Maroons - Knowledge

401:, born in Africa, successfully rebelled against the Spaniards in 1532, and banded together with other Africans in his 15-year struggle against the Spanish colonists. Lemba was eventually joined by other maroons such as Juan Vaquero, Diego del Guzmán, Fernando Montoro, Juan Criollo and Diego del Campo in the struggle against slavery. As the maroons threatened Spanish commerce and trade, Spanish officials began to fear a maroon takeover of the island. By the 1540s, maroons had already controlled the interior portions of the island, although areas in the east, north, and western parts of the island were also to fall under maroon control. Maroon bands would venture out throughout the island, usually in large groups, attack villages they encountered, burn down plantations, kill and ransack the Spaniards, and liberate the slaves. Roadways had become so open to attack, the Spaniards felt it was necessary to only navigate in groups. Dominican maroons would be present throughout the island until the mid 17th century. 2148: 366: 620: 143: 41: 1274:. In 1702, a French expedition against them killed three maroons and captured 11, but over 30 evaded capture, and retreated further into the mountainous forests. Further expeditions were carried out against them with limited success, though they did succeed in capturing one of their leaders, Michel, in 1719. In subsequent expeditions, in 1728 and 1733, French forces captured 46 and 32 maroons respectively. No matter how many detachments were sent against these maroons, they continued to attract runaways. Expeditions in 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 and 1761 had minor successes against these maroons, but failed to destroy their hideaways. 632: 427:, they formed bands and on some islands, armed camps. Maroon communities faced great odds against their surviving the attacks by hostile colonists, obtaining food for subsistence living, as well as reproducing and increasing their numbers. As the planters took over more land for crops, the maroons began to lose ground on the small islands. Only on some of the larger islands were organised maroon communities able to thrive by growing crops and hunting. Here they grew in number as more slaves escaped from 7034: 1278:

mountainous forests where they could not be found. The detachment eventually returned, unsuccessful and having lost many soldiers to illness and desertion. In the years that followed, the maroons attacked a number of settlements, including Fond-Parisien, for food, weapons, gunpowder and women. It was on one of these excursions that one of the maroon leaders, Kebinda, who had been born in freedom in the mountains, was captured. He later died in captivity.

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leaving the community as desertion and therefore punishable by death. They also originally raided plantations. During these attacks, the maroons would burn crops, steal livestock and tools, kill slavemasters, and invite other slaves to join their communities. Individual groups of maroons often allied themselves with the local

1177:, which comprised about 6,000 men who fought the First Brigand War against the British who had recently occupied the island. Led by the French Commissioner, Gaspard Goyrand, they succeeded in taking back control of most of the island from the British, but on 26 May 1796, their forces defending the fort at 2314:

One of Guillermo's deputies, Ubaldo the Englishman, whose christened name was Jose Eduardo de la Luz Perera, was initially born a slave in London, sold to a ship captain, and took a number of trips before eventually being granted his freedom. He was one of a number of free black people who joined the

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were one of the largest and most successful maroon communities in what is now Florida due to more rights and freedoms extracted from the Spanish Empire. Some intermarried and were culturally Seminole; others maintained a more African culture. Descendants of those who were removed with the Seminole to

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The government has tried to encourage the survival of the other maroon settlements. The Jamaican government and the maroon communities organised the Annual International Maroon Conference, initially to be held at rotating communities around the island, but the conference has been held at Charles Town

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Absolute secrecy and loyalty of members were crucial to the survival of maroon communities. To ensure this loyalty, maroon communities used severe methods to protect against desertion and spies. New members were brought to communities by way of detours so they could not find their way back and served

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In 1609, Captain Pedro Gonzalo de Herrera lad an expedition against Yanga and his maroons, but despite severe casualties on both sides, neither emerged the victor. Instead, Yanga negotiated with the Spanish colonists to establish a self-ruled maroon settlement called San Lorenzo de los Negros (later

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in the 1730s, but the British were unable to defeat the maroons. They finally settled with the groups by treaty in 1739 and 1740, allowing them to have autonomy in their communities in exchange for agreeing to be called to military service with the colonists if needed. Certain maroon factions became

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offered food, shelter, and isolation for the escaped slaves. Maroons sustained themselves by growing vegetables and hunting. Their survival depended upon their cultures, and their military abilities, using guerrilla tactics and heavily fortified dwellings involving traps and diversions. Some defined

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En resumen, los informes que aquí aporto confirman que cimarrón es un indigenismo de origen antillano, que se usaba ya en el primer tercio de siglo xvi, y que ha venido a resultar otro de los numerosos antillanismos que la conquista extendió por todo el ámbito del continente e hizo refluir sobre la

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Even though colonial governments were in a perpetual state of conflict with the maroon communities, individuals in the colonial system traded goods and services with them. Maroons also traded with isolated white settlers and Native American communities. Maroon communities played interest groups off

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of San Basilio attracted large numbers of runaways to join his community. His maroons defeated the first expedition sent against them, killing their leader Juan Gomez. The Spanish arrived at terms with Biohó, but later they captured him in 1619, accused him of plotting against the Spanish, and had

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of Castillo was successfully established by runaway slaves. In 1732, the Spanish authorities tried to secure peace terms with the maroons of Castillo by inserting a clause requiring them to return runaways, but the rulers of Castillo rejected those terms. In 1745, the colonial authorities defeated

