Marine geology - Knowledge

736: 222:. Developed in the late 1960s, the purpose of the survey method is to use active sonar systems on the sea floor to detect and develop images of objects. The physical sensors of the sonar device are known as a transducer array and they are mounted onto the hull of a vessel which sends acoustic pulses that reflect off the seafloor and received by the sensors. The imaging can help determine the seafloors composition as harder objects generate a stronger reflectance and appear dark on the returned image. Softer materials such as sand and mud cannot reflect the arrays pulses as well so they appear lighter on the image. This information can be analyzed by specialist to determine 151: 471:. Divergent plate boundaries are when two tectonic plates move away from each other, convergent plate boundaries are when two plates move towards each other, and transform plate boundaries are when two plates slide sideways past each other. Each boundary type is associated with different geological marine features. Divergent plates are the cause for mid-ocean ridge systems while convergent plates are responsible for subduction zones and the creation of deep ocean trenches. Transform boundaries cause earthquakes, displacement of rock, and crustal deformation. 5401: 402: 331: 5016: 610: 6289: 5028: 6310: 4648: 243: 539: 5390: 5040: 6299: 121:. The scientists' goal was to prove that there was life in the deepest parts of the ocean. Using a sounding rope, dropped over the edge of the ship, the team was able to capture ample amounts of data. Part of their discovery was that the deepest part of the ocean was not in the middle. These were some of the first records of the mid-ocean ridge system. 998: 238:

Similarly to side-scan sonar, multibeam bathymetry uses a transducer array to send and receive sound waves in order to detect objects located on the sea floor. Unlike side-scan sonar, scientists are able to determine multiple types of measurements from the recordings and make hypothesis' on the data

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The benefit to a magnetometer compared to sonar devices is its ability to detect artifacts and geological features on top and underneath the seafloor. Because the magnetometer is a passive sensor, and does not emit waves, its exploration depth is unlimited. Although, in most studies, the resolution

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This method is less expensive than releasing a vehicle to take photographs of the sea floor, and requires less time. The side-scan sonar is useful for scientists as it is a quick and efficient way of collecting imagery of the sea floor, but it cannot measure other factors, such as depth. Therefore,

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Divergent plates are directly responsible for the largest mountain range on Earth, known as the mid-ocean ridge system. At nearly 60,000 km long, the mid-ocean ridge is an extensive chain of underwater volcanic mountains that spans the globe. Centralized in the oceans, this unique geological

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There are limitations to this technique. The distance between the sea floor and the sensor is related to the resolution of the map being created. The closer the sensor is the sea floor, the higher the resolution will be and the farther away the sensor is to the sea floor, the lower the resolution

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of the sea floor to not only map depth, but also to map beneath the sea floor. Mounted to the hull of a ship, the system releases low-frequency pulses which penetrate the surface of the sea floor and are reflected by sediments in the sub-surface. Some sensors can reach over 1000 meters below the

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and move relative to each other due to convection between the asthenosphere and lithosphere. The speed at which the plates move ranges between 2 and 15 centimeters per year. Why this theory is so significant is the interaction between the tectonic plates explains many geological formations. In

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formed over millions of years from precipitating metals from seawater and sediment pore water. They are typically found unattached, spread across the abyssal seafloor and contain metals crucial for building batteries and touch screens, including cobalt, nickel, copper, and manganese.

977:. This can lead to destruction animal habitats, fishing industries, and infrastructure. In the United States, damages to properties and infrastructure has caused approximately $ 500 million per year, and an additional $ 150 million a year is dedicated to mitigation from the 239:

collected. By understanding the speed at which sound will travel in the water, scientists can calculate the two way travel time from the ship's sensor to the seafloor and back to the ship. These calculations will determine to depth of the sea floor in that area.

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EM300 bathymetry of the three submarine volcanoes in the vicinity of Farallon de Pajaros Island. The data were collected using the EM300 multibeam system mounted on the hull of the R/V Thompson. The grid-cell size is 35 meters. The image is 2 times vertically

259:. Objects in the water column can include structures from shipwrecks, dense biology, and bubble plumes. The importance of objects in the water column to marine geology is identifying specific features as bubble plumes can indicate the presence of 322:, the sub-bottom profiles delivers insights on the location and morphology of submarine landslide, identifies how oceanic gasses travel through the subsurface, discover artifacts from cultural heritages, understand sediment deposition, and more. 350:. When the Earth turns on its axis, the metals release electrical currents which generate magnetic fields. These fields can then be measured to reveal geological subseafloor structures. This method is especially useful in marine exploration and 953:

levels in the sea water. Marine geology can determine areas which have been damaged to employ habitat restoration techniques. It can also help determine areas that have not been affecting by bottom trawling and employ conservation protection.

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of 9.1 which then triggered a tsunami that caused waves to reach a height of at least 30 ft and killed approximately 230,000 people in 13 different countries. Marine geology and understanding plate boundaries supports the development of

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Marine geology has several methods of detecting geological features below the sea. One of the economic benefits of geological surveying of the seafloor is determining valuable resources that can be extracted. The two major resources

574:, resulting in volcanic activity and the development of deep ocean trenches. Marine geology focuses on mapping and understanding how these processes function. Renowned geological features created through subduction zones include the 1064:

The importance of mapping the seafloor has been recognized by governments and scientists alike. Because of this, an international collaboration effort to create a high-definition map of the entire seafloor was developed, called the

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is another measurement used to determine the intensity of the sound that is returned to the sensor. This information can provide insight on the geological makeup and objects of the sea floor as well as objects located within the

763:, there is an estimated 21 billion tons (Bt) of nodules; 5.95 Bt of manganese, 0.27 Bt of nickel, 0.23 Bt of copper, and 0.05 Bt of cobalt. It is a highly sought-after area for mining because of the yield of minerals it posses. 154:

A theoretical model of the formation of magnetic striping. New oceanic crust forming continuously at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge cools and becomes increasingly older as it moves away from the ridge crest with seafloor

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Merino, Nancy; Aronson, Heidi S.; Bojanova, Diana P.; Feyhl-Buska, Jayme; Wong, Michael L.; Zhang, Shu; Giovannelli, Donato (2019). "Living at the Extremes: Extremophiles and the Limits of Life in a Planetary Context".

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Van Dover, C.L.; Arnaud-Haond, S.; Gianni, M.; Helmreich, S.; Huber, J.A.; Jaeckel, A.L.; Metaxas, A.; Pendleton, L.H.; Petersen, S.; Ramirez-Llodra, E.; Steinberg, P.E.; Tunnicliffe, V.; Yamamoto, H. (April 2018).

1575: 4428: 132:(WHOI) were created to support efforts in the field. With Scripps being located on the west coast of North America and WHOI on the east coast, the study of marine geology became much more accessible. 2690:

Embley, Robert; Baker, Edward; Butterfield, David; Chadwick, William; Lupton, John; Resing, Joseph; de Ronde, Cornel; Nakamura, Ko-ichi; Tunnicliffe, Verena; Dower, John; Merle, Susan (2007-12-01).

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have been discovered. Furthermore, 90% of the species have yet to be identified. Proper marine survey techniques have protected thousands of habitats and species by dedicating it to conservation.

