarsal pads 6328:Glossaries 6140:Structures 6021:morphology 5903:Biol. Bull 5786:Entomology 5763:7 December 5679:7 December 5287:2009-10-11 5166:2020-09-29 5124:2020-09-29 5081:2009-05-03 4931:Biol. Bull 4757:2011-03-21 4690:"Sponging" 4451:Entomology 4373:2011-03-21 4347:2011-03-21 4319:2011-03-21 4241:: 49–205. 4051:(2): 137. 4045:Alcheringa 3901:2011-03-20 3869:2011-03-20 3732:2011-03-20 3690:. (2002). 3639:2009-05-03 3516:References 3510:Entomology 3428:pharyngeal 3267:Dermaptera 3251:Dynastinae 3146:luciferase 3126:Elateridae 3118:Dermestids 3080:Dytiscidae 3032:Elateridae 3014:Coleoptera 2921:protozoans 2903:omnivorous 2882:de minimis 2865:apterygote 2736:vertebrate 2598:Entognatha 2583:microvilli 2485:Orthoptera 2399:Drosophila 2326:Plecoptera 2286:paraprocts 2230:See also: 2193:Neuroptera 2165:Coleoptera 2115:basicoxite 2103:basicostal 2095:trochanter 2091:insect leg 2075:See also: 1906:Jugal area 1884:Dermaptera 1876:fold lines 1777:Radius (R) 1749:Acridoidea 1737:Orthoptera 1602:metathorax 1598:mesothorax 1582:See also: 1439:allometric 1154:epipharynx 1141:See also: 1119:Orthoptera 1107:Coleoptera 1103:Neuroptera 1058:Coleoptera 1050:Formicidae 1012:Mouthparts 960:Moniliform 925:Geniculate 914:Flabellate 740:ommatidium 720:Neuroptera 716:Coleoptera 694:, and the 645:nerve cord 558:heads. In 536:Orthoptera 483::clypeus; 475::maxilla; 451::occiput; 435::antenna; 425:Orthoptera 361:arthropods 337:procuticle 333:epicuticle 242:fairyflies 235:Collembola 210:arthropods 189:mouthparts 165:trochanter 100:metathorax 95:mesothorax 6398:Gracility 6388:Body plan 6373:Allometry 6070:molecular 6065:histology 5878:cite book 5702:Nocticola 5398:cite book 5346:cite book 4730:April 17, 4700:April 17, 4507:April 17, 4293:: 81–88. 3993:0167-9317 3457:hemolymph 3445:potassium 3432:esophagus 3388:genitalia 3242:Cicindela 3218:catalases 3173:aldehydes 3142:luciferin 3106:Rutelinae 3091:hemolymph 3072:spiracles 3028:Carabidae 2962:spiracles 2917:cellulose 2893:Blattodea 2828:ovarioles 2728:haemocoel 2698:diffusion 2681:diffusive 2670:spiracles 2662:hemolymph 2622:uric acid 2594:Zygentoma 2547:Bumblebee 2513:esophagus 2507:(mouth), 2360:esophagus 2185:Cicadidae 2169:Hemiptera 2119:basicosta 2107:basicosta 2099:pretarsus 2049:Mecoptera 1785:Media (M) 1761:Costa (C) 1630:prothorax 1624:Prothorax 1614:posterior 1594:prothorax 1526:honey bee 1515:esophagus 1446:praedicta 1426:proboscis 1420:Siphoning 1325:Anopheles 1185:bull ants 1131:mandibles 1115:Blattodea 1087:Siphoning 1056:and some 1054:Blattodea 971:Pectinate 949:Lamellate 936:Setaceous 696:mandibles 649:esophagus 637:hypostoma 544:sclerites 503:Larva of 479::labrum; 443::vertex; 439::ocelli; 429:Acrididae 295:excretion 287:digestion 77:prothorax 6478:Category 6448:Category 6133:Protists 5931:20268135 5738:17376757 5655:12716997 5611:20011989 5262:36796137 5027:12705873 4369:. zin.ru 4220:11815654 4185:11851224 4177:22728470 4108:18089073 3479:See also 3325:ovariole 3313:gonopore 3307:, and a 3277:ganglion 3203:. While 3181:quinones 3134:acetates 3128:produce 3120:produce 2976:diffuses 2957:tracheae 2937:termites 2933:termites 2925:bacteria 2874:aedeagus 2861:fat body 2859:and the 2857:tracheae 2841:oothecae 2821:oviducts 2748:antennae 2715:immunity 2711:hormones 2654:arteries 2602:Neoptera 2529:amylases 2527:(mostly 2501:proteins 2416:proteins 2333:Internal 2277:epiproct 2197:Mantodea 1926:remigium 1892:Remigium 1713:hemocoel 1706:Internal 1694:theory. 