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In 1731, slaves rose up in revolt at the Cobre mines, and set up an independent community at Sierra del Cobre, which existed untroubled until 1781, when the self-freed population had increased to over 1,000. In 1781, the Spanish colonial authorities agreed to recognise the freedom of the people of

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landed on the island in 1715 they also had to face attacks by the Mauritian maroons. Significant events were the 1724 assault on a military outpost in Savannah district, as well as the attack on a military barrack in 1732 at Poste de Flacq. Several deaths resulted from such attacks. Soon after his

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In 1776–1777, a joint French–Spanish expedition ventured into the border regions of the Bahoruco mountains, with the intention of destroying the maroon settlements there. However, the maroons had been alerted of their coming, and had abandoned their villages and caves, retreating further into the

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assembled and equipped French militia groups made of both civilians and soldiers to fight against the maroons. In 1739, maroon leader Sans Souci was captured near Flacq and was burnt alive by the French settlers. A few years later, a group of French settlers gave chase to Barbe Blanche, another

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of Ocoyta was eventually destroyed in 1771. A military expedition led by German de Aguilera destroyed the settlement, killing Guillermo, but only succeeded in capturing eight adults and two children. The rest of the runaways withdrew into the surrounding forests, where they remained at large.

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In 1612, the Portuguese tried in vain to take Palmares in an expedition that proved to be very costly. In 1640, a Dutch scouting mission found that the self-freed community of Palmares was spread over two settlements, with about 6,000 living in one location and another 5,000 in another. Dutch

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were a maroon group who formed from slaves who revolted on a Portuguese ship around 1640, wrecking the vessel on the coast of Honduras-Nicaragua and escaping into the interior. They intermarried with the indigenous people over the next half-century. They eventually rose to leadership of the

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In 1782, de Saint-Larry decided to offer peace terms to one of the maroon leaders, Santiago, granting them freedom in return for which they would hunt all further runaways and return them to their owners. Eventually, at the end of 1785, terms were agreed, and the more than 100 maroons under

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The maroons created their own independent communities, which in some cases have survived for centuries, and until recently remained separate from mainstream society. In the 19th and 20th centuries, maroon communities began to disappear as forests were razed, although some countries, such as

910:. Only 18 of these escapees were caught. On 18 June 1695, a gang of maroons of Indonesian and Chinese origins, including Aaron d'Amboine, Antoni (Bamboes) and Paul de Batavia, as well as female escapees Anna du Bengale and Espérance, set fire to the Dutch settlers' Fort Frederick Hendryk ( 589:

To this day, the Jamaican Maroons are to a significant extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican society. The physical isolation used to their advantage by their ancestors has today led to their communities remaining among the most inaccessible on the island. In their largest town,

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to be shipped to Europe. When slaves escaped, they went to the mountains for safety. In 1548, in what is now Honduras, slaves in San Pedro rebelled, led by a self-freed slave named Miguel, who set up his own capital. The Spaniards had to send in reinforcements to put down the revolt.

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in Panama. He and his followers escaped to found villages in the lowlands. Viceroy Canete felt unable to subdue these maroons, so he offered them terms that entailed a recognition of their freedom, provided they refused to admit any newcomers and returned runaways to their owners.

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The second group were slaves who had been working on plantations for a while. Those slaves were usually somewhat adjusted to the slave system but had been abused by the plantation owners – often with excessive brutality. Others ran away when they were being sold suddenly to a new

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in eastern Jamaica, to bring an end to the warfare between the communities. In exchange, they were to agree to capture other escaped slaves. They were initially paid a bounty of two dollars for each African returned. The treaties effectively freed the Maroons a century before the

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Some maroon communities became powerful enough to force the European powers into formal peace treaties designed to pacify the interior while recognizing the freedom and autonomy of the rebels. Jamaica and Surinam provided the most famous of these cases, which had counterparts in

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English: And if we pay attention to the testimony of Oviedo when, after having lived in Hispaniola for many years, he asserts that cimarrón "means, in the language of this island, fugitives", it would be demonstrated that we are, in fact, before an early loan of the Taíno

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Y si prestamos atención al testimonio de Oviedo cuando, después de haber vivido en la Española por muchos años, asevera que cimarrón «quiere decir, en la lengua desta isla, fugitivos», quedaría demostrado que nos hallamos, en efecto, ante un temprano préstamo de la lengua

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Maroon communities turned the severity of their environments to their advantage to hide and defend their communities. Disguised pathways, false trails, booby traps, underwater paths, quagmires and quicksand, and natural features were all used to conceal maroon villages.

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is an Indian word of Antillean origin, which was already used in the first third of the sixteenth century, and which has come to be another of the many Antillanisms that the conquest extended throughout the breadth of the continent and made to reflect on the metropolis

1335:. Some refugee slaves continued to join them through the decades until the abolition of slavery in 1838, but in the main, after the signing of the treaties of 1739 and 1740, the Maroons hunted runaway slaves in return for payment from the British colonial authorities. 431:

and joined their bands. Seeking to separate themselves from colonisers, the maroons gained in power amid increasing hostilities. They raided and pillaged plantations and harassed planters until the planters began to fear a massive revolt of the black slaves.

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Edwards, Bryan (1801) . "Observations on the disposition, character, manners, and habits of life, of the Maroons of the island of Jamaica; and a detail of the origin, progress, and termination of the late war between those people and the white inhabitants".