279:(AUVs) to be equipped with the multibeam sensor or for the sensor to be towed by the ship its self. This ensures that the resolution of the collected data will be high enough for proper analysis. 1727:

Hood, P J (1966). Geophysical reconnaissance of Hudson Bay Part I Sea-magnetometer Survey Part Ii Subbottom Depth Recorder Survey (Report). Natural Resources Canada/CMSS/Information Management.

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protruding from the mid-ocean ridge. They discovered that on either side of the ridge, symmetrical "strips" were found as the polarity of the planet would change over time. This proved that

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Thomas Devlin, Adam; Pan, Jiayi (2020-03-25), "Tidal Evolution Related to Changing Sea Level; Worldwide and Regional Surveys, and the Impact to Estuaries and Other Coastal Zones",

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hypothesized that the seafloor was spreading from the mid-ocean ridge system. With support from the maps of the sea floor, and the recently developed theory of plate tectonics and

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system. After ships were equipped with sonar sensors, they travelled back and forth across the Atlantic Ocean collecting observations of the sea floor. In 1953, the cartographer

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patterns. Analyzing the effects that the seafloor has on water movement can help support planning and location selection of generators offshore and optimize energy farming.

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existed. In later years, newer technology was able to date the rocks and identified that rocks closest to the ridge were younger than the rocks near the coasts of the

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Volcanic arcs and oceanic trenches partly encircling the Pacific Basin form the so-called Pacific Ring of fire, a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

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generated the first three-dimensional relief map of the ocean floor which proved there was an underwater mountain range in the middle of the Atlantic, along with the

1051:(NOAA), only 23% of the seafloor has been mapped in detail and one of the leading projects in exploration is developing high-resolution maps of the seafloor. The 314:

The benefit of the sub-bottom profiler is its capability to record information on the surface and below the seafloor. When accompanied with geophysical data from

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Bottom trawling also poses a detrimental effects to the sea and using marine geology techniques can be helpful at mitigating them. Bottom trawling, generally a

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and certainty of the data collected is dependent on the distance from the device. The closer the device is to a ferrous object, the better the data collected.

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Manganese nodules on the seafloor in the Clarion-Clipperton zone. The image was taken with ROV KIEL 6000 during expedition SO239 with FS SONNE in April 2015.

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border of the tectonic plates, the oceanic plates subduct underneath the continental plates, creating some of the deepest marine trenches in the world

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Many section of the oceans are permanently dark, low temperatures, and are under extreme pressure, making them difficult to observe. According to the

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in the years following World War II. The deep ocean floor is the last essentially unexplored frontier and detailed mapping in support of economic (

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Schlesinger, Angela; Kukovica, Jacob; Rosenberger, Andreas; Heesemann, Martin; Pirenne, Benoît; Robinson, Jessica; Morley, Michael (2021-08-04).

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At present, marine geology focuses on geological hazards, environmental conditions, habitats, natural resources, and energy and mining projects.

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There are multiple methods for collecting data from the sea floor without physically dispatching humans or machines to the bottom of the ocean.

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or crabs. During this process, the net damages the seafloor by scraping and removing animals and vegetation living on the seabed, including

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Oberle, Ferdinand K.J.; Swarzenski, Peter W.; Reddy, Christopher M.; Nelson, Robert K.; Baasch, Benjamin; Hanebuth, Till J.J. (July 2016).

4221:"Crustal Deformation and Seismic History Associated with the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake: A Perspective from the Andaman-Nicobar Islands" 2858:""Who stands to benefit?" To engage in deep-sea mining or not. Not, say international scientists | Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries" 171:

continuously released molten rock from the mid-ocean ridge and that the molten rock then solidified, causing the boundary between the two

1066: 377:, but can be calibrated to measure at different speeds depending on the study. The readings will be consistent until the device detects 4503:

Atwood, Trisha B.; Witt, Andrew; Mayorga, Juan; Hammill, Edd; Sala, Enric (2020). "Global Patterns in Marine Sediment Carbon Stocks".

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Althaus, F; Williams, A; Schlacher, TA; Kloser, RJ; Green, MA; Barker, BA; Bax, NJ; Brodie, P; Hoenlinger-Schlacher, MA (2009-12-17).

3259:"Seabed mining: International Seabed Authority environmental management plan for the Clarion–Clipperton Zone. A partnership approach" 3433:"INFOMAR data supports offshore energy development and marine spatial planning in the Irish offshore via the EMODnet Geology portal" 1014: 511:. It began forming over 200 million years ago when the American, African and European continents were still connected, forming the 5935: 978: 117:

hosted nearly 250 people, including sailors, engineers, carpenters, marines, officers, and a 6-person team of scientists, led by

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as it can not only characterize geological features on the seafloor but can survey aircraft and ship wrecks deep under the sea.

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and objects on and below the sea floor. The returned data is collected by computers and with aid from hydrographers, can create

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Prior to World War II, marine geology grew as a scientific discipline. During the early 20th century, organizations such as the

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Marine geology also has many applications on the subject of offshore energy development. Offshore energy is the generation of

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of the terrain below the sea floor. The resolution of the data also allows scientists to identify geological features such as

4161: 4084: 4001: 3701: 3659: 3493: 2996: 2615: 2235: 2135: 2090: 1816: 1706: 1623: 4892: 1069:. This committee has a set goal to have the project finished by 2030. To reach their goal, they are equipping old, new, and 5582: 703:. These vents emit large volumes of super-heated, metal infused fluids that rise and rapidly cool when mixed with the cold 272: 230:

other depth measuring sonar devices are typically accompanied with the side-scan sonar to generate a more detailed survey.

129: 1604:"Simultaneous detection of deep-sea earthquake and magnetic field using three-axis fiber optic accelerometer-magnetometer" 1231: 672:. Although this sector seems profitable, it is a high risk, high reward industry with many harmful environmental impacts. 5071: 3722: 125: 5472: 2757:"An evaluation of volcanic cloud detection techniques during recent significant eruptions in the western 'Ring of Fire'" 590:

The Mariana Trench is the deepest known submarine trench, and the deepest location in the Earth's crust itself. It is a

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along the ridge, the two plates diverge from each other pulling up the new ocean floor from below the crust. Along the

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Fujiwara, Toshiya; Lin, Jian; Matsumoto, Takeshi; Kelemen, Peter B.; Tucholke, Brian E.; Casey, John F. (March 2003).

602:. At the deepest point, the trench is nearly 11,000 m deep (almost 36,000 feet). This is further below sea level than 6024: 5295: 4599: 4491: 838:

and forces applied to them. Another example why marine geology is needed for future energy projects is to understand

4071:, First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/ Taylor & Francis Group, 2020.: CRC Press, pp. 115–123, 2755:

Tupper, Andrew; Carn, Simon; Davey, Jason; Kamada, Yasuhiro; Potts, Rodney; Prata, Fred; Tokuno, Masami (May 2004).

5482: 5442: 2883:"Deep-Sea Mining: Economic, Technical, Technological, and Environmental Considerations for Sustainable Development" 3747:

Olsgard, Frode; Schaanning, Morten T.; Widdicombe, Stephen; Kendall, Mike A.; Austen, Melanie C. (November 2008).