1676:Neoptera 1610:pronotum 1606:anterior 1503:Sponging 1412:arachnid 1389:(female) 1387:horsefly 1343:Mosquito 1192:maxillae 1165:maxillae 1158:sensilla 1101:, adult 1081:Sponging 903:Filiform 881:Capitate 870:Aristate 821:Antennae 814:fire ant 798:Antennae 724:Isoptera 682:, gula, 672:postgena 629:postgena 596:anteriad 423:Head of 389:apolysis 305:External 299:antennae 223:hexapods 124:hind-gut 110:hindwing 105:forewing 89:spiracle 85:tracheal 6248:Mammals 6226:Odonata 6221:Diptera 6017:Anatomy 5923:1538279 5838:6 March 5729:2464682 5242:Bibcode 5035:1424315 4951:1539265 4662:Bibcode 4088:Bibcode 4053:Bibcode 3962:4854430 3669:Biology 3465:trachea 3451:In the 3422:In the 3359:prolegs 3355:abdomen 3351:maggots 3331:Diptera 3321:oocytes 3297:ovaries 3177:phenols 3163:). The 3044:gizzard 3036:pharynx 2813:ovaries 2764:Diptera 2752:Odonata 2724:tissues 2646:trachea 2618:hindgut 2616:In the 2612:Hindgut 2565:, have 2509:pharynx 2493:foregut 2471:Foregut 2465:hindgut 2457:foregut 2451:to the 2356:ganglia 2303:earwigs 2290:Odonata 2203:Abdomen 2175:and/or 2171:), the 1741:Odonata 1692:airfoil 1510:labella 1313:stylets 1224:maxilla 1129:) have 1099:Odonata 1062:stylets 1004:Stylate 993:Serrate 982:Plumose 892:Clavate 708:Diptera 704:maxilla 668:occiput 615:clypeus 592:ventrad 581:ecdysis 540:sutures 455::gena; 404:sternum 393:ecdysis 353:polymer 329:cuticle 279:abdomen 231:Diplura 227:Protura 217:of the 215:outside 206:insects 132:oviduct 71:ganglia 58:(lower) 51:antenna 6458:Portal 6149:Plants 6028:Fields 5929: 5921: 5866: 5829: 5793: 5736: 5726: 5653: 5609: 5526: 5495: 5430: 5386: 5334: 5309: 5260: 5196: 5157: 5115: 5033: 5025: 4984: 4949: 4818: 4602: 4571: 4541: 4483: 4458: 4422: 4363:"Head" 4253: 4218: 4183: 4175: 4138: 4106: 3991: 3960: 3827: 3757: 3698: 3675: 3611: 3473:gonads 3369:. The 3261:niches 3193:Anthia 3187:, and 3185:esters 3122:esters 3097:. The 3064:Oxygen 3024:midgut 2997:and CO 2853:testis 2832:oocyte 2807:Female 2689:oxygen 2579:midgut 2573:Midgut 2515:, and 2497:chitin 2461:midgut 2426:, and 2395:larvae 2350:and a 2173:tibiae 2161:femora 2152:tarsus 2117:. The 1952:Joints 1863:Fields 1604:. The 1600:, and 1590:thorax 1578:Thorax 1534:Apidae 1410:), an 1317:saliva 1149:labrum 1121:, and 722:, and 702:, and 700:labium 692:bridge 661:thorax 655:, and 564:ocelli 548:vertex 487::frons 408:pleura 400:tergum 381:beetle 345:larval 277:, and 275:thorax 267:chitin 233:, and 150:tarsus 56:ocelli 6161:fruit 5919:JSTOR 5629:(PDF) 5607:S2CID 5520:61–65 5031:S2CID 4982:S2CID 4947:JSTOR 4851:(PDF) 4840:(PDF) 4622:Oikos 4181:S2CID 3938:Perga 3895:(PDF) 3888:(PDF) 3726:(PDF) 3719:(PDF) 3371:pupae 3363:cerci 3189:acids 3095:blood 3048:cecum 3003:cells 2991:blood 2740:lymph 2732:aorta 2666:blood 2650:veins 2642:lungs 2563:flies 2449:mouth 2348:brain 2298:cerci 2177:tarsi 2140:tibia 2135:femur 2113:, or 1919:Alula 1719:Veins 1664:wings 1652:Wings 1208:cardo 1204:palps 1200:galea 829:setae 588:frons 355:of a 283:wings 271:parts 160:femur 155:tibia 146:claws 120:ovary 6019:and 5927:PMID 5884:link 5864:ISBN 5840:2010 5827:ISBN 5804:2010 5791:ISBN 5765:2013 5734:PMID 5681:2013 5651:PMID 5524:ISBN 5493:ISBN 5428:ISBN 5404:link 5384:ISBN 5365:link 