598:, the Leeward Maroons still possess a vibrant community of about 600. Tours of the village are offered to foreigners and a large festival is put on every January 6 to commemorate the signing of the peace treaty with the British after the First Maroon War. 1680:

population of the region. Other Afro-Mexican communities descended from people who escaped slavery are found in Veracruz and in Northern Mexico; some of the later communities were populated by people who escaped slavery in the United States via the

1181:, about 2,000 men surrendered to a British division under the command of General John Moore. After the capitulation, over 2,500 French and Afro-Caribbean prisoners of war as well as ninety-nine women and children, were transported from St. Lucia to 651:. African traditions included such things as the use of certain medicinal herbs together with special drums and dances when the herbs are administered to a sick person. Other African healing traditions and rites have survived through the centuries. 435:

The early maroon communities were usually displaced. By 1700, maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands. Survival was always difficult, as the maroons had to fight off attackers as well as grow food. One of the most influential maroons was

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started a war against them, resulting in a flight into French Guiana. The other tribes signed peace treaties with the Surinamese government, the Kwinti being the last in 1887. On 25 May 1891 the Aluku officially became French citizens.

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tactics that are also used today by many militaries around the world. European troops used strict and established strategies while maroons attacked and retracted quickly, used ambush tactics, and fought when and where they wanted to.

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Stark's History and Guide to Barbados and the Caribbee Islands: Containing a Description of Everything on Or about These Islands of which the Visitor Or Resident May Desire Information ... Fully Illustrated with Maps, Engravings and

393:, on 26 December 1522, and was brutally crushed by the Admiral. The first maroon communities of the Americas were established following this revolt, as many of the slaves were able to escape. This was also to give rise to a wave of 2246:. The Dutch nailed severed hands of Maroons killed in the expedition to posts in the colony as a warning to other slaves. In 1782, a French official in the region estimated there were more than 2,000 Maroons in the vicinity of 2155:

Marronage was common in British, Dutch, and French Guiana, and today descendants of maroons account for about 15% of the current population of Suriname and 22% in French Guiana. In the Guianas, escaped slaves, locally known as

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of maroon communities thrived in western Cuba, in particular the areas surrounding San Diego de Nunez. The Office of the Capture of Maroons reported that between 1797 and 1846, there were thousands of runaways living in these

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in colonial Brazil, seven were destroyed within two years of being formed. Four fell in the state of Bahia in 1632, 1636, 1646 and 1796. The other three met the same fate in Rio in 1650, Parahyba in 1731, and Piumhy in 1758.

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Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service (SITES) in collaboration with the Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage, with the support of the Special Exhibition Fund of the Smithsonian Institution (March 1999).

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After Suriname gained independence from the Netherlands, the old treaties with the Bushinengues were abrogated. By the 1980s the Bushinengues in Suriname had begun to fight for their land rights. Between 1986 and 1992, the

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was a self-sustaining community of escaped slaves from the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, "a region perhaps the size of Portugal in the hinterland of Bahia". At its height, Palmares had a population of over 30,000.

914:) in an attempt to take over control of the island. They were all caught and decapitated. In February 1706 another revolt was organised by the remaining maroons as well as disgruntled slaves. When the Dutch abandoned 2120:

formed independent communities along rivers of the northern coast and mingled with indigenous communities in areas beyond the reach of the colonial administration. Separate communities can be distinguished from the

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But runaways continued to escape to freedom in San Basilio. In 1696, the colonial authorities subdued another rebellion there, and again between 1713 and 1717. Eventually, the Spanish agreed to peace terms with the

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Escaped slaves established independent communities along the remote Pacific coast, outside of the reach of the colonial administration. At the start of the seventeenth century, a group of runaways had established a

1051:. Sanchez was tricked into going to Santiago de Cuba, where he committed suicide rather than be captured and returned to slavery. The leadership of the palenque then passed to Manuel Grinan, also known as Gallo. 337:

cattle, then to Indian slaves who escaped to the hills, and by the early 1530s to African slaves who did the same. He proposes that the American Spanish word derives ultimately from the Arawakan root word

1979:, established in about 1600. Part of the reason for the massive size of Palmares was due to its location in Brazil — at the median point between the Atlantic Ocean and Guinea, an important area of the 1058:

of Bumba was so well organised that they even sent maroons in small boats to Jamaica and Santo Domingo to trade. In 1830, the Spanish colonial authorities carried out military expeditions against the

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moved into the southwestern mountain ranges, along with escaped African slaves who intermarried with them. The DNA analysis of contemporary persons from this area shows maternal ancestry from the

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related to runaway African slaves or maroons of the early 19th century; the material evidence of their presence is found in caves of the region, where groups settled for various lengths of time.

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in the island's densely forested interior to create maroon communities, which were constantly in conflict with the British colonial authorities throughout the period of formal chattel slavery.

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include many hard-to-access areas that also provided refuge for slaves escaping Spanish ranches and estates on the Pacific coast. Evidence of these communities can be found in the

530:, escaped slaves revolted and started to build their villages from the end of the 17th century. As most of the plantations existed in the eastern part of the country, near the 1347:

so formidable that they made treaties with local colonial authorities, sometimes negotiating their independence in exchange for helping to hunt down other slaves who escaped.

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Maroon communities had to be inaccessible and located in inhospitable environments to be sustainable. For example, maroon communities were established in remote swamps in the

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kept many escaped maroons hidden in the southwestern hills where many also intermarried with the natives. Escaped slaves sought refuge away from the coastal plantations of

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expeditions against Palmares in the 1640s were similarly unsuccessful. Between 1672 and 1694, Palmares withstood, on average, one Portuguese expedition nearly every year.