3309:"DeepCCZ: Deep-sea Mining Interests in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research" 3308: 863:

mapping and conservation. With global events causing potentially irreversible damage to the sea habitats, such as

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Lodge, Michael; Johnson, David; Le Gurun, Gwenaëlle; Wengler, Markus; Weaver, Phil; Gunn, Vikki (November 2014).

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at sea include oil and minerals. Over the last 30 years, deep-sea mining has generated between $ 9 -$ 11 billion

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is divided into extensive plates of rock. These plates sit on top of partially molten layer of rock known as the

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Rajendran, C. P.; Rajendran, K.; Anu, R.; Earnest, A.; Machado, T.; Mohan, P. M.; Freymueller, J. (2007-01-01).

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Guinan, J.; McKeon, C.; O'Keeffe, E.; Monteys, X.; Sacchetti, F.; Coughlan, M.; Nic Aonghusa, C. (2020-09-09).

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on each other and one plate is pushed beneath the other. In a marine setting, this typically occurs when the

362: 276: 179:. A geomagnetic survey was conducted that supported this theory. The survey was composed of scientists using 2444: 735: 419:

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory developed in the 1960s that explains major land form events, such as

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has set aside approximately 160,000 square kilometers of seabed within the CCZ as the area is rich with

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movement to convert to energy. Understanding the seafloor and geological features can help develop the

759:. It has been divided into 16 mining claims and 9 sections dedicated to conservation. According to the 874:

The CCZ has been surveyed and mapped to designate specific areas for mining and for conservation. The

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surface of the sea floor, giving hydrographers a detailed view of the marine geological environment.

2339:"Crustal Evolution of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near the Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone in the last 5 Ma" 1374: 969:

is a complex subject that is necessary to understand to protect infrastructure and the environment.

519:, the ridge system became more defined and in the last 75 years, it has been intensely studied. The 6202: 5577: 5567: 5507: 5143: 5113: 3937:"Deciphering the lithological consequences of bottom trawling to sedimentary habitats on the shelf" 2843: 532: 31: 361:

is the main piece of equipment deployed, which is typically towed behind a vessel or mounted to a

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Many sub-bottom profilers can emit multiple frequencies of sound to record data on a multitude of

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and other mitigation techniques to protect the people and environments who may be susceptible to

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is the process of sediment and materials breaking down and transported due to the effects of the

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and mitigation techniques for these disastrous events will require marine geology of coastal and

300: 118: 6234: 6172: 5599: 5285: 3077:"The Development History and Latest Progress of Deep-Sea Polymetallic Nodule Mining Technology" 2222:, Geophysical Monograph Series, Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, pp. 63–93, 1425: 1053: 1018: 389:

at the seafloor. The sudden change in magnetism can be analyzed on the magnetometer's display.

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THE ROLE OF FEDERALISM IN INITIATING OFFSHORE WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE

2731: 1178: 807:, which are crucial for location placement of the necessary infrastructure to produce energy. 6340: 6067: 6049: 5557: 5452: 5087: 4933: 4592: 3411: 2831: 1058: 315: 147:. The survey data was large step towards many more discoveries about the geology of the sea. 107: 73: 2639:

Gardner, James V.; Armstrong, Andrew A.; Calder, Brian R.; Beaudoin, Jonathan (2014-01-02).

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Marine geological studies were of extreme importance in providing the critical evidence for

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technique, involves dragging a large net that herds and captures a target species, such as

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Nobre, Ana; Pacheco, Miguel; Jorge, Raquel; Lopes, M.F.P.; Gato, L.M.C. (January 2009).

3526: 3511:"Geological and geotechnical constraints in the Irish Sea for offshore renewable energy" 3380:"The Current State and Future of Offshore Energy Exploration and Development Technology" 3354: 3274: 3225: 3175: 3092: 3035: 2937: 2772: 2660: 2595: 2564: 2507: 2414: 2354: 2304: 2173: 2032: 1985: 1969: 1930: 1873: 1765: 1656: 1476: 1318: 1001:

Model of the earthquake epicenter and tsunami extent of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

755:. The CCZ is approximately 4,500,000 square kilometers constructed of various submarine 6192: 5905: 5895: 5860: 5760: 5745: 5642: 4948: 4887: 4839: 4765: 4726: 4657: 4632: 4622: 4389:

Cremen, Gemma; Bozzoni, Francesca; Pistorio, Silvia; Galasso, Carmine (February 2022).

3364: 2921: 2607: 2193: 2082: 1993: 1916: 1576:"Exploration Tools: Sub-Bottom Profiler: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research" 962: 918: 524: 520: 492: 460: 449: 431:, and mid-ocean ridge systems. The idea is that Earth's most outer layer, known as the 420: 288: 196: 192: 188: 176: 160: 144: 3378:

Shouwei, Zhou; Qingping, Li; Haishan, Zhu; Houhe, Zhang; Qiang, Fu; Li, Zhang (2016).

2945: 2070: 1664: 945:, which can directly affect the sediment distribution. This can lead to the change in 6274: 6264: 6207: 6187: 5870: 5835: 5770: 5750: 5740: 5622: 5310: 5168: 5044: 4938: 4536: 4516: 4487: 4429:"Boldly Explore Where No One Has Explored Before | Bureau of Ocean Energy Management" 4410: 4371: 4322: 4248: 4201: 4157: 4099: 4080: 4045: 3997: 3964: 3917: 3870: 3866: 3823: 3776: 3697: 3655: 3621: 3538: 3489: 3454: 3399: 3286: 3239: 3187: 3106: 3057: 2992: 2957: 2949: 2902: 2819: 2784: 2713: 2672: 2611: 2576: 2529: 2470: 2426: 2376: 2316: 2231: 2185: 2131: 2086: 2044: 2015:

Li, Xiaochen; Luo, Xianhu; Deng, Ming; Qiu, Ning; Sun, Zhen; Chen, Kai (March 2023).

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2019 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC)

1166: 1119: 1104: 1057:, a vessel owned by NOAA, has already mapped over 2 million km of the seafloor using 708: 571: 516: 382: 260: 168: 164: 6229: 6197: 6167: 5976: 5961: 5830: 5765: 5657: 5572: 5502: 5427: 5208: 5178: 5108: 5103: 5032: 4953: 4923: 4849: 4834: 4744: 4585: 4532: 4512: 4402: 4361: 4312: 4240: 4193: 4149: 4072: 4037: 3987: 3956: 3936: 3909: 3889: 3862: 3815: 3796:"Impacts of bottom trawling on deep-coral ecosystems of seamounts are long-lasting" 3768: 3689: 3647: 3613: 3568: 3530: 3510: 3481: 3444: 3391: 3360: 3278: 3229: 3179: 3132: 3096: 3047: 3039: 2984: 2941: 2894: 2811: 2776: 2703: 2664: 2603: 2568: 2519: 2511: 2456: 2452: 2418: 2366: 2358: 2308: 2223: 2177: 2123: 2078: 2036: 1989: 1934: 1877: 1804: 1769: 1728: 1694: 1660: 1640: 1611: 1543:"Exploration Tools: Multibeam Sonar: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research" 1506:"Exploration Tools: Side-Scan Sonar: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research" 1480: 1124: 1027: 1006: 796: 724: 720: 700: 440: 3960: 3913: 3842: 3681: 3594:"Geo-spatial multi-criteria analysis for wave energy conversion system deployment" 3593: 3534: 3379: 3258: 3234: 3209: 3019: 2640: 2115: 1749: 997: 6034: 5930: 5880: 5845: 5805: 5697: 5667: 5517: 5467: 5377: 5335: 5268: 5193: 5153: 4973: 4775: 4749: 4696: 3748: 3693: 3617: 3395: 3282: 3043: 2976: 2668: 2548: 2127: 1686: 982: 970: 966: 868: 864: 843: 834:

the geological area before development is needed to insure proper support of the

815: 800: 744: 661: 591: 485: 468: 436: 414: 406: 219: 172: 136: 84: 57: 4567: 4390: 3772: 3473: 2988: 2572: 1833:"Exploration Tools: Magnetometer: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research" 1698: 1603: 1200: 6144: 6139: 6044: 6039: 5815: 5810: 5542: 5432: 5253: 5188: 5163: 5020: 4968: 4902: 4864: 4859: 4691: 4406: 3639: 3485: 3159: 2756: 2261:"What is the mid-ocean ridge?: Ocean Exploration Facts: NOAA Ocean Exploration" 2016: 1857: 1795:

Kostenko, Vladimir V.; Tolstonogov, Anton Yu.; Mokeeva, Irina G. (April 2019).

1615: 1094: 871:, marine geology can help us study and mitigate the effects of these activity. 792: 575: 500: 342:. The outer layer of the Earth's core is liquid and mostly made up of magnetic 304: 106:

The study of marine geology dates back to the late 1800s during the 4-year HMS

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In the 1950s, marine geology had one of the most significant discoveries, the

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Oberle, Ferdinand K.J.; Storlazzi, Curt D.; Hanebuth, Till J.J. (July 2016).

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Estuaries and Coastal Zones - Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes

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US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

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US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

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Zhang, Jiangyang; Zhang, Fan; Lin, Jian; Yang, Hongfeng (September 2021).

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is the study of the history and structure of the ocean floor. It involves

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The stability of the seafloor is important for the creation of offshore

6077: 5925: 5900: 5795: 5775: 5702: 5687: 5672: 5662: 5627: 5547: 5367: 5362: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5213: 4943: 4918: 4897: 4874: 4801: 4706: 4339: 4244: 3795: 2515: 2422: 2197: 934: 926: 799:. Underwater geological features can dictate ocean properties, such as 776: 719:

and from chimneys, towers, and mineral-rich deposits on the sea floor.

643: 609: 559: 547: 453: 428: 69: 6309: 5015: 4647: 4562: 4342:"An Earthquake Early Warning System for Southwestern British Columbia" 3819: 3160:"Deep-ocean polymetallic nodules as a resource for critical materials" 2288: 6149: 6011: 5996: 5910: 5755: 5594: 5589: 5372: 5300: 5228: 5148: 5138: 5095: 4989: 4844: 4711: 3210:"Geology of parts of the central and eastern Clarion Clipperton Zone" 2692:"Exploring the Submarine Ring of Fire: Mariana Arc - Western Pacific" 2397:

Bird, D.E.; Hall, S.A.; Burke, K.; Casey, J.F.; Sawyer, D.S. (2007).

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Parianos, John; O’Sullivan, Anthony; Madureira, Pedro (2022-03-02).

3016: 2227: 2181: 2122:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 149–158, 1061:

since 2008, but this technique has proved to be too time-consuming.

1009:. Furthermore, they can cause other disasters, such as tsunamis and 6244: 5966: 5825: 5717: 5707: 5652: 5128: 4041: 1921: 1905:"Active underwater detection with an array of atomic magnetometers" 1733: 1258: 911: 704: 296: 3746: 3682:"Development of Environmental Management Plan for Deep-Sea Mining" 2490:

Grevemeyer, Ingo; Ranero, Cesar R.; Ivandic, Monika (2018-01-12).

1205:

50 Years of Ocean Discovery: National Science Foundation 1950—2000

989:

to predict erosional trends which can protect these environments.

675:

Some of the major minerals extracted from the sea include nickel,

242: 6113: 6103: 5273: 5243: 4821: 4608: 3843:"The impact of bottom trawling on benthic fauna of the North Sea" 3559:

Alsharedah, Yazeed; Naggar, M.Hesham El; Newson, Timothy (2023).

2983:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 2–60, 2802:

Petersen, Sven; Hannington, Mark; Krätschell, Anne (2017-01-03).

2114:

Frisch, Wolfgang; Meschede, Martin; Blakey, Ronald (2010-11-02),

1285: 1232:"HMS Challenger Expedition | History of a Scientific Trailblazer" 883: 860: 823: 780: 635: 631: 543: 512: 424: 378: 351: 223: 30:"Marine Geology" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see 2156:

Silver, Eli A.; Cox, Allan; Hart, Robert Brian (December 1986).

1903:

Deans, Cameron; Marmugi, Luca; Renzoni, Ferruccio (2018-03-22).

1602:

Zhang, Wentao; Huang, Wenzhu; Luo, Yingbo; Li, Fang (May 2019).

626:, created from several converging plate boundaries. Its intense 538: 5820: 5233: 4549: 3723:"These deep-sea animals are new to science—and already at risk" 3430: 3158:

Hein, James R.; Koschinsky, Andrea; Kuhn, Thomas (2020-02-24).

2017:"Low-noise, low-power-consumption seafloor vector magnetometer" 1078: 986: 942: 907: 899: 712: 680: 676: 448:

regards to marine geology, the movement of the plates explains

386: 373:

evaluates the magnetic presence generally every second, or one

347: 95: 3793: 3478:

2010 World Non-Grid-Connected Wind Power and Energy Conference

2689: 2638: 1344:"Seeing Is Believing: How Marie Tharp Changed Geology Forever" 957: 695:, and other metals. These minerals are commonly formed around 6182: 6001: 5780: 5735: 3688:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 483–506, 3561:"A Compliance Model for Monopiles for Offshore Wind Turbines" 2977:"Deep-Sea Mining versus Land-Based Mining: A Cost Comparison" 2549:"Yield failure of the subducting plate at the Mariana Trench" 1074: 930: 891: 481: 374: 92: 4388: 4218: 3131:, Princeton University Press, pp. 397–412, 2021-11-09, 2801: 1199:

Board, National Research Council (US) Ocean Studies (2000),

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Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Soil and Water Management

3934: 3377: 3256: 3207: 2336: 922: 895: 839: 784: 692: 688: 343: 4577: 4268:"2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami: Facts and FAQs" 1794: 1641:"A model of the dynamical structure of Earth's outer core" 1319:"Seafloor spreading | Evidence & Process | Britannica" 634:

activity poses a major threat for disastrous earthquakes,

459:

There are three major types of tectonic plate boundaries;

456:

and trenches, volcanism and hydrothermal vents, and more.

218:

A common method of collecting imagery of the sea floor is

3437:

Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology

2399:"Early Central Atlantic Ocean seafloor spreading history" 1797:"The Combined AUV Motion Control with Towed Magnetometer" 974: 728: 98:), natural disaster mitigation, and academic objectives. 4553:

Coastal Science & Research News from Across the USGS

3509:

Coughlan, Mark; Long, Mike; Doherty, Paul (2020-06-03).

