1088:, the value of a grammar was the inverse of the number of features required in that grammar. However, Chomsky and Halle realized that their initial approach to phonological features made implausible rules and segment inventories as highly valued as natural ones. The unmarked value of a feature was cost-free with respect to the evaluation metric, while the marked feature values were counted by the metric. Segment inventories could also be evaluated according to the number of marked features. However, the use of phonological markedness as part of the evaluation metric was never able to fully account for the fact that some features are more likely than others or for the fact that phonological systems must have a certain minimal complexity and symmetry.
883:, was marked; its absence, non-nasality, was unmarked. For Jakobson and Trubetzkoy, binary phonological features formed part of a universal feature alphabet applicable to all languages. In his 1932 article "Structure of the Russian Verb", Jakobson extended the concept to grammatical meanings in which the marked element "announces the existence of A" while the unmarked element "does not announce the existence of A, i.e., does not state whether A is present or not". Forty years later, Jakobson described language by saying that "every single constituent of a linguistic system is built on an opposition of two logical contradictories: the presence of an attribute ('markedness') in contraposition to its absence ('unmarkedness')."
1062:
for studying defaults and preferences in language acquisition. What connects various approaches is a concern for the evaluation of linguistic structure, though the details of how markedness is determined and what its implications and diagnostics are varies widely. Other approaches to universal markedness relations focus on functional economic and iconic motivations, tying recurring symmetries to properties of communication channels and communication events. Croft (1990), for example, notes that asymmetries among linguistic elements may be explainable in terms economy of form, in terms of iconism between the structure of language and conceptualization of the world.
654:
969:. What is more marked in some general contexts may be less marked in other local contexts. Thus, "ant" is less marked than "ants" on the morphological level, but on the semantic (and frequency) levels it may be more marked since ants are more often encountered many at once than one at a time. Often a more general markedness relation may be reversed in a particular context. Thus, voicelessness of
1108:
constitute 'the unmarked case'; we may think of them as optimal in terms of the evaluation metric. An actual language is determined by fixing the parameters of core grammar and then adding rules or conditions, using much richer resources, ... These added properties of grammars we may think of as the syntactic analogue of irregular verbs.
918:
of grammatical items in terms of marked and unmarked features. Other semiotically-oriented work has investigated the isomorphism of form and meaning with less emphasis on invariance, including the efforts of
Henning Andersen, Michael Shapiro, and Edwin Battistella. Shapiro and Andrews have especially
1061:
Markedness has been extended and reshaped over the past century and reflects a range of loosely connected theoretical approaches. From emerging in the analysis of binary oppositions, it has become a global semiotic principle, a means of encoding naturalness and language universals, and a terminology
1031:
was an influential application of markedness to typological linguistics and a break from the tradition of
Jakobson and Trubetzkoy. Greenberg took frequency to be the primary determining factor of markedness in grammar and suggested that unmarked categories could be determined by "the frequency of
930:
have suggested that markedness is related to cognitive complexity—"in terms of attention, mental effort or processing time". Linguistic 'naturalists' view markedness relations in terms of the ways in which extralinguistic principles of perceptibility and psychological efficiency determine what is
1107:
We will assume that is not an 'undifferentiated' system, but rather incorporates something analogous to a 'theory of markedness' Specifically, there is a theory of core grammar with highly restricted options, limited expressive power, and a few parameters. Systems that fall within core grammar
952:
As early as the 1930s
Jakobson had already suggested applying markedness to all oppositions, explicitly mentioning such pairs as life/death, liberty/bondage, sin/virtue, and holiday/working day. Linda Waugh extended this to oppositions like male/female, white/black, sighted/blind, hearing/deaf,
1116:
The distinction between core and periphery leaves us with three notions of markedness: core versus periphery, internal to the core, and internal to the periphery. The second has to do with the way parameters are set in the absence of evidence. As for the third, there are, no doubt, significant
1035:
Greenberg also applied frequency cross-linguistically, suggesting that unmarked categories would be those that are unmarked in a wide number of languages. However, critics have argued that frequency is problematic because categories that are cross-linguistically infrequent may have a high
953:
heterosexual/homosexual, right/left, fertility/barrenness, clothed/nude, and spoken language/written language. Battistella expanded this with the demonstration of how cultures align markedness values to create cohesive symbol systems, illustrating with examples based on
939:
Since a main component of markedness is the information content and information value of an element, some studies have taken markedness as an encoding of that which is unusual or informative, and this is reflected in formal probabilistic definitions of markedness and
613:(marked). Marking may be purely semantic, or may be realized as extra morphology. The term derives from the marking of a grammatical role with a suffix or another element, and has been extended to situations where there is no morphological distinction.