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Most of them were slaves who ran away directly after they got off the ships. They refused to surrender their freedom and often tried to find ways to go back to Africa.

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The Ndyuka treaty remains important to relations between the Ndyuka and the modern Surinamese government, as it defines the territorial rights of the Maroons in the

1801:. The San Malo community was a long-thriving autonomous community. These colonies were eventually eradicated by militia from Spanish-controlled New Orleans led by 5476: 4090: 4302: 3668: 562:. By 1740, the maroons had formed clans and felt strong enough to challenge the Dutch colonists, forcing them to sign peace treaties. On October 10, 1760, the 3607: 1270:

settlements, who had escaped the Spanish in the 17th century. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there were a large number of maroons living in the

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erupted in 1795. After the governor tricked the Trelawny Maroons into surrendering, the colonial government deported approximately 600 captive maroons to

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since 2009. Maroons from other Caribbean, Central, and South America nations are invited. In 2016, Accompong's colonel and a delegation traveled to the

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has archaeological exhibits that depict the life of runaway slaves, as deduced through archeological research. Cultural traditions reenacted during the

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of San Basilio, and in 1772, this community of maroons was included within the Mahates district, as long they no longer accepted any further runaways.

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People who escaped enslavement in ante-bellum America continued to find refuge and freedom in rural Louisiana, including in areas around New Orleans.

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was a place where Blacks, Native Americans, and even some outlaw whites lived together and intermingled producing a people of great genetic mixture.

5436: 2147: 1885:(the Palm Nation), which was founded in the early 17th century. At its height, it had a population of over 30,000 free people and was ruled by King 7108: 3808: 1731:, but have been excluded since the late 20th century by new membership rules that require proving Native American descent from historic documents. 381:, as early as 1512, African slaves escaped from Spanish captors and either joined indigenous peoples or eked out a living on their own. The first 4120: 266: 3234: 4837: 4458: 927: 5003: 4903: 733:

and Suriname, still have large maroon populations living in the forests. Recently, many of them moved to cities and towns as the process of

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was accorded the status of a free town. In return, Yanga was required to return any further runaways to the Spanish colonial authorities.

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in Minas Gerais lasted from 1712–1719. Another, the "Carlota" of Mato Grosso, was wiped out after existing for 25 years, from 1770–1795.

1429:, in the parish of St Mary. Accompong's autonomy was ratified by the government of Jamaica when the island gained independence in 1962. 218:, which can have a more general sense of being abandoned without resources, entered English around the 1590s, from the French adjective 5725: 5321: 3488: 6966: 6421: 5644: 2089:

led a group of about 30 runaways into the forests, and defeated attempts to subdue them. Biohó declared himself King Benkos, and his

4713: 2377:, meaning people of the forest, descendants of slaves who escaped enslavement and established independent communities in the forest. 6866: 6230: 5685: 3302: 2694: 1266:

and hunting. They were known to return to plantations to free family members and friends. On a few occasions, they also joined the

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living there, forming refugee communities. Later, many of them gained freedom during the confusion surrounding the 1655 English

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groups because of differences in history, geography, African nationality, and the culture of indigenous people throughout the

6535: 5926: 4493: 4415:"Maroons in Antebellum New Orleans: Independence at Any Cost - Stop 8 of 9 on the Urban Slavery and Everyday Resistance tour" 4247: 4027: 3996: 3969: 3872: 3843: 3726: 3699: 3651: 3102: 3056: 2932: 2773: 2739: 2571: 2533: 1889:. Palmares maintained its independent existence for almost a hundred years until it was conquered by the Portuguese in 1694. 1766: 983:

who had escaped from the United States were also resettled. Being unhappy with conditions, in 1800, a majority emigrated to

4814: 3576: 2242:, Dutch officials in 1744 conducted an expedition against encampments of at least 300 Maroons in the Northwest district of 2216: 1386:. Eventually, in the 1840s, about 200 Trelawny Maroons returned to Jamaica, and settled in the village of Flagstaff in the 1327:

People who escaped from slavery during the Spanish occupation of the island of Jamaica fled to the interior and joined the

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Schwaller, Robert C. (2018). "Contested Conquests: African Maroons and the Incomplete Conquest of Hispaniola, 1519–1620".

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village massacre, in which soldiers had slaughtered 39 unarmed Ndyuka people, mainly women and children. On 13 June 2020,

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The Shorter Oxford Dictionary explains maroon 'fugitive negro slave' as from 'Fr. marron, said to be a corruption of Sp.

1230:. When Archdeacon Alonso de Castro toured Hispaniola in 1542, he estimated the maroon population at 2,000–3,000 persons. 463:, there were maroon communities in the mountains, where African refugees had escaped the brutality of slavery and joined 4714:

Maroons in French Guiana: History, culture, demographics, and socioeconomic development along the Maroni and Lawa Rivers

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Navigating Crosscurrents: Trans-linguality, Trans-culturality and Trans-identification in the Dutch Caribbean and Beyond

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of Ocoyta, led by runaway Guillermo Ribas, which reportedly engaged in a number of attacks on the neighbouring towns of

7098: 7078: 6127: 5236: 3345: 1682: 1651:. It is believed Yanga had been a fugitive since the early 1570s, and was the leader of a formidable group of maroons. 1374:. It offered ethnic Africans a chance to set up their community there, beginning in 1792. Around 1800, several hundred 173: 4098: 7118: 7047: 6510: 6220: 5904: 5483: 5339: 5314: 5293: 5279: 5265: 5250: 5202: 5188: 5098: 4756: 4197:

Davidson, David (1996). "Negro Slave Control and Resistance in Colonial Mexico, 1519–1650". In Price, Richard (ed.).