338:

Magnetometry is the process of measuring changes in the

3887: 3333:"Polymetallic Nodules - International Seabed Authority" 2489: 981:. Marine geology supports the study of sediment types, 849: 523:

was also served as the birthplace for the discovery of

3591: 3558: 334:

A magnetometer used by the United States Navy in 2004.

287:

A sub-bottom profiler is another sonar system used in

3749:"Effects of bottom trawling on ecosystem functioning" 3306: 2754: 2596:"Lithosphere–Mantle Interactions in Subduction Zones" 2258: 27:

Study of the history and structure of the ocean floor

2287:

Smith, Deborah K.; Cann, Johnson R. (October 1993).

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Annales des Mines - Responsabilité et environnement

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It is able to measure the changes in fields of 6327: 4225:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 4178:"Large earthquakes may trigger more earthquakes" 4018:"Coastal Erosion and Transgressive Stratigraphy" 3981: 1426:"marine geology research: Topics by Science.gov" 886:. The zone houses over 5,000 species, including 6020:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis 1968:Clausen, Carl J.; Arnold, J. Barto (May 1976). 1601: 1455: 1201:"Achievements in Marine Geology and Geophysics" 1049:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2289:"Building the crust at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge" 2213: 766: 5072: 4593: 4062: 3125:"Hydrothermal Systems and the Origin of Life" 2919: 2475:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 ( 2155: 1974:International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 1970:"The magnetometer and underwater archaeology" 1967: 4290: 3416:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2024 ( 2014: 1645:Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 1146: 992: 4395:Reliability Engineering & System Safety 4063:Haj-Amor, Zied; Bouri, Salem (2020-01-22), 3646:, Routledge, pp. 487–500, 2018-12-14, 1067:Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project 958:Sediment transportation and coastal erosion 910:and, has been an area where new species of 699:, more specifically hydrothermal vents and 5079: 5065: 4600: 4586: 3129:The Ecology of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents 2214:Searle, R. C.; Escartín, J. (2013-03-19), 606:is above sea level, by over 2 kilometers. 311:, ancient river beds, and other features. 226:of rock beneath the surface of the water. 5086: 4365: 4316: 4297:Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 4145:Handbook of Coastal Processes and Erosion 3991: 3448: 3233: 3100: 3075:Kang, Yajuan; Liu, Shaojun (2021-10-14). 3051: 2707: 2523: 2370: 2286: 1920: 1858:"Highly sensitive magnetometers—a review" 1732: 1341: 1015:underwater earthquake in the Indian Ocean 474: 3840: 996: 734: 622:The Ring of Fire is situated around the 608: 537: 400: 329: 241: 149: 4563:Pacific Seafloor Mapping Project – USGS 3471: 3074: 2116:"Plate tectonics and mountain building" 1747: 1570: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1005:Earthquakes are one of the most common 654: 233: 14: 6328: 5351:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations 4450: 4448: 3679: 3554: 3552: 3384:Chinese Journal of Engineering Science 3359:(Thesis). University of Rhode Island. 3302: 3300: 3203: 3201: 3164:Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 3153: 3151: 2880: 2634: 2632: 2593: 2451:, Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2392: 2390: 2332: 2330: 2282: 2280: 2254: 2252: 2209: 2207: 2109: 2107: 2068: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2058: 1855: 1597: 1595: 1537: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1525: 1500: 1498: 1496: 1494: 1451: 1449: 1447: 1445: 1085:based technology to reach their goal. 325: 282: 5060: 4581: 4291:Šepić, J.; Vilibić, I. (2011-01-05). 4015: 3352: 2075:Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution 1638: 1396: 1394: 1369: 1367: 1365: 1363: 1313: 1311: 1309: 1307: 1305: 1280: 1278: 1253: 1251: 1226: 1224: 1222: 1220: 1198: 1194: 1192: 1190: 1188: 1142: 1140: 271:will be. Therefore, it is common for 6298: 4568:Marine Geology and Geophysics at MIT 4558:Marine Geology and Geophysics – NOAA 4265: 4065:"Climate Change and Coastal Erosion" 2974: 2343:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 1801:2019 IEEE Underwater Technology (UT) 1726: 1559: 850:Environmental impacts and mitigation 761:International Seabed Authority (ISA) 649: 562:are caused when two tectonic plates 527:. As volcanic activity produces new 130:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 68:. Marine geology has strong ties to 5039: 4445: 4421: 4170: 3549: 3472:Yang, Xu; Bai, Ke (November 2010). 3297: 3198: 3148: 2629: 2387: 2327: 2277: 2249: 2204: 2104: 2055: 2021:Journal of Oceanology and Limnology 1592: 1522: 1491: 1442: 554: 159:In 1960, the American geophysicist 126:Scripps Institution of Oceanography 24: 6178:National Oceanographic Data Center 5605:World Ocean Circulation Experiment 5493:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project 3365:10.23860/thesis-starr-clayton-2022 2608:10.1016/b978-0-323-85733-8.00014-7 1994:10.1111/j.1095-9270.1976.tb00953.x 1391: 1360: 1342:Blakemore, Erin (30 August 2016). 1302: 1275: 1248: 1217: 1185: 1137: 1037: 495:is a consequence of the diverging 396: 381:material. This could range from a 213: 167:, Hess was able to prove that the 25: 6357: 6025:Global Sea Level Observing System 4543: 4016:Swift, Donald J. P. (July 1968). 3841:de Groot, S.J. (September 1984). 2946:10.1038/scientificamerican0518-72 2887:Marine Technology Society Journal 1862:Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 859:Marine geology has a key role in 585: 488:, and other geological features. 480:formation houses a collection of 6308: 6297: 6288: 6287: 5483:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study 5399: 5388: 5038: 5027: 5026: 5014: 4646: 4535::10.3389/fmicb.2019.00780/full. 4515::10.3389/fmars.2020.00165/full. 2981:The Economics of Deep-Sea Mining 2736:education.nationalgeographic.org 2083:10.1016/b978-075063386-4/50001-x 1750:"Geomagnetism in marine geology" 1639:Loper, David E. (January 2000). 1456:Johnson, Paul; Helferty (1990). 1406:education.nationalgeographic.org 1379:education.nationalgeographic.org 1032:earthquake early warning systems 855:Habitat mapping and conservation 646:environments to predict events. 318:and physical data from rock and 183:to measure the magnetism of the 6213:Ocean thermal energy conversion 5936:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis 4382: 4333: 4284: 4259: 4212: 4136: 4112: 4056: 4009: 3975: 3928: 3881: 3834: 3787: 3740: 3715: 3673: 3632: 3585: 3502: 3465: 3424: 3371: 3346: 3325: 3250: 3117: 3068: 3010: 2968: 2913: 2874: 2850: 2795: 2748: 2724: 2683: 2587: 2540: 2483: 2437: 2158:"Plate Tectonics: How It Works" 2149: 2008: 1961: 1896: 1849: 1825: 1788: 1741: 1720: 1679: 1632: 1418: 1207:, National Academies Press (US) 1110:Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain 1043:Seafloor mapping and bathymetry 617: 3800:Marine Ecology Progress Series 2922:"Is Deep-Sea Mining Worth It?" 2602:, Elsevier, pp. 385–405, 2457:10.1007/springerreference_4233 1335: 876:International Seabed Authority 638:, and volcanic eruptions. 