5358:help 5332:ISBN 5307:ISBN 5258:PMID 5194:ISBN 5186:"15" 5155:ISBN 5113:ISBN 5058:2009 5023:PMID 5005:Cell 4986:3071 4901:2016 4876:2016 4816:ISBN 4732:2011 4702:2011 4600:ISBN 4569:ISBN 4539:ISBN 4509:2011 4481:ISBN 4456:ISBN 4420:ISBN 4251:ISBN 4216:PMID 4173:PMID 4136:ISBN 4104:PMID 3989:ISSN 3958:PMID 3923:help 3825:ISBN 3755:ISBN 3696:ISBN 3673:ISBN 3609:ISBN 3415:and 3405:PTTH 3395:and 3338:anus 3319:and 3271:The 3212:and 3132:and 3057:The 3040:crop 3018:The 2923:and 2907:wood 2847:Male 2762:and 2592:and 2557:The 2551:anus 2519:and 2517:Crop 2499:and 2463:and 2453:anus 2438:and 2424:fats 2391:pain 2342:The 2295:the 2284:the 2150:The 2133:The 2071:Legs 2043:and 1747:and 1522:bees 1424:The 1402:Tick 1373:Flea 1181:ants 1169:Mohs 1147:The 690:and 639:and 620:gena 613:The 586:The 570:The 554:and 542:and 517:head 515:The 415:Head 176:coxa 129:anus 5958:doi 5954:154 5911:doi 5724:PMC 5716:doi 5641:doi 5599:doi 5572:doi 5568:103 5250:doi 5147:doi 5105:doi 5013:doi 5009:113 4974:doi 4939:doi 4935:119 4670:doi 4631:doi 4627:108 4295:doi 4243:doi 4208:doi 4204:204 4165:doi 4161:107 4096:doi 4061:doi 4020:doi 3981:doi 3950:doi 3940:". 3382:In 3224:+ O 3150:ATP 2789:4. 2783:3. 2652:or 825:can 594:or 204:of 6480:: 5952:. 5948:. 5925:. 5917:. 5907:92 5905:. 5901:. 5880:}} 5876:{{ 5848:^ 5821:. 5773:^ 5755:. 5732:. 5722:. 5710:. 5706:. 5672:. 5649:. 5637:20 5635:. 5631:. 5605:. 5595:48 5593:. 5566:. 5549:42 5547:. 5522:. 5462:^ 5442:^ 5412:^ 5400:}} 5396:{{ 5350:: 5348:}} 5344:{{ 5256:. 5248:. 5240:. 5238:73 5236:. 5232:. 5188:. 5174:^ 5153:, 5111:, 5099:, 5066:^ 5029:. 5021:. 5007:. 5003:. 4980:. 4970:40 4968:. 4945:. 4933:. 4929:. 4892:. 4867:. 4842:. 4766:^ 4718:. 4668:. 4658:21 4656:. 4652:. 4625:. 4553:^ 4517:^ 4434:^ 4382:^ 4365:. 4328:^ 4291:63 4289:. 4249:. 4239:32 4237:. 4214:. 4202:. 4179:. 4171:. 4159:. 4116:^ 4102:. 4094:. 4084:35 4082:. 4059:. 4047:. 4016:67 4014:. 4010:. 3987:. 3956:. 3946:20 3944:. 3914:: 3912:}} 3908:{{ 3769:^ 3741:^ 3707:^ 3523:^ 3475:. 3455:, 3303:, 3299:, 3183:, 3179:, 3175:, 3171:, 3054:. 2966:CO 2766:. 2758:, 2754:, 2672:. 2511:, 2459:, 2422:, 2418:, 2366:. 2308:a 2051:, 2011:m' 2009:, 1596:, 1536:: 1532:: 1517:. 1458:. 1448:. 1133:. 1117:, 1113:, 1109:, 1105:, 718:, 698:, 686:, 678:, 674:, 670:, 663:. 651:, 647:, 431:. 427:, 395:. 293:, 289:, 237:. 229:, 6009:e 6002:t 5995:v 5966:. 5960:: 5933:. 5913:: 5886:) 5872:. 5842:. 5806:. 5767:. 5740:. 5718:: 5712:3 5704:" 5683:. 5657:. 5643:: 5613:. 5601:: 5578:. 5574:: 5532:. 5501:. 5436:. 5406:) 5392:. 5367:) 5360:) 5340:. 5315:. 5290:. 5264:. 5252:: 5244:: 5202:. 5149:: 5107:: 5084:. 5060:. 5037:. 5015:: 4988:. 4976:: 4953:. 4941:: 4903:. 4878:. 4824:. 4760:. 4734:. 4704:. 4678:. 4672:: 4664:: 4637:. 4633:: 4608:. 4577:. 4547:. 4511:. 4489:. 4464:. 4428:. 4376:. 4350:. 4322:. 4301:. 4297:: 4259:. 4245:: 4222:. 4210:: 4187:. 4167:: 4144:. 4110:. 4098:: 4090:: 4067:. 4063:: 4055:: 4049:9 4028:. 4022:: 3995:. 3983:: 3964:. 3952:: 3925:) 3921:( 3904:. 3872:. 3847:) 3833:. 3763:. 3735:. 3702:. 3642:. 3617:. 3253:( 3230:2 3226:2 3222:2 3078:( 3007:2 2999:2 2995:2 2982:2 2980:O 2973:2 2968:2 2487:. 2292:; 2013:) 2007:m 1528:( 1404:( 1307:( 1093:. 485:n 481:m 477:l 473:k 469:j 465:i 461:h 457:g 453:f 449:e 445:d 441:c 437:b 433:a 313:. 91:) 73:) 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.