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Death Before Glory: The British Soldier in the West Indies in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars 1793–1815

1421:(formerly Nanny Town), also in the parish of Portland. In 2005, the music of the Moore Town Maroons was declared by 6871: 6055: 5776: 5749: 5654: 3615: 1952:

was discovered at Linhares in the state of São Paulo. A decade later, another was found in Minas. In 1828, another

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During the late 17th and 18th centuries, the British tried to capture the maroons because they occasionally raided

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When runaway slaves and Amerindians banded together and subsisted independently they were called "maroons". On the

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Sivapragasam, Michael (2020). "The Returned Maroons of Trelawny Town". In Faraclas, Nicholas; et al. (eds.).

2160:', fled to the interior and joined with indigenous peoples and created several independent tribes, among them the 2142: 7088: 4272: 3932: 3214: 1842:. Although conditions were harsh, research suggests that thousands lived there between about 1700 and the 1860s. 595: 570:, a formerly enslaved African from Jamaica who had learned to read and write and knew about the Jamaican treaty. 5361: 2656: 1405:, whose people had abided by their 1739 treaty with the British. A Windward Maroon community is also located at 1226:

Maroons joined the natives in their wars against the Spanish and hid with the rebel chieftain Enriquillo in the

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a 1985 film about Quilombo dos Palmares, a fugitive community of escaped slaves and others, in colonial Brazil.

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The last group of maroons were usually skilled slaves with particularly strong opposition to the slave system.

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on the border of Virginia and North Carolina, on colonial islands of the Caribbean, and in other parts of the

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Slaves escaped frequently within the first generation of their arrival from Africa and often preserved their

494:. Beginning in the late 17th century, Jamaican Maroons consistently fought British colonists, leading to the 4864: 3918: 1397:

The only Leeward Maroon settlement that retained formal autonomy in Jamaica after the Second Maroon War was

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who lived, hunted, fished, and farmed this region and the black community integrated with the Amerindians.

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of one another. At the same time, maroon communities were also used as pawns when colonial powers clashed.

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and occasionally assimilated into these populations. Maroons played an important role in the histories of

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Franco, José (1996). "Maroons and Slave Rebellions in the Spanish Territories". In Price, Richard (ed.).

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was discovered at Cahuca, near Recife, and a year later an expedition was mounted against yet another at

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Overleven in een grensgebied: Veranderingsprocessen bij de Wayana in Suriname en Frans-Guyana - Page 207

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settled at Nova Scotia and England after the American Revolution, Great Britain established a colony in

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Other slave resistance efforts against the French plantation system were more direct. The maroon leader

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The History of the Maroons, from Their Origin to the Establishment of Their Chief Tribe at Sierra Leone

2389:: one of six Maroon peoples in the Republic of Suriname and one of the Maroon peoples in French Guiana. 2228: 1827: 1821: 1125:. Many of the Garifuna were deported to the American mainland, where some eventually settled along the 812:

probationary periods, often as slaves. Crimes such as desertion and adultery were punishable by death.

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After the Treaties: A Social, Economic and Demographic History of Maroon Society in Jamaica, 1739-1842

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and led extensive slave raids against Spanish-held territories in the first half of the 18th century.

7068: 7037: 6677: 6530: 6525: 5711: 4128: 3543:, University Press of Mississippi, 2011; accessed 12 July 2016, available online through Project MUSE 2495: 1168: 922: 784:; in deep canyons with sinkholes but little water or fertile soil in Jamaica; and in deep jungles of 412:

during his raids on the Spanish. As early as 1655, escaped Africans had formed communities in inland

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by 1503. The first slave rebellion occurred in Hispaniola on the sugar plantations owned by Admiral

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Spaniards, Planters, and enslaved people: The Spanish Regulation of Slavery in Louisiana, 1763–1803

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are the two best-known warrior-leaders of Palmares which, after a history of conflict with first

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Remnants of Maroon communities in the former Spanish Caribbean remain as of 2006, for example in

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Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century

4067: 3076: 1489:, which is present here. This was carried by African slaves who escaped from plantations around 6931: 6726: 6485: 5961: 5909: 5899: 5887: 5423: 3048:

Pan-African Culture of Resistance: A History of Liberation Struggles in Africa and the Diaspora

2025: 1402: 1271: 1227: 781: 676: 614: 527: 483: 311:, Spain (or Spanish America) probably gave the word directly to England (or English America)." 224:, meaning 'feral' or 'fugitive'. Despite the same spelling, the meaning of 'reddish brown' for 76: 4517:] (in Brazilian Portuguese) (4 ed.). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Graal. pp. 123–132. 4444: 3959: 3860: 3831: 3687: 2561: 2460: 6983: 6908: 6815: 6731: 6716: 6670: 6665: 6540: 6180: 6107: 6102: 5973: 5816: 5763: 5456:

Lands of Freedom: the oral histories and cultural heritage of the Matawai Maroons in Suriname

5207: 4017: 3986: 3760: 3716: 3510: 2640:, Spain (or Spanish America) probably gave the word directly to England (or English America). 2508: 2272: 2187:

The Ndyuka were the first to sign a peace treaty offering them territorial autonomy in 1760.