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(1997), 797:renewable energy sources 670:United States of America 32:Marine Geology (journal) 6240:Sea surface temperature 6223:Outline of oceanography 5418:Atmospheric circulation 5356:shallow water equations 5346:Waves and shallow water 5239:Significant wave height 4500:. Retrieved 2023-02-10. 3398:(inactive 2024-07-28). 3353:Starr, Clayton (2022). 3137:10.2307/j.ctv1zm2v35.17 2709:10.5670/oceanog.2007.07 1856:Robbes, D. (May 2006). 1809:10.1109/ut.2019.8734468 1485:10.1029/RG028i004p00357 979:U.S. federal government 963:Sediment transportation 119:Charles Wyville Thomson 42:geological oceanography 6235:Sea surface microlayer 5600:Wind generated current 4573:Ocean Drilling Program 4498:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov 4460:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov 4022:The Journal of Geology 3680:Sharma, Rahul (2017), 3480:. IEEE. pp. 1–4. 3313:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov 2265:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov 1837:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov 1803:. IEEE. pp. 1–7. 1610:. IEEE. pp. 1–5. 1580:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov 1547:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov 1510:oceanexplorer.noaa.gov 1002: 740: 614: 551: 475:Mid-ocean ridge system 410: 340:Earth's magnetic field 335: 248: 156: 60:investigations of the 6068:Deep scattering layer 6050:World Geodetic System 5558:Princeton Ocean Model 5438:Coriolis–Stokes force 5088:Physical oceanography 4934:Environmental geology 4482:Erickson, Jon, 1996, 4154:10.1201/9781351072908 3450:10.1144/qjegh2020-033 2459:(inactive 2024-04-11) 1691:The Earth’s Magnetism 1465:Reviews of Geophysics 1024:early warning systems 1000: 906:, and members of the 738: 640:early warning systems 612: 541: 509:South American Plates 404: 333: 309:underwater landslides 245: 153: 74:physical oceanography 6346:Subfields of geology 6088:Underwater acoustics 5648:Perigean spring tide 5513:Langmuir circulation 5224:Rossby-gravity waves 4893:Planetary geophysics 3573:10.2139/ssrn.4445231 2816:10.3917/re1.085.0014 2810:. N° 85 (1): 14–18. 2645:the Mariana Trench?" 2363:10.1029/2002gc000364 1939:10.1364/ao.57.002346 1402:"Seafloor Spreading" 1348:Smithsonian Magazine 721:Polymetallic nodules 701:polymetallic nodules 655:Resource exploration 469:transform boundaries 234:Multibeam bathymetry 6250:Science On a Sphere 5856:Convergent boundary 5528:Modular Ocean Model 5488:Geostrophic current 5204:Mild-slope equation 4995:Petroleum geologist 4959:Forensic geophysics 4929:Engineering geology 4676:Timeline of geology 4628:Glossary of geology 4358:2021FrEaS...9..657S 4309:2011NHESS..11...83S 4237:2007BuSSA..97S.174R 4198:10.1063/pt.5.026947 4190:2013PhT..2013d3634. 4124:toolkit.climate.gov 4034:1968JG.....76..444S 3953:2016JMS...159..120O 3906:2016JMS...159..109O 3859:1984OcMan...9..177D 3812:2009MEPS..397..279A 3765:2008JEMBE.366..123O 3610:2009REne...34...97N 3527:2020JMaps..16..420C 3275:2014MarPo..49...66L 3226:2022JMaps..18..232P 3176:2020NRvEE...1..158H 3102:10.3390/min11101132 3093:2021Mine...11.1132K 3036:2018MarPo..90...20V 2975:Dick, Rolf (1985), 2938:2018SciAm.318e..72P 2926:Scientific American 2899:10.4031/mtsj.45.5.2 2773:2004RSEnv..91...27T 2661:2014MarGe..37....1G 2565:2021Tectp.81428944Z 2508:2018Geosp..14..395G 2415:2007Geosp...3..282B 2355:2003GGG.....4.1024F 2305:1993Natur.365..707S 2174:1986Palai...1..615S 2033:2023JOL....41..804L 1986:1976IJNAr...5..159C 1931:2018ApOpt..57.2346D 1874:2006SeAcA.129...86R 1766:1973MGeol..15..212T 1657:2000PEPI..117..179L 1477:1990RvGeo..28..357J 1071:autonomous vehicles 820:sediment deposition 743:A popular area for 570:subducts below the 326:Marine magnetometry 289:geophysical surveys 283:Sub-bottom profiler 197:Eastern Hemispheres 81:sea floor spreading 5906:Seafloor spreading 5896:Outer trench swell 5861:Divergent boundary 5761:Continental margin 5746:Carbonate platform 5643:Lunitidal interval 5021:Geology portal 4949:Geologic modelling 4888:Geophysical survey 4840:Geodetic astronomy 4766:Structural geology 4727:Historical geology 4658:History of geology 4633:History of geology 4623:Outline of geology 4456:"Seafloor Mapping" 4245:10.1785/0120050630 2516:10.1130/ges01537.1 2445:"Subduction zones" 2423:10.1130/ges00047.1 1323:www.britannica.com 1177:has generic name ( 1003: 919:commercial fishing 741: 615: 552: 525:seafloor spreading 521:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 493:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 450:seafloor spreading 411: 336: 261:hydrothermal vents 249: 189:seafloor spreading 157: 145:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 6323: 6322: 6315:Oceans portal 6275:World Ocean Atlas 6265:Underwater glider 6208:Ocean temperature 5871:Hydrothermal vent 5836:Submarine volcano 5771:Continental shelf 5751:Coastal geography 5741:Bathymetric chart 5623:Amphidromic point 5311:Wave nonlinearity 5169:Infragravity wave 5054: 5053: 4939:Planetary geology 4855:Planetary geodesy 4231:(1A): S174–S191. 4184:(4): 3634. 2013. 4163:978-1-351-07290-8 4086:978-0-429-35666-7 4003:978-1-78985-579-1 3820:10.3354/meps08248 3703:978-3-319-52556-3 3661:978-1-315-79324-5 3495:978-1-4244-8920-6 2998:978-3-642-70254-9 2617:978-0-323-85733-8 2449:SpringerReference 2299:(6448): 707–715. 2237:978-1-118-66587-9 2137:978-3-540-76503-5 2092:978-0-7506-3386-4 2071:"Plate tectonics" 1915:(10): 2346–2351. 1818:978-1-5386-4188-0 1708:978-3-540-27979-2 1625:978-1-5386-3460-8 1375:"Plate Tectonics" 1120:Pelagic sediments 1105:Bathymetric chart 1028:natural disasters 1007:natural disasters 937:. It can tear up 795:to support these 747:, located in the 725:manganese nodules 709:chemical reaction 697:volcanic activity 650:Economic benefits 572:continental crust 517:continental drift 421:mountain building 165:continental drift 16:(Redirected from 6353: 6313: 6312: 6301: 6300: 6291: 6290: 6230:Pelagic sediment 6168:Marine pollution 5962:Deep ocean water 5831:Submarine canyon 5766:Continental rise 5658:Rule of twelfths 5573:Sverdrup balance 5503:Humboldt Current 5428:Boundary current 5403: 5392: 5209:Radiation stress 5179:Iribarren number 5154:Equatorial waves 5109:Ballantine scale 5104:Airy wave theory 5081: 5074: 5067: 5058: 5057: 5042: 5041: 5030: 5029: 5019: 5018: 4954:Forensic geology 4924:Economic geology 4850:Gravity of Earth 4745:Paleoclimatology 4650: 4602: 4595: 4588: 4579: 4578: 4539: 1664-302X. 4519: 2296-7745. 