1117:
regularities even in departures from the core principles (for example, in irregular verb morphology in
English), and it may be that peripheral constructions are related to the core in systematic ways, say by relaxing certain conditions of core grammar.
948:
known as Δp and Δp'. Conceptual familiarity with cultural norms provided by familiar categories creates a ground against which marked categories provide a figure, opening the way for markedness to be applied to cultural and social categorization.
1125:
theory, treating it as an inherent learning hierarchy which reflects the sequence in which constructions are acquired, the difficulty of acquiring certain constructions, and the transferability of rules across languages. More recently,
1015:
The common feature of the nouns that regularize the singular to match the plural is that they occur more often in pairs or groups than singly; they are said to be semantically (but not morphologically) locally unmarked in the plural.
581:
is the state of standing out as nontypical or divergent as opposed to regular or common. In a marked–unmarked relation, one term of an opposition is the broader, dominant one. The dominant default or minimum-effort form is known as
902:, Jakobson suggested a mirror-image relationship determined by a universal feature hierarchy of marked and unmarked oppositions. Today many still see Jakobson's theory of phonological acquisition as identifying useful tendencies.
1095:, markedness as feature-evaluation did not receive the same attention that it did in phonology. Chomsky came to view unmarked properties as an innate preference structure based first in constraints and later in parameters of
1043:(Δp') and Markedness (Δp) corresponding to the different directions of prediction in human association research (binary associations or distinctions) and more generally (including features with more than two distinctions).
984:
words' plural and singular forms: In West
Frisian, nouns with irregular singular-plural stem variations are undergoing regularization. Usually this means that the plural is reformed to be a regular form of the singular:
879:; markedness adds the idea of hierarchy." Trubetzkoy and Jakobson analyzed phonological oppositions such as nasal versus non-nasal as defined as the presence versus the absence of nasality; the presence of the feature,
620:
more broadly, markedness is, among other things, used to distinguish two meanings of the same term, where one is common usage (unmarked sense) and the other is specialized to a certain cultural context (marked sense).
1084:. For Chomsky and Halle, phonological features went beyond a universal phonetic vocabulary to encompass an 'evaluation metric', a means of selecting the most highly valued adequate grammar. In
914:, Rodney Sangster, Yishai Tobin and others on 'semantic invariance' (different general meanings reflected in the contextual specific meanings of features) has further developed the
829:, the first term of each pair is taken as unmarked because it occurs generally in questions. For example, English speakers typically ask how old someone is; use of the marked term (
931:
natural in language. Willi
Mayerthaler, another linguist, for example, defines unmarked categories as those "in agreement with the typical attributes of the speaker".
558:
590:. In other words, markedness involves the characterization of a "normal" linguistic unit against one or more of its possible "irregular" forms.
1053:. This entails that a category is taken as marked if every language that has the marked category also has the unmarked one but not vice versa.
1490:
Eckman, F. R. (1991). "The
Structural Conformity Hypothesis and the Acquisition of Consonantal Clusters in the Interlanguage of Learners".