1614:

man who had been enslaved and taken to Panama in 1552, led a rebellion that year against the

1486: 1425:

as a 'Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.' A fourth community is at

1406: 1238:

The French encountered many forms of slave resistance during the 17th and 18th centuries, in

583: 2235:. He was inaugurated on 16 July as the first Maroon in Suriname to serve as vice president. 437: 373:

of a maroon raid on the Dromilly estate, Jamaica, during the Second Maroon War of 1795–1796.

6941: 6721: 6520: 6270: 5596: 4385: 3988:

From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World

2263: 2232: 2211:

group fighting for the rights of the maroon minority, against the military dictatorship of

2111: 1806: 1567: 1522: 1514: 1391: 1117:

Similar maroon communities developed on islands across the Caribbean, such as those of the

988: 895: 796: 709:

Maroon settlements often possessed a clannish, outsider identity. They sometimes developed

2299:. These Venezuelan maroons also traded in cocoa. Guillermo ran away in 1768, and formed a 2130: 2020:, continue to live in historic quilombo settlements post-emancipation. Their status as a " 1212: 1037: 8: 6699: 6690: 6655: 6431: 6060: 5865: 3643:

The Belizean Garifuna: Organization of Identity in an Ethnic Community in Central America

2350: 2284: 2191: 2059: 1980: 1972: 1882: 1418: 1332: 745:

A typical maroon community in the early stage usually consists of three types of people.

718: 672: 5848: 5181:

The Maroons of Jamaica, 1655–1796: a history of resistance, collaboration & betrayal

4150:"Historical Meeting Between The Kingdom Of Ashanti And The Accompong Maroons In Jamaica" 3743: 3004:

The Maroons of Jamaica, 1655–1796: A History of Resistance, Collaboration & Betrayal

2066: 6973: 6856: 6622: 6585: 6545: 6480: 6195: 5680: 5551: 5326:. Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of the West Indies. p. 16. 4303:"The Southbound Underground Railroad Brought Thousands of Enslaved Americans to Mexico" 3274:

Surinaams Contrast. Roofbouw en Overleven in een Caraïbische Plantagekolonie, 1750–1863

3162: 2607: 2243: 2085:

language is spoken. This community began at the start of the seventeenth century, when

1919:

in Bahia was reported at the start of the 17th century. Between 1737 and 1787, a small

1831: 1802: 1790: 1746: 1740: 1661: 1555: 1490: 1296: 1182: 1142: 1027: 703: 692: 631: 511: 476: 453: 386: 345: 287: 228:

did not appear until the late 1700s, perhaps influenced by the idea of maroon peoples.

5828: 5141:

Acosta Saignes, Miguel (1996). "Life in a Venezuelan Cumbe". In Price, Richard (ed.).

2755: 2690: 2652: 1301: 398: 318: 6936: 6876: 6736: 6602: 6470: 6361: 6117: 6092: 5634: 5615: 5581: 5379: 5335: 5310: 5289: 5275: 5261: 5246: 5232: 5198: 5184: 5104: 5094: 4762: 4752: 4528:

Kent, R. K. (1996). "Palmares: An African State in Brazil". In Price, Richard (ed.).

4489: 4432: 4393: 4365: 4276: 4253: 4243: 4174: 4023: 3992: 3965: 3868: 3839: 3722: 3695: 3647: 3518: 3446: 3419: 3381: 3371: 3341: 3312: 3281: 3278:

Surinamese Contrast. Robbery and Survival in a Caribbean Plantation Colony, 1750–1863

3082: 3052: 3007: 2961: 2928: 2769: 2735: 2567: 2539: 2529: 2442: 2432: 2208: 2126: 1711: 1355: 1262:), meaning 'escaped slave'. The maroons formed close-knit communities that practised 1186: 1083: 889: 800: 795:

Maroons utilised exemplary guerrilla warfare skills to fight their European enemies.

668: 644: 499: 424: 105: 6141: 4335:

Monuments, Paper; Frisbie-Calder, Pippin; artist; Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo; narrative.

3961:

The Peoples of the Caribbean: An Encyclopedia of Archaeology and Traditional Culture

2728: 2028:, although they continue to campaign for land rights and protections from violence. 1090: 6709: 6378: 6331: 6299: 6225: 6163: 6146: 6112: 6045: 6010: 6005: 5983: 5978: 5914: 5892: 5796: 5771: 5734: 5528: 5469: 4876: 4414: 4336: 3491:[History of Maroonage] (in French). Histoires Mauriciennes. 6 February 2018 2920: 2893: 2885: 2802: 2701: 2669: 2599: 2392: 2224: 1720: 1715: 1539: 1343: 1322: 1289:

led a movement to poison the drinking water of the plantation owners in the 1750s.

1048: 972: 932: 911: 906:. However, 52 of these first slaves, including women, escaped in the wilderness of 721:. At other times, the maroons would adopt variations of a local European language ( 680: 567: 531: 495: 491: 101: 6634: 3106: 2489: 2383:: an African known for being the leader of a maroon colony of slaves in New Spain. 2268:

There were a number of rebellions of slaves throughout the history of the colony.