4486:, Facts on File 4470: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4452: 4443: 4442: 4440: 4439: 4425: 4419: 4418: 4386: 4380: 4379: 4369: 4337: 4331: 4330: 4320: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4279: 4278: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4174: 4168: 4167: 4140: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4130: 4116: 4110: 4109: 4103: 4095: 4094: 4093: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4013: 4007: 4006: 3995: 3979: 3973: 3972: 3932: 3926: 3925: 3885: 3879: 3878: 3853:(3–4): 177–190. 3847:Ocean Management 3838: 3832: 3831: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3759:(1–2): 123–133. 3744: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3734: 3719: 3713: 3712: 3711: 3710: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3669: 3668: 3644:Renewable Energy 3636: 3630: 3629: 3598:Renewable Energy 3589: 3583: 3582: 3580: 3579: 3556: 3547: 3546: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3452: 3428: 3422: 3421: 3415: 3407: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3341: 3340: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3320: 3319: 3304: 3295: 3294: 3254: 3248: 3247: 3237: 3205: 3196: 3195: 3155: 3146: 3145: 3144: 3143: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3104: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3055: 3014: 3008: 3007: 3006: 3005: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2878: 2872: 2871: 2869: 2868: 2854: 2848: 2847: 2842:has extra text ( 2841: 2837: 2835: 2827: 2799: 2793: 2792: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2743: 2742: 2728: 2722: 2721: 2711: 2687: 2681: 2680: 2636: 2627: 2626: 2625: 2624: 2591: 2585: 2584: 2544: 2538: 2537: 2527: 2487: 2481: 2480: 2474: 2466: 2465: 2464: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2394: 2385: 2384: 2374: 2334: 2325: 2324: 2313:10.1038/365707a0 2284: 2275: 2274: 2272: 2271: 2256: 2247: 2246: 2245: 2244: 2220:Mid-Ocean Ridges 2211: 2202: 2201: 2153: 2147: 2146: 2145: 2144: 2111: 2102: 2101: 2100: 2099: 2066: 2053: 2052: 2012: 2006: 2005: 1965: 1959: 1958: 1924: 1900: 1894: 1893: 1853: 1847: 1846: 1844: 1843: 1829: 1823: 1822: 1792: 1786: 1785: 1745: 1739: 1738: 1736: 1724: 1718: 1717: 1716: 1715: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1651:(1–4): 179–196. 1636: 1630: 1629: 1599: 1590: 1589: 1587: 1586: 1572: 1557: 1556: 1554: 1553: 1539: 1520: 1519: 1517: 1516: 1502: 1489: 1488: 1462: 1453: 1440: 1439: 1437: 1436: 1422: 1416: 1415: 1413: 1412: 1398: 1389: 1388: 1386: 1385: 1371: 1358: 1357: 1355: 1354: 1339: 1333: 1332: 1330: 1329: 1315: 1300: 1299: 1297: 1296: 1290:scripps.ucsd.edu 1282: 1273: 1272: 1270: 1269: 1255: 1246: 1245: 1243: 1242: 1228: 1215: 1214: 1213: 1212: 1196: 1183: 1182: 1176: 1172: 1170: 1162: 1160: 1159: 1153:las.illinois.edu 1144: 1125:Seafloor mapping 1054:Okeanos Explorer 987:ocean topography 983:current patterns 723:, also known as 715:and minerals to 560:Subduction zones 555:Subduction zones 454:subduction zones 54:sedimentological 21: 6361: 6360: 6356: 6355: 6354: 6352: 6351: 6350: 6326: 6325: 6324: 6319: 6307: 6279: 6118: 6092: 6054: 6035:Sea-level curve 6006: 5945: 5931:Transform fault 5881:Mid-ocean ridge 5847: 5840: 5806:Oceanic plateau 5712: 5698:Tidal resonance 5668:Theory of tides 5609: 5518:Longshore drift 5468:Ekman transport 5404: 5398: 5397: 5396: 5395: 5394: 5393: 5384: 5336:Wave turbulence 5269:Trochoidal wave 5194:Longshore drift 5090: 5085: 5055: 5050: 5013: 5004: 4978: 4974:Mineral physics 4907: 4869: 4816: 4790: 4776:Plate tectonics 4754: 4750:Palaeogeography 4721: 4697:Crystallography 4680: 4652: 4651: 4642: 4611: 4606: 4546: 4479: 4474: 4473: 4464: 4462: 4454: 4453: 4446: 4437: 4435: 4427: 4426: 4422: 4387: 4383: 4338: 4334: 4289: 4285: 4276: 4274: 4264: 4260: 4217: 4213: 4176: 4175: 4171: 4164: 4142: 4141: 4137: 4128: 4126: 4118: 4117: 4113: 4097: 4096: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4061: 4057: 4014: 4010: 4004: 3980: 3976: 3933: 3929: 3886: 3882: 3839: 3835: 3792: 3788: 3745: 3741: 3732: 3730: 3721: 3720: 3716: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3686:Deep-Sea Mining 3678: 3674: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3590: 3586: 3577: 3575: 3557: 3550: 3515:Journal of Maps 3507: 3503: 3496: 3470: 3466: 3429: 3425: 3409: 3408: 3376: 3372: 3351: 3347: 3338: 3336: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3317: 3315: 3305: 3298: 3255: 3251: 3214:Journal of Maps 3206: 3199: 3156: 3149: 3141: 3139: 3123: 3122: 3118: 3073: 3069: 3053:1721.1/134956.2 3015: 3011: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2973: 2969: 2918: 2914: 2879: 2875: 2866: 2864: 2856: 2855: 2851: 2839: 2838: 2829: 2828: 2800: 2796: 2753: 2749: 2740: 2738: 2730: 2729: 2725: 2688: 2684: 2637: 2630: 2622: 2620: 2618: 2592: 2588: 2545: 2541: 2488: 2484: 2468: 2467: 2462: 2460: 2443: 2442: 2438: 2395: 2388: 2335: 2328: 2285: 2278: 2269: 2267: 2257: 2250: 2242: 2240: 2238: 2228:10.1029/148gm03 2212: 2205: 2182:10.2307/3514713 2154: 2150: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2120:Plate Tectonics 2112: 2105: 2097: 2095: 2093: 2067: 2056: 2013: 2009: 1966: 1962: 1901: 1897: 1854: 1850: 1841: 1839: 1831: 1830: 1826: 1819: 1793: 1789: 1746: 1742: 1725: 1721: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1685: 1684: 1680: 1637: 1633: 1626: 1600: 1593: 1584: 1582: 1574: 1573: 1560: 1551: 1549: 1541: 1540: 1523: 1514: 1512: 1504: 1503: 1492: 1460: 1454: 1443: 1434: 1432: 1430:www.science.gov 1424: 1423: 1419: 1410: 1408: 1400: 1399: 1392: 1383: 1381: 1373: 1372: 1361: 1352: 1350: 1340: 1336: 1327: 1325: 1317: 1316: 1303: 1294: 1292: 1284: 1283: 1276: 1267: 1265: 1257: 1256: 1249: 1240: 1238: 1230: 1229: 1218: 1210: 1208: 1197: 1186: 1174: 1173: 1164: 1163: 1157: 1155: 1145: 1138: 1133: 1091: 1059:multibeam sonar 1045: 1040: 1038:Future research 995: 971:Coastal erosion 967:coastal erosion 960: 869:bottom trawling 865:deep-sea mining 857: 852: 769: 745:deep-sea mining 657: 652: 620: 592:subduction zone 588: 557: 542:Diagram of the 533:ocean-continent 477: 417: 415:Plate tectonics 407:tectonic plates 399: 397:Plate tectonics 328: 316:multibeam sonar 305:volcanic ridges 285: 236: 220:side-scan sonar 216: 214:Side-scan sonar 208: 173:tectonic plates 137:mid-ocean ridge 104: 85:plate tectonics 58:paleontological 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6359: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6336:Marine geology 6321: 6320: 6318: 6317: 6305: 6295: 6284: 6281: 6280: 6278: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6255:Stratification 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6226: 6225: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6147: 6145:Color of water 6142: 6140:Benthic lander 6137: 6132: 6126: 6124: 6120: 6119: 6117: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6100: 6098: 6094: 6093: 6091: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6064: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6053: 6052: 6047: 6045:Sea level rise 6042: 6040:Sea level drop 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6016: 6014: 6008: 6007: 6005: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5953: 5951: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5876:Marine geology 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5852: 5850: 5842: 5841: 5839: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5816:Passive margin 5813: 5811:Oceanic trench 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5722: 5720: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5619: 5617: 5611: 5610: 5608: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5543:Ocean dynamics 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5433:Coriolis force 5430: 5425: 5420: 5414: 5412: 5406: 5405: 5387: 5385: 5383: 5382: 5381: 5380: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5359: 5358: 5353: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5282: 5281: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5254:Stokes problem 5251: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5189:Kinematic wave 5186: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5100: 5098: 5092: 5091: 5084: 5083: 5076: 5069: 5061: 5052: 5051: 5049: 5048: 5036: 5024: 5009: 5006: 5005: 5003: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4986: 4984: 4980: 4979: 4977: 4976: 4971: 4969:Mining geology 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4915: 4913: 4909: 4908: 4906: 4905: 4903:Tectonophysics 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4879: 4877: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4867: 4865:Geopositioning 4862: 4860:Remote sensing 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4826: 4824: 4818: 4817: 4815: 4814: 4812:Marine geology 4809: 4804: 4798: 4796: 4792: 4791: 4789: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4762: 4760: 4756: 4755: 4753: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4731: 4729: 4723: 4722: 4720: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4692:Cosmochemistry 4688: 4686: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4662: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4645: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4619: 4617: 4613: 4612: 4605: 4604: 4597: 4590: 4582: 4576: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4545: 4544:External links 4542: 4541: 4540: 4520: 4501: 4494: 4478: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4444: 4420: 4381: 4332: 4283: 4258: 4211: 4169: 4162: 4148:. 2018-02-06. 4135: 4111: 4085: 4055: 4042:10.1086/627342 4028:(4): 444–456. 4008: 4002: 3986:, IntechOpen, 3974: 3927: 3880: 3833: 3786: 3739: 3714: 3702: 3672: 3660: 3631: 3584: 3548: 3521:(2): 420–431. 3501: 3494: 3464: 3423: 3370: 3345: 3324: 3296: 3249: 3220:(2): 232–245. 3197: 3170:(3): 158–169. 3147: 3116: 3067: 3009: 2997: 2967: 2912: 2873: 2849: 2794: 2747: 2732:"Ring of Fire" 2723: 2682: 2649:Marine Geodesy 2641:"So, How Deep 2628: 2616: 2586: 2553:Tectonophysics 2539: 2502:(2): 395–418. 2482: 2436: 2386: 2326: 2276: 2248: 2236: 2203: 2148: 2136: 2103: 2091: 2054: 2027:(2): 804–815. 2007: 1980:(2): 159–169. 1960: 1909:Applied Optics 1895: 1868:(1–2): 86–93. 1848: 1824: 1817: 1787: 1760:(3): 212–213. 1754:Marine Geology 1740: 1734:10.4095/100974 1719: 1707: 1678: 1631: 1624: 1591: 1558: 1521: 1490: 1471:(4): 357–380. 1441: 1417: 1390: 1359: 1334: 1301: 1274: 1247: 1216: 1184: 1135: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1095:Geology portal 1090: 1087: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1017:occurred at a 1013:, such as the 994: 991: 959: 956: 856: 853: 851: 848: 793:infrastructure 768: 765: 757:fracture zones 727:, are rounded 656: 653: 651: 648: 619: 616: 587: 586:Mariana Trench 584: 576:Mariana Trench 556: 553: 497:North American 476: 473: 413:Main article: 398: 395: 327: 324: 301:cross-sections 284: 281: 235: 232: 215: 212: 207: 204: 169:Earth's mantle 103: 100: 38:Marine geology 26: 18:Marine Geology 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6358: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6333: 6331: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6304: 6296: 6294: 6286: 6285: 6282: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6224: 6221: 6220: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6163:Marine energy 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6153: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6130:Acidification 6128: 6127: 6125: 6121: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6101: 6099: 6095: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6083:SOFAR channel 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6065: 6063: 6061: 6057: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6017: 6015: 6013: 6009: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5954: 5952: 5948: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5891:Oceanic crust 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5866:Fracture zone 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5853: 5851: 5849: 5843: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5801:Oceanic basin 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5731:Abyssal plain 5729: 5727: 5724: 5723: 5721: 5719: 5715: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5638:Internal tide 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5612: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5584: 5581: 5580: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5533:Ocean current 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5407: 5402: 5391: 5379: 5376: 5375: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5348: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5331:Wave shoaling 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5291:Ursell number 5289: 5287: 5284: 5280: 5277: 5276: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5174:Internal wave 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5124:Breaking wave 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5101: 5099: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5082: 5077: 5075: 5070: 5068: 5063: 5062: 5059: 5047: 5046: 5037: 5035: 5034: 5025: 5023: 5022: 5017: 5011: 5010: 5007: 5001: 5000:Volcanologist 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4987: 4985: 4981: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4914: 4910: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4880: 4878: 4876: 4872: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4835:Earth's orbit 4833: 4831: 4828: 4827: 4825: 4823: 4819: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4799: 4797: 4793: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4781:Geomorphology 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4763: 4761: 4759:Dynamic Earth 4757: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4724: 4718: 4717:Sedimentology 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4689: 4687: 4683: 4677: 4674: 4672: 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