754:, and so forth. Similarly, unaffixed masculine or singular forms are taken to be unmarked in contrast to affixed feminine or plural forms:
797:
The default nature allows unmarked lexical forms to be identified even when the opposites are not morphologically related. In the pairs
632:
is quantified as a measure of how much one variable is marked as a predictor or possible cause of another, and is also known as
1299:
Powers, David M W (2011). "Evaluation: From
Precision, Recall and F-Score to ROC, Informedness, Markedness & Correlation".
1621:
551:
1039:
More recently the insights related to frequency have been formalized as chance-corrected conditional probabilities, with
701:
683:
1616:
1164:
945:
915:
544:
679:
1417:
Perruchet, P.; Peereman, R. (2004). "The exploitation of distributional information in syllable processing".
1080:
1122:
854:
675:
520:
1596:
1179:
923:
and markedness, treating it "as species of interpretant" in Peirce's sign–object–interpretant triad.
305:
255:
192:
172:
719:
664:
388:
331:
326:
144:
92:
944:
that, for dichotomous problems, correspond to the chance-correct unidirectional components of the
1050:
668:
498:
383:
336:
225:
27:
966:
503:
475:
436:
416:
371:
366:
235:
1130:
approaches emerging in the 1990s have incorporated markedness in the ranking of constraints.
981:
376:
139:
1530:
Archangeli, Diana 1997 "Optimality Theory: An
Introduction to Linguistics in the 1990s", In
1000:
However, a number of words instead reform the singular by extending the form of the plural:
977:
or in the neighborhood of voiced consonants, voicing may be the expected or unmarked value.
722:
endings. Thus, a morphologically negative word form is marked as opposed to a positive one:
16:
State of standing out as unusual or difficult in comparison to a more common or regular form
1159:
891:
310:
300:
36:
8:
1046:
876:
468:
396:
60:
20:
1606:
1601:
1434:
1174:
1144:
865:
260:
240:
185:
161:
134:
1430:
1325:
Waugh, Linda "Marked and
Unmarked: A Choice Between Unequals in Semiotic Structure".
1127:
1096:
1092:
872:
463:
456:
446:
411:
401:
341:
275:
215:
197:
85:
1438:
1611:
1426:
1308:
1024:
637:
406:
270:
55:
871:
Both sound and meaning were analyzed into systems of binary distinctive features.
451:
320:
282:
122:
104:
80:
75:
845:
While the idea of linguistic asymmetry predated the actual coining of the terms
714:
In terms of lexical opposites, a marked form is a non-basic one, often one with
605:
oppositions, defining them in terms of marked and unmarked oppositions, such as
954:
861:
617:
515:
346:
265:
149:
70:
1590:
1169:
1100:
895:
857:
230:
1154:
1075:
1071:
1040:
957:'s work. Other work has applied markedness to stylistics, music, and myth.
941:
927:
920:
911:
880:
480:
315:
129:
97:
65:
1366:
Musical Meaning in Beethoven: Markedness, Correlation, and Interpretation
574:
19:"Unmarked" redirects here. For undecorated law enforcement vehicles, see
1558:
Chandler, Daniel 2005 Entry on markedness. In John Protevi (ed.) (2005)
1103:
extended this to view markedness as part of a theory of 'core grammar':
1224:
Jakobson, R. (1932). "The Structure of the Russian Verb". Reprinted in
1139:
715:
625:
525:
510:
441:
250:
156:
112:
1312:
970:
786:. An unmarked form is also a default form. For example, the unmarked
602:
594:
220:
117:
653:
890:, Jakobson suggested that phonological markedness played a role in
245:
1525:
Markedness Theory: The Union of Asymmetry and Semiosis in Language
899:
598:
50:
1464:
Chomsky, Noam and Lasnik, Howard (1977). "Filters and Control".
1198:
Andersen, Henning (1989). "Markedness—The First 150 Years". In
1149:
177:
974:
1516:
Andersen, Henning 1989 "Markedness—The First 150 Years", In
960:
1099:. In their 1977 article "Filters and Control", Chomsky and
1070:
Markedness entered generative linguistic theory through
1121:
Some generative researchers have applied markedness to
934:
593:
In linguistics, markedness can apply to, among others,
875:
wrote: "Binarism suggests symmetry and equivalence in
1539:
Markedness: The Evaluative Superstructure of Language
1353:
Codes and Consequences: Choosing Linguistic Varieties
1213:
Markedness: The Evaluative Superstructure of Language
853:, the modern concept of markedness originated in the
1455:. Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club.
888:
Child Language, Aphasia, and Universals of Language
1479:Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use
1416:
898:. Drawing on existing studies of acquisition and
868:as a means of characterizing binary oppositions.
643:
1588:
1390:Tiersma, Peter. "Local and General Markedness",
794:is marked because it can refer only to females.
1560:Edinburgh Dictionary of Continental Philosophy
1453:The Theory of Markedness in Generative Grammar
1112:A few years later, Chomsky describes it thus:
840:
1410:
1265:Syntax: A Functional-Typological Introduction
1237:Jakobson, R. (1972). "Verbal Communication".
1226:Russian and Slavic Grammar Studies, 1931–1981
552:
26:"Marked" redirects here. For other uses, see
1562:, Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press.
1019:
682:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1267:, vol. 2, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1990.
1032:association of things in the real world".
636:(deltaP) in simple two-choice cases. See
559:
545:
1292:
961:Local markedness and markedness reversals
919:made connections between the semiotic of
702:Learn how and when to remove this message
1581:Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics
1301:Journal of Machine Learning Technologies
1065:
905:
1565:Chomsky, Noam & Halle, Morris 1968
1036:distribution in a particular language.
910:The work of Cornelius van Schooneveld,
1589:
1492:Studies in Second Language Acquisition
1298:
1518:Markedness in Synchrony and Diachrony
1215:. State University of New York Press.
1200:Markedness in Synchrony and Diachrony
992:: "koal" (coal), "kwallen" (coals) →
790:can refer to a male or female, while
1548:, New York: Oxford University Press.
1527:, Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
1254:. New York: Oxford University Press.
935:Cultural markedness and informedness
680:adding citations to reliable sources
647:
973:is typically unmarked. But between
13:
1510:
1007:: "earm" (arm), "jermen" (arms) →
996:: "Koal" (coal), "Koalen" (coals).
21:Police car § Functional types
14:
1633:
1583:, London and New York: Routledge.
980:Reversal is reflected in certain
1381:. Indiana University Press, 1989
1368:. Indiana University Press, 1994
1165:Matthews correlation coefficient
946:Matthews correlation coefficient
652:
628:, the social science concept of
186:Singulative-Collective-Plurative
1497:
1484:
1471:
1458:
1445:
1397:
1384:
1371:
1358:
1345:
1332:
1319:
1011:: "jerm" (arm), "jermen" (arms)
1532:Optimality Theory: An Overview
1289:Battistella, Markedness, 1990.
1283:
1270:
1257:
1244:
1231:
1218:
1205:
1192:
1056:
644:Marked and unmarked word pairs
586:; the other, secondary one is
150:Suffixaufnahme (case stacking)
1:
1431:10.1016/s0911-6044(03)00059-9
1185:
926:Functional linguists such as
1567:The Sound Pattern of English
1520:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
1202:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
1086:The Sound Pattern of English
1081:The Sound Pattern of English
1049:have also been connected to
7:
1622:Social sciences terminology
1569:, New York: Harper and Row.
1551:Chandler, Daniel 2002/2007
1351:Myers-Scotton, Carol (ed.)
1250:Battistella, Edwin (1996).
1211:Battistella, Edwin (1990).
1133:
1123:second-language acquisition
841:Background in Prague School
266:Lexical aspect (Aktionsart)
10:
1638:
1576:, The Hague: Mouton, 1966.
1451:Kean, Mary-Louise (1980).
1280:. Ann Arbor: Karoma, 1988.
837:) would presuppose youth.
25:
18:
1541:, Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
1278:Morphological Naturalness
1180:Underlying representation
1544:Battistella, Edwin 1996
1537:Battistella, Edwin 1990
1534:. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
1020:Universals and frequency
389:Serial verb construction
1617:Linguistics terminology
1546:The Logic of Markedness
1405:The Logic of Markedness
1252:The Logic of Markedness
327:Honorifics (politeness)
28:Marked (disambiguation)
1477:Chomsky, Noam (1986).
1119:
1110:
965:Markedness depends on
504:Polypersonal agreement
1553:Semiotics: The Basics
1114:
1105:
1066:In generative grammar
906:Jakobsonian tradition
577:and social sciences,
140:Genitive construction
1555:, London: Routledge.
1379:The Semiotic of Myth
1342:, 1990, pp. 188–189.
1160:Marker (linguistics)
892:language acquisition
676:improve this section
393:Traditional grammar
361:Syntax relationships
37:Grammatical features
1574:Language Universals
1523:Andrews, Edna 1990
1419:J. Neurolinguistics
1403:Battistella, Edwin
1338:Battistella, Edwin
1329:; 38: 299–318, 1982
1239:Scientific American
1029:Language Universals
877:linguistic analysis
311:Comparison (degree)
61:Dative construction
1579:Trask, R. L. 1999
1572:Greenberg, Joseph
1466:Linguistic Inquiry
1276:Mayerthaler Willi
1175:Other (philosophy)
1145:Lemma (morphology)
1051:implicational laws
866:Nikolai Trubetzkoy
640:for more details.
261:Grammatical aspect
1377:Liszka, James J.
1128:optimality theory
1097:universal grammar
1093:generative syntax
1009:regularized forms
994:regularized forms
916:semantic analysis
873:Edwin Battistella
712:
711:
704:
569:
568:
464:Topic and Comment
447:Thematic relation
342:Reflexive pronoun
256:Tense–aspect–mood
216:Associated motion
198:Universal grinder
1629:
1597:Sociolinguistics
1504:
1503:Archangeli 1997.
1501:
1495:
1488:
1482:
1475:
1469:
1462:
1456:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1414:
1408:
1401:
1395:
1388:
1382:
1375:
1369:
1362:
1356:
1349:
1343:
1336:
1330:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1296:
1290:
1287:
1281:
1274:
1268:
1261:
1255:
1248:
1242:
1235:
1229:
1222:
1216:
1209:
1203:
1196:
1025:Joseph Greenberg
707:
700:
696:
693:
687:
656:
648:
638:confusion matrix
635:
561:
554:
547:
295:General features
210:Related to verbs
45:Related to nouns
33:
32:
1637:
1636:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1628:
1627:
1626:
1587:
1586:
1513:
1511:Further reading
1508:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1489:
1485:
1476:
1472:
1463:
1459:
1450:
1446:
1425:(2–3): 97–119.
1415:
1411:
1402:
1398:
1389:
1385:
1376:
1372:
1364:Hatten, Robert
1363:
1359:
1350:
1346:
1337:
1333:
1324:
1320:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1284:
1275:
1271:
1262:
1258:
1249:
1245:
1236:
1232:
1228:. Mouton, 1984.
1223:
1219:
1210:
1206:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1136:
1068:
1059:
1022:
963:
937:
908:
843:
708:
697:
691:
688:
673:
657:
646:
633:
618:social sciences
609:(unmarked) vs.
565:
536:
535:
494:
486:
485:
432:
424:
423:
362:
354:
353:
323:(verbal number)
321:Pluractionality
296:
288:
287:
211:
203:
202:
182:
123:Collective noun
105:Construct state
46:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1635:
1625:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1585:
1584:
1577:
1570:
1563:
1556:
1549:
1542:
1535:
1528:
1521:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1496:
1483:
1470:
1457:
1444:
1409:
1407:, 1996, p. 51.
1396:
1383:
1370:
1357:
1355:. Oxford, 1998
1344:
1331:
1318:
1291:
1282:
1269:
1256:
1243:
1230:
1217:
1204:
1190:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1135:
1132:
1067:
1064:
1058:
1055:
1021:
1018:
1013:
1012:
998:
997:
962:
959:
955:Rodney Needham
936:
933:
907:
904:
862:Roman Jakobson
842:
839:
710:
709:
660:
658:
651:
645:
642:
567:
566:
564:
563:
556:
549:
541:
538:
537:
534:
533:
528:
523:
518:
516:Empty category
513:
508:
507:
506:
495:
492:
491:
488:
487:
484:
483:
478:
473:
472:
471:
461:
460:
459:
454:
444:
439:
433:
430:
429:
426:
425:
422:
421:
420:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
391:
386:
381:
380:
379:
374:
363:
360:
359:
356:
355:
352:
351:
350:
349:
347:Reflexive verb
344:
334:
329:
324:
318:
313:
308:
303:
297:
294:
293:
290:
289:
286:
285:
280:
279:
278:
273:
268:
263:
253:
248:
243:
238:
233:
228:
223:
218:
212:
209:
208:
205:
204:
201:
200:
195:
190:
189:
188:
183:
181:
180:
175:
170:
166:
159:
154:
153:
152:
147:
137:
132:
127:
126:
125:
120:
115:
107:
102:
101:
100:
90:
89:
88:
83:
78:
73:
71:Quirky subject
68:
63:
53:
47:
44:
43:
40:
39:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1634:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1582:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1543:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1522:
1519:
1515:
1514:
1500:
1494:13(1), 23–41.
1493:
1487:
1480:
1474:
1468:8.3: 425–504.
1467:
1461:
1454:
1448:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1406:
1400:
1393:
1387:
1380:
1374:
1367:
1361:
1354:
1348:
1341:
1335:
1328:
1322:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1295:
1286:
1279:
1273:
1266:
1260:
1253:
1247:
1240:
1234:
1227:
1221:
1214:
1208:
1201:
1195:
1191:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1170:Null morpheme
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1131:
1129:
1124:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1102:
1101:Howard Lasnik
1098:
1094:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1063:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1042:
1037:
1033:
1030:
1027:'s 1966 book
1026:
1017:
1010:
1006:
1003:
1002:
1001:
995:
991:
988:
987:
986:
983:
978:
976:
972:
968:
958:
956:
950:
947:
943:
932:
929:
924:
922:
917:
913:
903:
901:
897:
893:
889:
884:
882:
878:
874:
869:
867:
863:
859:
858:structuralism
856:
855:Prague School
852:
848:
838:
836:
834:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
795:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
706:
703:
695:
692:December 2019
685:
681:
677:
671:
670:
666:
661:This section
659:
655:
650:
649:
641:
639:
631:
627:
622:
619:
614:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
591:
589:
585:
580:
576:
571:
562:
557:
555:
550:
548:
543:
542:
540:
539:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
521:Incorporation
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
505:
502:
501:
500:
497:
496:
490:
489:
482:
479:
477:
474:
470:
467:
466:
465:
462:
458:
455:
453:
450:
449:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
434:
428:
427:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
394:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
378:
375:
373:
370:
369:
368:
365:
364:
358:
357:
348:
345:
343:
340:
339:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
298:
292:
291:
284:
281:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
258:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
231:Evidentiality
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
213:
207:
206:
199:
196:
194:
191:
187:
184:
179:
176:
174:
171:
168:
167:
165:
164:
163:
160:
158:
155:
151:
148:
146:
143:
142:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
110:
109:Countability
108:
106:
103:
99:
96:
95:
94:
91:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
62:
59:
58:
57:
54:
52:
49:
48:
42:
41:
38:
35:
34:
29:
22:
1580:
1573:
1566:
1559:
1552:
1545:
1538:
1531:
1524:
1517:
1499:
1491:
1486:
1478:
1473:
1465:
1460:
1452:
1447:
1422:
1418:
1412:
1404:
1399:
1391:
1386:
1378:
1373:
1365:
1360:
1352:
1347:
1339:
1334:
1326:
1321:
1307:(1): 37–63.
1304:
1300:
1294:
1285:
1277:
1272:
1264:
1259:
1251:
1246:
1238:
1233:
1225:
1220:
1212:
1207:
1199:
1194:
1155:Male as norm
1120:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1090:
1085:
1079:
1076:Morris Halle
1072:Noam Chomsky
1069:
1060:
1045:
1041:Informedness
1038:
1034:
1028:
1023:
1014:
1008:
1005:Old paradigm
1004:
999:
993:
990:Old paradigm
989:
982:West Frisian
979:
964:
951:
942:informedness
938:
925:
921:C. S. Peirce
912:Edna Andrews
909:
887:
886:In his 1941
885:
870:
850:
846:
844:
832:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
796:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
720:derivational
716:inflectional
713:
698:
689:
674:Please help
662:
629:
623:
615:
610:
606:
595:phonological
592:
587:
583:
578:
572:
570:
530:
481:Veridicality
372:Transitivity
316:Egophoricity
130:Definiteness
98:Measure word
86:Instrumental
66:Dative shift
1241:227: 72–80.
1057:Diagnostics
928:Talmy GivĂłn
776:automobiles
599:grammatical
575:linguistics
417:Predicative
337:Reciprocity
306:Boundedness
226:Conjugation
193:Specificity
1591:Categories
1481:. Praeger.
1340:Markedness
1313:2328/27165
1263:GivĂłn, T.
1186:References
1140:Inflection
1047:Universals
971:consonants
772:automobile
630:markedness
626:psychology
579:markedness
531:Markedness
526:Inflection
511:Declension
442:Mirativity
251:Mirativity
157:Noun class
145:Possession
113:Count noun
93:Classifier
81:Comitative
76:Nominative
1607:Semantics
1602:Phonology
1327:Semiotica
736:dishonest
663:does not
611:dishonest
499:Agreement
493:Phenomena
431:Semantics
397:Predicate
384:Branching
221:Clusivity
118:Mass noun
1439:17104364
1392:Language
1134:See also
881:nasality
851:unmarked
835:are you?
784:children
603:semantic
584:unmarked
476:Volition
437:Contrast
367:Argument
332:Polarity
246:Telicity
236:Modality
169:Singular
1612:Grammar
1394:, 1982.
967:context
900:aphasia
792:lioness
768:hostess
760:lioness
752:unclean
728:unhappy
684:removed
669:sources
457:Patient
412:Adjunct
402:Subject
377:Valency
51:Animacy
1437:
1150:Lexeme
975:vowels
847:marked
811:little
744:unfair
732:honest
607:honest
601:, and
588:marked
407:Object
301:Affect
241:Person
178:Plural
162:Number
135:Gender
1435:S2CID
833:young
827:dirty
823:clean
815:happy
803:young
780:child
748:clean
724:happy
469:Focus
452:Agent
283:Voice
276:Tense
1074:and
896:loss
894:and
864:and
849:and
831:how
788:lion
764:host
756:lion
740:fair
667:any
665:cite
271:Mood
173:Dual
56:Case
1427:doi
1309:hdl
1091:In
1078:'s
860:of
819:sad
807:big
799:old
718:or
678:by
624:In
616:In
573:In
1593::
1433:.
1423:17
1421:.
1303:.
821:,
813:,
805:,
778:,
770:,
762:,
746:,
738:,
730:,
634:Δp
597:,
1441:.
1429::
1315:.
1311::
1305:2
825:/
817:/
809:/
801:/
782:/
774:/
766:/
758:/
750:/
742:/
734:/
726:/
705:)
699:(
694:)
690:(
686:.
672:.
560:e
553:t
546:v
30:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.