2212: 1559: 713:

by mixing European tongues with their original African languages. One such maroon

506:, signed treaties promising them 2,500 acres (1,012 ha) in two locations, at 6660: 6592: 6515: 6397: 6373: 6341: 6336: 6287: 6260: 6250: 6156: 6035: 5855: 5838: 5801: 5791: 5668: 5509: 3641: 3046: 3029: 2759: 2399: 2360: 2354: 2345: 2204: 2055: 2007: 1724: 1705: 1656: 1611: 1586: 1570:, reported active bands of maroons numbering in the hundreds along these routes. 1466: 1414: 1363: 1251: 1146: 1118: 915: 907: 903: 770: 714: 710: 688: 535: 382: 93: 4019:

Revolutionary Freedoms: A History of Survival, Strength and Imagination in Haiti

3669:"Lennox Honychurch, In the Forests of Freedom: The Fighting Maroons of Dominica" 3560:

Perez de la Riva, Francisco (1996). "Cuban Palenques". In Price, Richard (ed.).

2086: 1510: 1458: 1267: 490:, for example), but none were seen as such a great threat to the British as the 464: 7003: 6988: 6500: 6490: 6448: 6416: 6411: 6351: 6255: 6200: 6190: 6151: 5993: 5988: 5877: 5786: 5576: 5454: 3748:. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. p. 96 – via Internet Archive. 3511:"From French Slaves to French Citizens: The African Diaspora in Réunion Island" 2957:

Los guerrilleros negros : esclavos fugitivos y cimarrones en Santo Domingo

2914: 2181: 1839: 1794: 1758: 1579: 1434: 1410: 1310: 1259: 1239: 1220: 1126: 1094: 636: 420:

and other Jamaican maroon villages began to fight for independent recognition.

390: 181: 5332:

In the Shadow of the Oracle: Religion as Politics in a Suriname Maroon Society

4881: 2924: 1246:. Formerly enslaved Africans who fled to remote mountainous areas were called 1082:, in particular those of Moa and Maluala, where the maroons thrived until the 7062: 6704: 6629: 6565: 6495: 6356: 6346: 6326: 6314: 6282: 6077: 5998: 5931: 5860: 5821: 5571: 5561: 5169: 4667:

Escalante, Aquiles (1996). "Palenques in Colombia". In Price, Richard (ed.).

4280: 2979: 2820: 2768:] (in Spanish). Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. p. 128. 2628:'fugitive slave' (1701, in Furetière). If there is a connection between Eng. 2557: 2543: 2446: 2374: 2340: 2169: 1750: 1677: 1629: 1574: 1351: 1282:

Santiago's command stopped making incursions into French colonial territory.

1178: 1134: 1062:

of Bumba and Maluala. Antonio de Leon eventually succeeded in destroying the

659: 563: 559: 445: 405: 262: 250: 146: 5197:(translated by Mary Todd), Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 5108: 4257: 2965: 2806: 2062:, Don Pedro Zapata, defeated and subdued this community of runaway maroons. 1765:. They arrived between 1818 and 1820. This area was ideal for the remaining 448:

priest, who led a six-year rebellion against the white plantation owners in

6961: 6956: 6795: 6453: 6443: 6175: 5781: 4766: 4483: 4413:

Beaver, Jessica; Gillette, Jessica; Mason, Kate; O'Dwyer, Kathryn; Editor.

2657:"Cimarrón: Apuntes sobre sus primeras documentaciones y su probable origen" 2380: 2003: 1673: 1640: 1470: 1383: 1371: 734: 722: 203: 177: 4121:"11th Annual International Maroon Conference & Festival Magazine 2019" 3385: 2988:. The Harvard Classics. para. 101 – via Bartleby Great Books Online. 2659:[Cimarrón: Notes on its first documentation and probable origin]. 2523: 2315:

community of Ocoyta. In 1772, he was captured by the Spanish authorities.

1215:

was already complaining of escaped slaves and their interactions with the

6978: 6820: 6644: 6607: 6597: 6570: 6185: 6097: 5806: 5082: 3896:(1996). "The Border Maroons of Saint Domingue". In Price, Richard (ed.). 3442:

Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation

2829:. The Harvard Classics. para. 21 – via Bartleby Great Books Online. 2587: 2406: 2370: 2157: 2043: 2010: 1995: 1782: 1778: 1762: 1454: 1442: 1367: 1359: 1164: 1086:

in 1868, when large numbers of maroons joined the Cuban Liberation Army.

976: 902:

brought 105 slaves from Madagascar and parts of Asia to work for them in

785: 558:) took place along the river borders and sometimes across the borders of 468: 397:

maroons who went on to lead the first maroon activities of the Americas.

282: 169: 117: 97: 4746: 4562:. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 191–192. 3470:[Marronage Stories: The Freedom Fighters] (in French). Defimedia 2913:

López de Cerrato, Alonso (2014). "Lemba and the Maroons of Hispaniola".

2709:

English: In short, the reports that I am contributing here confirm that

6946: 6617: 6557: 6275: 5882: 5606: 4558:

Bastide, Roger (1996). "The Other Quilombos". In Price, Richard (ed.).

3166: 3146: 2889: 2563:

American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America

2165: 2082: 2017: 1866: 1485:

associated with them yet also carried at low frequencies by Spaniards,

1339: 1208: 850: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 774: 766: 664: 428: 417: 330: 121: 113: 5026:"Inauguratie nieuwe president van Suriname op Onafhankelijkheidsplein" 4933:

Case of the Saramaka People v. Suriname, Judgment of November 28, 2007

3914:

The Haitian Revolution of 1791–1803, An Historical Essay in Four Parts

3836:

Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora

2898: 2611: 1926:

The region of Campo Grande and São Francisco was often populated with

1589:

are descendants of maroon communities that developed on the island of

1295:

declared war on the French plantation owners in 1791, setting off the

1043:

In the 1810s, Ventura Sanchez, also known as Coba, was in charge of a

944: 579: 6215: 5396:"Articles on Suriname Maroons and their culture in Dutch and English" 4238:

Agorsalt, E. Kofi (2007). Ogundiran, Akinwumi; Falola, Toyin (eds.).

2983: 2824: 2296: 2219:, the Suriname government agreed to compensate survivors of the 1986 2117: 2013:

authorities, finally fell to a Portuguese artillery assault in 1694.

1957: 1482: 1398: 1286: 591: 472: 378: 315: 246: 5300:

African Maroons in Sixteenth-Century Panama: A History in Documents.

5221: 4807:"Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch West-Indië - Page 154 - Boschnegers" 2955: 1659:). Yanga secured recognition of the freedom of his maroons, and his 1009: 825: 769:. Punishments for recaptured maroons were severe, like removing the 241:, used to describe the runaway slave communities in Florida, in the 6366: 6319: 6265: 6082: 5966: 5936: 5919: 5703: 5601: 5591: 5566: 5536: 5514: 5437:"Music from Aluku: Maroon Sounds of Struggle, Solace, and Survival" 4532:. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 172. 3801:"Hidden story of 2,000 African-Caribbean PoWs in a medieval castle" 3081:(revised ed.). New York: Facts on File Inc. pp. 155–168. 2603: 2386: 2364: 2251: 2161: 1873: 1862: 1835: 1798: 1785:, Louisiana. These escaped, enslaved people controlled many of the 1754: 1644: 1543: 1518: 1502: 1379: 1157: 1153: 1138: 984: 624: 523: 487: 370: 189: 185: 109: 5811: 4091:"Scott's Hall Maroons Looking to Develop Area as Major Attraction" 3692:

Slave No More: Self-Liberation before Abolitionism in the Americas

3537: 2322:

in the interior of what later became Venezuela. In 1810, when the

1498: 1328: 1216: 349: 7008: 4748:

The Guiana Maroons: A Historical and Bibliographical Introduction

4273:"Mexico's Black heritage: the Costa Chica of Guerrero and Oaxaca" 3933:"Albert Mangones, 85; His Bronze Sculpture Became Haitian Symbol" 2280: 2247: 2220: 2173: 1551: 1292: 699: 441: 413: 261:

means 'wild, unruly' or 'runaway slave'. In the early 1570s, Sir

165: 2528:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 4–5. 2395:: one of the few countries where Maroon communities still exist. 2330:

fought on the side of the rebels, and abandoned their villages.

2074:

Castillo, and over 200 African and Indian runaways surrendered.

1223:, on 26 December 1522, and was brutally crushed by the Admiral. 6292: 6210: 6168: 5843: 5330:

van Velzen, H.U.E. Thoden and van Wetering, Wilhelmina (2004),

5307:

Flight to Freedom: African runaways and maroons in the Americas

5084:

Maroons of Guyana: Some Problems of Slave Desertion in Guyana,

4242:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 340. 2292: 2239: 1976: 1878: 1648: 1607: 1547: 1506: 1494: 1474: 1462: 1422: 1130: 1098: 1033: 1016: 730: 655: 150: 4781:"The Ndyuka Treaty Of 1760: A Conversation with Granman Gazon" 1078:. However, the eastern mountains harboured the longer lasting 6685: 6309: 5556: 5218:

Cimarronismo, palenques y Hablas "Criollas" en Hispanoamérica

4334: 2275:, many free and escaped slaves founded communities, known as 2190:

In the 1770s, the Aluku also desired a peace treaty, but the

2177: 1999: 1886: 1786: 1533: 1478: 1438: 1243: 449: 334: 195: 5424:"Creativity and Resistance: Maroon Cultures in the Americas" 5395: 5195:

Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba: Resistance and Repression

3832:"The Central African Presence in Spanish Maroon Communities" 3418:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 1–30. 1938:. In 1752, an expedition led by Pere Marcos was attacked by 1313:

to commemorate the role of maroons in Haitian independence.

482:

Maroon communities emerged in many places in the Caribbean (

4996:"Live blog: Verkiezing president en vicepresident Suriname" 4016:

Accilien, Cécile; Adams, Jessica; Méléance, Elmide (2006).

3517:. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press Inc. p. 99. 3311:] (in Dutch). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Nieuw Amsterdam. 2151:

Maroon men in Suriname, picture taken between 1910 and 1935

1930:. In 1741, Jean Ferreira organised an expedition against a 1189:; some remained in Europe while others returned to France. 1112: 1005: 602: 498:(1728–1740). In 1739 and 1740, the British governor of the 460: 5461: 4412: 3863:. In Brown, Christopher Leslie; Morgan, Philip D. (eds.). 3581:

Places of Memory of the Slave Route in the Latin Caribbean

3513:. In Jayasuriya, Shihan de S.; Pankhurst, Richard (eds.). 3340:] (in Dutch). Amsterdam, Netherlands: KIT Publishers. 3051:. Global Publications, Binghamton University. p. 22. 1309:

is an iconic bronze bust that was erected in the heart of

935:. Other maroons included Diamamouve and Madame Françoise. 339: 172:, and formed their own settlements. They often mixed with 5286:

Maroon Societies: rebel slave communities in the Americas

5143: