1427:
3854:
1371:
1399:
38:
1343:
1413:
1357:
439:
1441:
447:
493:). This locally secreted factor gives rise to a series of outside-in and inside-out positive feedback between these two types of cells, so that mammary bud epithelial cells can proliferate and sprout down into the mesenchymal layer until they reach the fat pad to begin the first round of branching. At the same time, the embryonic mesenchymal cells around the epithelial bud receive secreting factors activated by
1385:
1331:
1312:. One theory proposes that mammary glands evolved from glands that were used to keep the eggs of early mammals moist and free from infection (monotremes still lay eggs). Other theories suggest that early secretions were used directly by hatched young, or that the secretions were used by young to help them orient to their mothers.
545:(ER) expression in mammary gland tissue, which is a downstream effect of mammary gland GHR activation. In any case, unlike IGF-1, GH itself is not essential for mammary gland development, and IGF-1 in conjunction with estrogen can induce normal mammary gland development without the presence of GH. In addition to IGF-1, other
346:) hanging from it. For instance, cows and buffalo udders have two pairs of mammary glands and four teats, whereas sheep and goat udders have one pair of mammary glands with two teats protruding from the udder. Each gland produces milk for a single teat. These mammary glands are evolutionarily derived from sweat glands.
338:. In the case of prototherians, both males and females have functional mammary glands, but their mammary glands are without nipples. These mammary glands are modified sebaceous glands. Concerning metatherians and eutherians, only females have functional mammary glands. Their mammary glands can be termed as breasts or
962:
in mammary glands can be induced biochemically by abnormal expression level of circulating hormones or local ECM components, or from a mechanical change in the tension of mammary stroma. Under either of the two circumstances, mammary epithelial cells would grow out of control and eventually result in
929:
of alveolar structures after weaning, in humans there is only partial involution and the level of involution in humans appears to be highly individual. The glands in the breast do secrete fluid also in nonlactating women. In some other species (such as cows), all alveoli and secretory duct structures
894:
secreted from mammary epithelial cells act paracrinely to induce more neighboring cells' branching. When the lactiferous duct tree is almost ready, "leaves" alveoli are differentiated from luminal epithelial cells and added at the end of each branch. In late pregnancy and for the first few days after
915:
on epithelial surface again, is essential in this process. Their binding ensures correct placement of prolactin receptors on the basal lateral side of alveoli cells and directional secretion of milk into lactiferous ducts. Suckling of the baby causes release of the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates
711:
By the pubertal stage, the mammary ducts have invaded to the end of the mammary fat pad. At this point, the terminal end buds become less proliferative and decrease in size. Side branches form from the primary ducts and begin to fill the mammary fat pad. Ductal development decreases with the arrival
575:
During embryonic development, IGF-1 levels are low, and gradually increase from birth to puberty. At puberty, the levels of GH and IGF-1 reach their highest levels in life and estrogen begins to be secreted in high amounts in females, which is when ductal development mostly takes place. Under the
924:
During weaning, decreased prolactin, missing mechanical stimulation (baby suckling), and changes in osmotic balance caused by milk stasis and leaking of tight junctions cause cessation of milk production. It is the (passive) process of a child or animal ceasing to be dependent on the mother for
841:
and luminal (duct) epithelial cells, and the increased amount of activated MMPs can degrade surrounding ECM helping duct buds to reach further in the fat pads. On the other hand, basement membrane along the mature mammary ducts is thicker, with strong adhesion to epithelial cells via binding to
401:
All the milk-secreting tissue leading to a single lactiferous duct is collectively called a "simple mammary gland"; in a "complex mammary gland", all the simple mammary glands serve one nipple. Humans normally have two complex mammary glands, one in each breast, and each complex mammary gland
846:
and non-integrin receptors. When side branches develop, it is a much more "pushing-forward" working process including extending through myoepithelial cells, degrading basement membrane and then invading into a periductal layer of fibrous stromal tissue. Degraded basement membrane fragments
484:
Mammary glands develop during different growth cycles. They exist in both sexes during the embryonic stage, forming only a rudimentary duct tree at birth. In this stage, mammary gland development depends on systemic (and maternal) hormones, but is also under the (local) regulation of
805:(TEB), secondary branches sprouting from primary ducts and proper duct lumen formation. These processes are tightly modulated by components of mammary epithelial ECM interacting with systemic hormones and local secreting factors. However, for each mechanism the epithelial cells' "
669:
mammary gland development can be divided into a series of specific stages. Initially, the formation of the milk lines that run between the fore and hind limbs bilaterally on each side of the midline occurs around embryonic day 10.5 (E10.5). The second stage occurs at E11.5 when
528:
component of mammary gland development, and act synergistically to mediate it. Neither estrogen nor GH are capable of inducing ductal development without the other. The role of GH in ductal development has been found to be mostly mediated by its induction of the secretion of
980:
The breasts of female humans vary from most other mammals that tend to have less conspicuous mammary glands. The number and positioning of mammary glands varies widely in different mammals. The protruding teats and accompanying glands can be located anywhere along the two
708:. Terminal end buds, the highly proliferative structures found at the tips of the invading ducts, expand and increase greatly during this stage. This developmental period is characterized by the emergence of the terminal end buds and lasts until an age of about 7–8 weeks.
1937:
Wysolmerski, J. J.; Philbrick, W. M.; Dunbar, M. E.; Lanske, B.; Kronenberg, H.; Broadus, A. E. (1998). "Rescue of the parathyroid hormone-related protein knockout mouse demonstrates that parathyroid hormone-related protein is essential for mammary gland development".
3627:
Nicholas L. Petrakis; Lynn Mason; Rose Lee; Barbara
Sugimoto; Stella Pawson; Frank Catchpool (1975). "Association of Race, Age, Menopausal Status, and Cerumen Type With Breast Fluid Secretion in Nonlactating Women, as Determined by Nipple Aspiration".
950:
and other growth inhibiting hormones and local factors. This major structural change leads loose fat tissue to fill the empty space afterward. But a functional lactiferous duct tree can be formed again when a female is pregnant again.
501:. These mesenchymal cells can transform into a dense, mammary-specific mesenchyme, which later develop into connective tissue with fibrous threads, forming blood vessels and the lymph system. A basement membrane, mainly containing
985:. In general most mammals develop mammary glands in pairs along these lines, with a number approximating the number of young typically birthed at a time. The number of teats varies from 2 (in most primates) to 18 (in pigs). The
809:" can be delicately unique with different membrane receptor profiles and basement membrane thickness from specific branching area to area, so as to regulate cell growth or differentiation sub-locally. Important players include
429:
and the connective tissue. They not only help to support mammary basic structure, but also serve as a communicating bridge between mammary epithelia and their local and global environment throughout this organ's development.
3397:
Petrakis NL, Barnes S, King EB, Lowenstein J, Wiencke J, Lee MM, Miike R, Kirk M, Coward L (October 1996). "Stimulatory influence of soy protein isolate on breast secretion in pre- and postmenopausal people AFAB".
662:
Developmentally, mammary gland epithelium is constantly produced and maintained by rare epithelial cells, dubbed as mammary progenitors which are ultimately thought to be derived from tissue-resident stem cells.
509:, formed afterward by differentiated myoepithelial cells, keeps the polarity of this primary duct tree. These components of the extracellular matrix are strong determinants of duct morphogenesis.
342:. In the case of breasts, each mammary gland has its own nipple (e.g., human mammary glands). In the case of udders, pairs of mammary glands comprise a single mass, with more than one nipple (or
1300:. Because mammary glands do not fossilize well, supporting such theories with fossil evidence is difficult. Many of the current theories are based on comparisons between lines of living mammals—
916:
contraction of the myoepithelial cells. In this combined control from ECM and systemic hormones, milk secretion can be reciprocally amplified so as to provide enough nutrition for the baby.
720:(proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus). As a result of estrous cycling, the mammary gland undergoes dynamic changes where cells proliferate and then regress in an ordered fashion.
462:(first milk) when giving birth. Mammary glands can be identified as apocrine because they exhibit striking "decapitation" secretion. Many sources assert that mammary glands are modified
3336:
Muschler, J.; Levy, D.; Boudreau, R.; Henry, M.; Campbell, K.; Bissell, M. J. (2002). "A role for dystroglycan in epithelial polarization: Loss of function in breast tumor cells".
704:, the mammary ducts elongate into the mammary fat pad. Then, starting around four weeks of age, mammary ductal growth increases significantly with the ducts invading towards the
772:, due to much lower levels of estrogen, and due to lower levels of GH and IGF-1, which decrease with age, mammary gland tissue atrophies and the mammary glands become smaller.
3528:"Control of mammary epithelial differentiation: Basement membrane induces tissue-specific gene expression in the absence of cell-cell interaction and morphological polarity"
3733:
Motyl, T.; Gajkowska, B.; Zarzyńska, J.; Gajewska, M.; Lamparska-Przybysz, M. (2006). "Apoptosis and autophagy in mammary gland remodeling and breast cancer chemotherapy".
4302:
450:
Light micrograph of a human proliferating mammary gland during estrous cycle. Sprouting gland tissue can be seen in the upper left field (haematoxylin eosin staining)
3762:"Normal and tumor-derived myoepithelial cells differ in their ability to interact with luminal breast epithelial cells for polarity and basement membrane deposition"
402:
consists of 10–20 simple glands. The opening of each simple gland on the surface of the nipple is called a "pore." The presence of more than two nipples is known as
584:
surrounding the ductal system in the mammary glands also grows. After puberty, GH and IGF-1 levels progressively decrease, which limits further development until
837:
cap cells on TEB tips through a thin, leaky layer of basement membrane. These hormones promote specific gene expression. Hence cap cells can differentiate into
1296:
There are many theories on how mammary glands evolved. For example, it is thought that the mammary gland is a transformed sweat gland, more closely related to
220:
907:
and the presence of another important hormone prolactin, which mediates further alveologenesis, milk protein production, and regulates osmotic balance and
622:
expressed in mammary gland tissue, and in conjunction with relatively low estrogen levels, are the cause of the lack of developed mammary glands in males.
890:, serum progesterone remains at a stably high concentration so signaling through its receptor is continuously activated. As one of the transcribed genes,
1514:
989:
has 13, one of the few mammals with an odd number. The following table lists the number and position of teats and glands found in a range of mammals:
674:
formation begins along the mammary milk line. This will eventually give rise to the nipple. Lastly, the third stage occurs at E12.5 and involves the
398:
begins to suck, the oxytocin-mediated "let down reflex" ensues, and the mother's milk is secreted—not sucked—from the gland into the infant's mouth.
2681:"Breast size in relation to endogenous hormone levels, body constitution, and oral contraceptive use in healthy nulligravid women aged 19–25 years"
859:. These complex "Yin-yang" balancing crosstalks between mammary ECM and epithelial cells "instruct" healthy mammary gland development until adult.
4405:
Lefèvre, C. M.; Sharp, J. A.; Nicholas, K. R. (2010). "Evolution of
Lactation: Ancient Origin and Extreme Adaptations of the Lactation System".
4357:
3965:"Conversion of the Nipple to Hair-Bearing Epithelia by Lowering Bone Morphogenetic Protein Pathway Activity at the Dermal-Epidermal Interface"
3870:
1487:
196:
413:
Maintaining the correct polarized morphology of the lactiferous duct tree requires another essential component – mammary epithelial cells
3196:
Wiseman, B. S.; Sternlicht, M. D.; Lund, L. R.; Alexander, C. M.; Mott, J.; Bissell, M. J.; Soloway, P.; Itohara, S.; Werb, Z. (2003).
2818:
Sekhri, KK; Pitelka, DR; Deome, KB (September 1967). "Studies of mouse mammary glands. I. Cytomorphology of the normal mammary gland".
4519:
3474:
Brisken, C.; Heineman, A.; Chavarria, T.; Elenbaas, B.; Tan, J.; Dey, S. K.; McMahon, J. A.; McMahon, A. P.; Weinberg, R. A. (2000).
4553:
938:
for lack of growth promoting factors either from the ECM or circulating hormones. At the same time, apoptosis of blood capillary
4707:
1712:
Watson, C. J.; Khaled, W. T. (2008). "Mammary development in the embryo and adult: A journey of morphogenesis and commitment".
1237:
Male mammals typically have rudimentary mammary glands and nipples, with a few exceptions: male mice do not have nipples, male
801:
inhibits it. A mature duct tree reaching the limit of the fat pad of the mammary gland comes into being by bifurcation of duct
2228:"Insulin-like growth factor I is essential for terminal end bud formation and ductal morphogenesis during mammary development"
4489:
4023:
3921:
3809:
Provenzano, P. P.; Inman, D. R.; Eliceiri, K. W.; Knittel, J. G.; Yan, L.; Rueden, C. T.; White, J. G.; Keely, P. J. (2008).
2660:
2597:
2513:
2276:
Kleinberg DL, Feldman M, Ruan W (2000). "IGF-I: an essential factor in terminal end bud formation and ductal morphogenesis".
748:
surrounding the alveoli will cause the milk to be ejected through the ducts and into the nipple for the nursing infant. Upon
1870:(Eighth ed.). Philadelphia Baltimore New York London Buenos Aires Hong Kong Sydney Tokyo: Wolters Kluwer. p. 318.
1330:
1426:
479:
4440:
Graves, B. M.; Duvall, D. (1983). "A Role for
Aggregation Pheromones in the Evolution of Mammallike Reptile Lactation".
4370:
Vorbach, C.; Capecchi, M. R.; Penninger, J. M. (2006). "Evolution of the mammary gland from the innate immune system?".
3198:"Site-specific inductive and inhibitory activities of MMP-2 and MMP-3 orchestrate mammary gland branching morphogenesis"
2904:"Key stages of mammary gland development: molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of the embryonic mammary gland"
1975:"Key stages of mammary gland development: Molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of the embryonic mammary gland"
1507:
3296:"Cell adhesion to laminin 1 or 5 induces isoform-specific clustering of integrins and other focal adhesion components"
3899:
2722:"Testosterone inhibits estrogen-induced mammary epithelial proliferation and suppresses estrogen receptor expression"
1921:
1875:
1582:
942:
speeds up the regression of lactation ductal beds. Shrinkage of the mammary duct tree and ECM remodeling by various
3578:
Streuli, C. H.; Schmidhauser, C.; Bailey, N.; Yurchenco, P.; Skubitz, A. P.; Roskelley, C.; Bissell, M. J. (1995).
814:
4479:
1896:
618:
inhibit estrogen-mediated mammary gland development (e.g., by reducing local ER expression) through activation of
425:, inflammatory cells, and others, constitute mammary stroma. Mammary epithelial ECM mainly contains myoepithelial
4175:
Li, Peng; Knabe, Darrell A.; Kim, Sung Woo; Lynch, Christopher J.; Hutson, Susan M.; Wu, Guoyao (1 August 2009).
3936:
Dog breeds vary in the number of mammary glands: larger breeds tend to have 5 pairs, smaller breeds have 4 pairs.
557:
4177:"Lactating Porcine Mammary Tissue Catabolizes Branched-Chain Amino Acids for Glutamine and Aspartate Synthesis"
1257:
215:
179:
3147:"Regulation of mammary gland branching morphogenesis by the extracellular matrix and its remodeling enzymes"
4546:
541:(GHR). However, GH itself also acts independently of IGF-1 to stimulate ductal development by upregulating
530:
693:
The primitive (stem) cells are detected in embryo and their numbers increase steadily during development
4013:
2619:
2319:
Kleinberg DL, Ruan W (2008). "IGF-I, GH, and sex steroid effects in normal mammary gland development".
2026:"Modeling mammary organogenesis from biological first principles: Cells and their physical constraints"
1315:
Lactation is thought to have developed long before the evolution of the mammary gland and mammals; see
1217:
2409:"Estrogen regulation of mammary gland development and breast cancer: amphiregulin takes center stage"
652:
4091:
3853:
3760:
Gudjonsson, T.; Rønnov-Jessen, L.; Villadsen, R.; Rank, F.; Bissell, M. J.; Petersen, O. W. (2002).
4687:
2620:"The potential clinical applications of insulin-like growth factor-1 ligand in human breast cancer"
826:
569:
565:
126:
4481:
Histologic
Diagnosis of Inflammatory Skin Diseases An Algorithmic Method Based on Pattern Analysis
3874:
4702:
4697:
4682:
4539:
2845:
Tharmapalan, Pirashaanthy; Mahendralingam, Mathepan; Berman, Hal K; Khokha, Rama (15 July 2019).
1615:
Newton, Michael; Newton, Niles Rumely (December 1948). "The let-down reflex in human lactation".
553:
538:
296:, the occasional production of milk by the glands, can occur in any mammal, but in most mammals,
130:
51:
3047:"Key stages in mammary gland development: The cues that regulate ductal branching morphogenesis"
1398:
1370:
394:, excreting the milk secreted by alveolar units into the lobule lumen toward the nipple. As the
4260:
Oftedal, O. T. (2002). "The origin of lactation as a water source for parchment-shelled eggs".
3663:
Zarzynska, J.; Motyl, T. (2008). "Apoptosis and autophagy in involuting bovine mammary gland".
3476:"Essential function of Wnt-4 in mammary gland development downstream of progesterone signaling"
1459:
830:
640:
577:
572:(HGF) are involved in breast development as mediators downstream to sex hormones and GH/IGF-1.
227:
203:
191:
158:
142:
2650:
2503:
756:. This process involves the controlled collapse of mammary epithelial cells where cells begin
4589:
2587:
2032:. From the Century of the Genome to the Century of the Organism: New Theoretical Approaches.
1297:
926:
891:
489:
between neighboring epithelial and mesenchymal cells by parathyroid hormone-related protein (
4106:
1773:
486:
414:
4234:
3958:
3946:
3247:"Role of cell surface metalloprotease MT1-MMP in epithelial cell migration over laminin-5"
1538:
1412:
911:
function. Laminin and collagen in myoepithelial basement membrane interacting with beta-1
789:. First development is frequently seen during pre- and postnatal stages, and later during
752:
of the infant, lactation stops and the mammary gland turns in on itself, a process called
8:
4656:
2847:"Mammary stem cells and progenitors: targeting the roots of breast cancer for prevention"
2364:"Mouse models of transforming growth factor beta impact in breast development and cancer"
1273:
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1777:
1667:
1342:
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4176:
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4040:
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3810:
3786:
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3715:
3604:
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3552:
3527:
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3295:
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3246:
3222:
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2954:
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2903:
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2751:
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2530:
2435:
2408:
2344:
2301:
2203:
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2077:
2050:
2025:
2001:
1974:
1843:
1818:
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1761:
1737:
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1651:
1356:
475:
371:
162:
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1628:
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4019:
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3345:
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3127:
3113:
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3019:
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2827:
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2550:
2509:
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2440:
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2147:
2107:
2055:
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2024:
Montévil, Maël; Speroni, Lucia; Sonnenschein, Carlos; Soto, Ana M. (1 October 2016).
2006:
1955:
1917:
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1632:
1578:
939:
802:
619:
542:
426:
4461:
4344:
3031:
3002:
Daniel, CW; Smith, GH (January 1999). "The mammary gland: a model for development".
2755:
2348:
2305:
2207:
2159:
1558:
1440:
600:
development in estrogen-primed mammary gland tissue, which occurs in preparation of
320:
can occur. With humans, male lactation can occur only under specific circumstances.
4618:
4611:
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4449:
4414:
4379:
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4289:
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4052:
3984:
3976:
3832:
3822:
3781:
3773:
3719:
3699:
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Fadok, V. A. (1999). "Clearance: The last and often forgotten stage of apoptosis".
3637:
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3547:
3539:
3495:
3487:
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3438:
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1996:
1986:
1947:
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1830:
1789:
1781:
1741:
1721:
1679:
1663:
1624:
1553:
1198:
986:
878:, estrogen, and progesterone cause further branching, together with an increase in
733:
687:
525:
407:
382:
362:
71:
4477:
4315:
Oftedal, OT (2002). "The mammary gland and its origin during synapsid evolution".
847:(laminin-5) roles to lead the way of mammary epithelial cells migration. Whereas,
4692:
1900:
1819:"Adipose Stroma Induces Branching Morphogenesis of Engineered Epithelial Tubules"
1537:
Macéa, José Rafael; Fregnani, José Humberto
Tavares Guerreiro (1 December 2006).
1497:
1432:
1242:
741:
740:
occurs within the mammary gland; lactation involves the secretion of milk by the
713:
273:
2586:
Jay R. Harris; Marc E. Lippman; C. Kent
Osborne; Monica Morrow (28 March 2012).
2546:
2093:
366:(hollow cavities, a few millimeters large), which are lined with milk-secreting
4594:
4502:
4153:
4057:
3980:
1316:
1284:, and the production in live mammals is much cheaper than the use of mammalian
1246:
908:
879:
833:, and others. Elevated circulating level of growth hormone and estrogen get to
736:
structures within the branches to be used for milk production. After delivery,
597:
521:
367:
317:
249:
76:
37:
4328:
4273:
3911:
3703:
3245:
Koshikawa, N.; Giannelli, G.; Cirulli, V.; Miyazaki, K.; Quaranta, V. (2000).
3015:
2970:
2332:
2289:
2191:
2143:
1834:
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in a controlled manner, reverting the mammary gland back to a pubertal state.
635:
Mammary gland development is characterized by the unique process by which the
4676:
4661:
4582:
4478:
Ackerman, A. Bernard; Almut Böer; Bruce Bennin; Geoffrey J. Gottlieb (2005).
4202:
4011:
2870:
2862:
2554:
2244:
2227:
1675:
1472:
1467:
964:
959:
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intake mildly stimulates the breast glands in pre- and postmenopausal women.
838:
769:
717:
605:
549:
301:
208:
146:
4528:
by Sir Astley Paston Cooper (1840). Numerous drawings, in the public domain.
3641:
3381:
3364:
2476:
2459:
2178:
Kleinberg DL (1997). "Early mammary development: growth hormone and IGF-1".
1785:
4426:
4391:
4336:
4281:
4220:
4161:
4140:
Kunz, T; Hosken, D (2009). "Male lactation: why, why not and is it care?".
4076:
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2010:
1951:
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20:
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3314:
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3213:
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2738:
2706:
2151:
1959:
785:
Lactiferous duct development occurs in females in response to circulating
438:
3777:
3491:
3443:
3426:
2531:"Mammary Gland Growth Factors: Roles in Normal Development and in Cancer"
1477:
834:
655:
which establishes the basic arboreal network of ducts emanating from the
463:
327:
313:
4531:
2380:
2363:
1914:
Human
Microscopic Anatomy: An Atlas for Students of Medicine and Biology
1577:(7th ed.). Maryland Heights, Maryland: Mosby/Elsevier. p. 54.
4495:
4383:
4090:
Francis, C. M.; Anthony, E. L. P.; Brunton, J. A.; Kunz, T. H. (1994).
3580:"Laminin mediates tissue-specific gene expression in mammary epithelia"
1891:
1725:
1650:
Zucca-Matthes, Gustavo; Urban, Cícero; Vallejo, André (February 2016).
1599:
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81:
46:
4525:
3427:"Side-branching in the mammary gland: The progesterone-Wnt connection"
233:
4118:
3865:
3863:
2844:
2499:
1502:
1305:
1301:
1238:
1010:
982:
935:
931:
900:
896:
887:
875:
874:
Secretory alveoli develop mainly in pregnancy, when rising levels of
757:
737:
729:
701:
601:
593:
585:
546:
533:(IGF-1), which occurs both systemically (mainly originating from the
459:
418:
309:
297:
265:
4012:
Patricia J. Armati; Chris R. Dickman; Ian D. Hume (17 August 2006).
3811:"Collagen density promotes mammary tumor initiation and progression"
3759:
3063:
2920:
2721:
2425:
2130:
Kleinberg DL (1998). "Role of IGF-I in normal mammary development".
1991:
446:
312:
in recent months or years. It is directed by hormonal guidance from
4453:
3163:
1418:
1309:
1281:
1241:
do not have mammary glands, and male horses lack nipples. The male
1179:
1001:
912:
843:
822:
810:
794:
786:
611:
517:
506:
455:
391:
335:
285:
102:
3860:
3577:
3894:
3892:
3244:
1608:
1446:
1253:
863:
848:
818:
790:
749:
679:
671:
648:
502:
376:
56:
3912:
Cunningham, Merle; LaTour, Mickey A. & Acker, Duane (2005).
3473:
1936:
1762:"Stromal Effects on Mammary Gland Development and Breast Cancer"
4635:
4577:
4563:
4235:"BBC News – The goats with spider genes and silk in their milk"
3732:
3098:"Hormonal and local control of mammary branching morphogenesis"
2720:
Zhou J, Ng S, Adesanya-Famuiya O, Anderson K, Bondy CA (2000).
2023:
1362:
1061:
856:
666:
656:
537:) and locally in the mammary fat pad through activation of the
395:
387:
355:
305:
277:
257:
121:
66:
61:
3889:
3808:
3195:
2719:
3096:
Sternlicht, M. D.; Kouros-Mehr, H.; Lu, P.; Werb, Z. (2006).
1866:
Moore, Keith L.; Dalley, Arthur F.; Agur, Anne M. R. (2018).
1492:
1118:
1038:
1034:
1019:
644:
534:
494:
490:
339:
281:
253:
174:
153:
3396:
2617:
1573:
Lawrence, Ruth A.; Lawrence, Robert M. (30 September 2010).
855:
negatively regulates this side branching process in case of
406:
and the presence of more than two complex mammary glands as
390:. The myoepithelial cells contract under the stimulation of
3424:
3095:
1404:
1261:
1030:
643:. The development of the mammary gland occurs mainly after
498:
343:
261:
137:
3425:
Robinson, G. W.; Hennighausen, L.; Johnson, P. F. (2000).
925:
nourishment. In some species there is complete or partial
903:) begins a few days later due to reduction in circulating
732:, the ductal systems undergo rapid proliferation and form
19:"Mammary" redirects here. For the mountain in Alaska, see
4089:
3335:
1816:
1649:
1390:
1376:
1348:
1265:
1156:
1137:
1099:
1080:
967:
originate in the lobules or ducts of the mammary glands.
4369:
3365:"Hormonal effects of soy in premenopausal women and men"
2768:
1817:
Pavlovich, A. L.; Manivannan, S.; Nelson, C. M. (2010).
4041:"Development and Pathology of the Equine Mammary Gland"
3293:
360:
The basic components of a mature mammary gland are the
280:
in primates (for example, humans and chimpanzees), the
1268:, to produce proteins for pharmaceutical use. Complex
3573:
3571:
3521:
3519:
2618:
Chong YM, Subramanian A, Sharma AK, Mokbel K (2007).
2460:"Hepatocyte growth factor profile with breast cancer"
797:
promotes branching differentiation, whereas in males
288:(for example, cows, goats, sheep, and deer), and the
4404:
3525:
2275:
1755:
1753:
1751:
3526:Streuli, C. H.; Bailey, N.; Bissell, M. J. (1991).
2592:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 94–.
1707:
1705:
1703:
1515:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
3568:
3516:
2901:
2817:
2648:
4005:
2579:
1748:
1575:Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Profession
1539:"Anatomy of the Thoracic Wall, Axilla and Breast"
4674:
3400:Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention
3294:Dogic, D.; Rousselle, P.; Aumailley, M. (1998).
2769:Lemaine V, Cayci C, Simmons PS, Petty P (2013).
2492:
1700:
1572:
4174:
3959:Julie Ann Mayer; John Foley; Damon De La Cruz;
3144:
3001:
2678:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2522:
2271:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2173:
2171:
2169:
1972:
1865:
292:of other animals (for example, dogs and cats).
272:, "breast". The mammary glands are arranged in
4317:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
4262:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
4045:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
3692:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
3662:
3145:Fata, J. E.; Werb, Z.; Bissell, M. J. (2003).
3004:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
2952:
2674:
2672:
2125:
2123:
2121:
4547:
2955:"Stem Cells and the Developing Mammary Gland"
2457:
2318:
2225:
2075:
2071:
2069:
1810:
1536:
1336:Cross section of the breast of a human female
1280:cannot be produced by genetically engineered
1256:factories, and several labs have constructed
374:. These alveoli join to form groups known as
268:. Mammals get their name from the Latin word
4439:
4407:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
3873:. Digitalcollections.fiu.edu. Archived from
2762:
2713:
2606:
2498:
2451:
2402:
2396:
2361:
2355:
2312:
2260:
2214:
2166:
2030:Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology
1884:
1711:
1614:
3952:
2902:Hens, JR; Wysolmerski JJ (10 August 2005).
2669:
2642:
2528:
2508:. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 413–.
2118:
1759:
4554:
4540:
4139:
3044:
2535:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
2082:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
2066:
42:Cross-section of the human mammary gland.
36:
16:Exocrine gland in humans and other mammals
4561:
4305:. Smithsonian National Zoo, 14 July 2003.
4210:
4192:
4133:
4066:
4056:
3988:
3836:
3826:
3785:
3603:
3551:
3499:
3442:
3380:
3362:
3270:
3221:
3172:
3162:
3121:
3072:
3062:
2978:
2929:
2919:
2878:
2794:
2737:
2696:
2562:
2475:
2434:
2424:
2379:
2243:
2177:
2129:
2101:
2049:
2000:
1990:
1842:
1793:
1683:
1557:
1532:
1530:
1528:
3630:Journal of the National Cancer Institute
1973:Hens, J. R.; Wysolmerski, J. J. (2005).
1905:
1859:
1652:"Anatomy of the nipple and breast ducts"
954:
851:-1 interacts with non-integrin receptor
445:
437:
4314:
4259:
4675:
4038:
3735:Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
3665:Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
1911:
1525:
454:A mammary gland is a specific type of
4535:
3689:
2078:"Hormone Action in the Mammary Gland"
1508:List of glands of the human body#Skin
1488:Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
1249:occurs infrequently in some species.
458:gland specialized for manufacture of
108:(blood vessels and connective tissue)
3963:; Randall Widelitz (November 2008).
3871:"With the Wild Things – Transcripts"
2529:Hynes, N. E.; Watson, C. J. (2010).
1912:Krstic, Radivoj V. (18 March 2004).
1597:
1322:
300:, the production of enough milk for
4583:Areolar gland (gland of Montgomery)
4419:10.1146/annurev-genom-082509-141806
2505:Anatomy and Physiology for Midwives
2076:Brisken; Malley (2 December 2010).
1668:10.3978/j.issn.2227-684X.2015.05.10
1546:International Journal of Morphology
930:collapse by programmed cell death (
862:There is preliminary evidence that
780:
744:in the alveoli. Contraction of the
651:, tubule formation is coupled with
480:Parathyroid hormone-related protein
13:
2953:Makarem, M; Eaves C (April 2013).
2771:"Gynecomastia in adolescent males"
2698:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009153
588:, if it occurs. During pregnancy,
14:
4719:
4520:Comparative Mammary Gland Anatomy
4513:
4142:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2655:. Academic Press. pp. 770–.
1760:Wiseman, B. S.; Werb, Z. (2002).
763:
386:that drains into openings in the
3852:
3114:10.1111/j.1432-0436.2006.00105.x
2042:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2016.08.004
1439:
1425:
1411:
1397:
1383:
1369:
1355:
1341:
1329:
970:
963:cancer. Almost all instances of
815:epidermal growth factor receptor
4471:
4433:
4398:
4363:
4351:
4308:
4296:
4253:
4227:
4168:
4083:
4032:
3939:
3930:
3905:
3802:
3753:
3726:
3683:
3656:
3620:
3467:
3418:
3356:
3329:
3287:
3238:
3189:
3138:
3089:
3038:
2995:
2946:
2895:
2838:
2811:
2017:
1966:
1930:
1559:10.4067/S0717-95022006000500030
630:
558:transforming growth factor beta
512:
442:Normal histology of the breast.
4092:"Lactation in male fruit bats"
4018:. Cambridge University Press.
3947:Red-Sided Short-Tailed Opossum
3900:Raising Orphaned Baby Opossums
2959:J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia
2679:Jernström H, Olsson H (1997).
2458:El-Attar HA, Sheta MI (2011).
2321:J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia
2278:J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia
2180:J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia
1643:
1591:
1566:
1245:has lactating mammary glands.
869:
469:
316:. In a few mammalian species,
1:
4708:Human female endocrine system
2226:Ruan W, Kleinberg DL (1999).
1629:10.1016/S0022-3476(48)80075-2
1519:
899:is secreted. Milk secretion (
831:heparan sulfate proteoglycans
775:
180:Pectoral axillary lymph nodes
168:(lateral and medial branches)
4526:On the anatomy of the breast
2652:Essential Medical Physiology
2362:Serra R, Crowley MR (2005).
1291:
723:
596:are essential for mediating
531:insulin-like growth factor 1
433:
349:
304:, occurs only in phenotypic
7:
4507:Clinically Oriented Anatomy
3914:Animal Science and Industry
3584:The Journal of Cell Biology
3532:The Journal of Cell Biology
3251:The Journal of Cell Biology
3202:The Journal of Cell Biology
2649:Leonard R. Johnson (2003).
2547:10.1101/cshperspect.a003186
2502:; Dunstall, Melvyn (2011).
2094:10.1101/cshperspect.a003178
1868:Clinically oriented anatomy
1453:
625:
524:(GH) are essential for the
417:(ECM) which, together with
326:are divided into 3 groups:
10:
4724:
4154:10.1016/j.tree.2008.09.009
4058:10.1007/s10911-020-09471-2
4039:Hughes, Katherine (2021).
3981:10.2353/ajpath.2008.070920
3902:. Alabama Wildlife Center.
3045:Sternlicht, M. D. (2006).
1457:
1218:Southern red-sided opossum
975:
919:
473:
353:
18:
4649:
4570:
3916:. Pearson Prentice Hall.
2971:10.1007/s10911-013-9284-6
2464:Indian J Pathol Microbiol
2333:10.1007/s10911-008-9103-7
1916:. Springer. p. 466.
1835:10.1089/ten.TEA.2009.0836
1823:Tissue Engineering Part A
1617:The Journal of Pediatrics
1601:Anatomy of the Human Body
696:
226:
214:
202:
190:
185:
173:
152:
136:
120:
96:
91:
35:
30:
4181:The Journal of Nutrition
3369:The Journal of Nutrition
3363:Kurzer MS (March 2002).
2863:10.15252/embj.2018100852
2245:10.1210/endo.140.11.7095
2132:Breast Cancer Res. Treat
1252:Mammary glands are true
946:is under the control of
827:matrix metalloproteinase
570:hepatocyte growth factor
566:fibroblast growth factor
127:Internal thoracic artery
4442:The American Naturalist
4329:10.1023/A:1022896515287
4274:10.1023/A:1022848632125
3766:Journal of Cell Science
3704:10.1023/A:1011384009787
3480:Genes & Development
3431:Genes & Development
3303:Journal of Cell Science
3016:10.1023/A:1018796301609
2477:10.4103/0377-4929.85083
2290:10.1023/A:1009507030633
2192:10.1023/A:1026373513521
2144:10.1023/a:1005998832636
1786:10.1126/science.1067431
686:, leading to a mammary
653:branching morphogenesis
576:influence of estrogen,
554:epidermal growth factor
539:growth hormone receptor
487:paracrine communication
131:Lateral thoracic artery
3898:Stockard, Mary (2005)
3828:10.1186/1741-7015-6-11
3544:10.1083/jcb.115.5.1383
3151:Breast Cancer Research
3051:Breast Cancer Research
2787:10.1055/s-0033-1347166
2589:Diseases of the Breast
1979:Breast Cancer Research
1952:10.1242/dev.125.7.1285
1460:anatomical terminology
1317:evolution of lactation
451:
443:
228:Anatomical terminology
159:Supraclavicular nerves
143:Internal thoracic vein
4194:10.3945/jn.109.105957
3642:10.1093/jnci/54.4.829
3596:10.1083/jcb.129.3.591
3382:10.1093/jn/132.3.570S
3315:10.1242/jcs.111.6.793
3263:10.1083/jcb.148.3.615
3214:10.1083/jcb.200302090
2739:10.1096/fj.99-0863com
2368:Endocr. Relat. Cancer
1899:21 April 2011 at the
1890:Ackerman (2005) ch.1
1298:apocrine sweat glands
1274:monoclonal antibodies
955:Clinical significance
474:Further information:
449:
441:
3778:10.1242/jcs.115.1.39
3671:(Suppl 9): 275–288.
3492:10.1101/gad.14.6.650
3444:10.1101/gad.14.8.889
1598:Gray, Henry (1918).
678:of cells within the
415:extracellular matrix
380:. Each lobule has a
4657:Dense breast tissue
4484:. Ardor Scribendi.
4111:1994Natur.367..691F
2381:10.1677/erc.1.00936
1778:2002Sci...296.1046W
1772:(5570): 1046–1049.
746:myoepithelial cells
372:myoepithelial cells
115:(cellular elements)
4641:Retromammary space
4631:Intermammary cleft
4590:Cooper's ligaments
4384:10.1002/bies.20423
4360:. scienceblogs.com
3741:(Suppl 7): 17–32.
2820:J Natl Cancer Inst
1726:10.1242/dev.005439
1458:This article uses
1258:transgenic animals
620:androgen receptors
476:Breast development
452:
444:
370:and surrounded by
163:Intercostal nerves
52:Pectoralis muscles
4670:
4669:
4626:Inframammary fold
4498:on 21 April 2011.
4491:978-1-893357-25-9
4358:Breast beginnings
4303:Lactating on Eggs
4241:. 17 January 2012
4105:(6465): 691–692.
4025:978-1-139-45742-2
3961:Cheng-Ming Chuong
3949:. Fauna Paraguay
3923:978-0-13-046256-5
3344:(23): 7102–7109.
2908:Breast Cancer Res
2662:978-0-12-387584-6
2599:978-1-4511-4870-1
2515:978-0-7020-3489-3
2413:Breast Cancer Res
1829:(12): 3719–3726.
1323:Additional images
1235:
1234:
940:endothelial cells
803:terminal end buds
543:estrogen receptor
427:basement membrane
242:
241:
237:
169:
116:
109:
4715:
4619:Mammary alveolus
4612:Terminal end bud
4607:Lactiferous duct
4556:
4549:
4542:
4533:
4532:
4499:
4494:. Archived from
4466:
4465:
4437:
4431:
4430:
4402:
4396:
4395:
4367:
4361:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4312:
4306:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4257:
4251:
4250:
4248:
4246:
4231:
4225:
4224:
4214:
4196:
4187:(8): 1502–1509.
4172:
4166:
4165:
4137:
4131:
4130:
4119:10.1038/367691a0
4096:
4087:
4081:
4080:
4070:
4060:
4036:
4030:
4029:
4009:
4003:
4002:
3992:
3956:
3950:
3943:
3937:
3934:
3928:
3927:
3909:
3903:
3896:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3882:
3877:on 23 March 2013
3867:
3858:
3857:
3856:
3850:
3840:
3830:
3806:
3800:
3799:
3789:
3757:
3751:
3750:
3730:
3724:
3723:
3687:
3681:
3680:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3607:
3575:
3566:
3565:
3555:
3538:(5): 1383–1395.
3523:
3514:
3513:
3503:
3471:
3465:
3464:
3446:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3394:
3384:
3375:(3): 570S–573S.
3360:
3354:
3353:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3300:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3274:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3225:
3208:(6): 1123–1133.
3193:
3187:
3186:
3176:
3166:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3125:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3076:
3066:
3042:
3036:
3035:
2999:
2993:
2992:
2982:
2950:
2944:
2943:
2933:
2923:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2882:
2851:The EMBO Journal
2842:
2836:
2835:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2798:
2775:Semin Plast Surg
2766:
2760:
2759:
2741:
2717:
2711:
2710:
2700:
2685:Am. J. Epidemiol
2676:
2667:
2666:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2615:
2604:
2603:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2566:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2496:
2490:
2489:
2479:
2455:
2449:
2448:
2438:
2428:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2383:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2273:
2258:
2257:
2247:
2223:
2212:
2211:
2175:
2164:
2163:
2127:
2116:
2115:
2105:
2073:
2064:
2063:
2053:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2004:
1994:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1946:(7): 1285–1294.
1934:
1928:
1927:
1909:
1903:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1846:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1797:
1757:
1746:
1745:
1709:
1698:
1697:
1687:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1543:
1534:
1443:
1429:
1415:
1401:
1387:
1373:
1359:
1345:
1333:
1199:Virginia opossum
992:
991:
987:Virginia opossum
781:Hormonal control
688:anlage (biology)
383:lactiferous duct
234:edit on Wikidata
231:
167:
114:
107:
40:
28:
27:
4723:
4722:
4718:
4717:
4716:
4714:
4713:
4712:
4688:Exocrine system
4673:
4672:
4671:
4666:
4645:
4566:
4562:Anatomy of the
4560:
4522:by W. L. Hurley
4516:
4503:Moore, Keith L.
4492:
4474:
4469:
4438:
4434:
4403:
4399:
4368:
4364:
4356:
4352:
4313:
4309:
4301:
4297:
4258:
4254:
4244:
4242:
4233:
4232:
4228:
4173:
4169:
4138:
4134:
4094:
4088:
4084:
4037:
4033:
4026:
4010:
4006:
3957:
3953:
3944:
3940:
3935:
3931:
3924:
3910:
3906:
3897:
3890:
3880:
3878:
3869:
3868:
3861:
3851:
3807:
3803:
3772:(Pt 1): 39–50.
3758:
3754:
3731:
3727:
3688:
3684:
3661:
3657:
3625:
3621:
3576:
3569:
3524:
3517:
3472:
3468:
3423:
3419:
3361:
3357:
3338:Cancer Research
3334:
3330:
3298:
3292:
3288:
3243:
3239:
3194:
3190:
3143:
3139:
3102:Differentiation
3094:
3090:
3064:10.1186/bcr1368
3043:
3039:
3000:
2996:
2951:
2947:
2921:10.1186/bcr1306
2900:
2896:
2857:(14): e100852.
2843:
2839:
2816:
2812:
2767:
2763:
2732:(12): 1725–30.
2718:
2714:
2677:
2670:
2663:
2647:
2643:
2630:(3B): 1617–24.
2616:
2607:
2600:
2584:
2580:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2497:
2493:
2456:
2452:
2426:10.1186/bcr1740
2401:
2397:
2360:
2356:
2317:
2313:
2274:
2261:
2238:(11): 5075–81.
2224:
2215:
2176:
2167:
2128:
2119:
2088:(12): a003178.
2074:
2067:
2022:
2018:
1992:10.1186/bcr1306
1971:
1967:
1935:
1931:
1924:
1910:
1906:
1901:Wayback Machine
1889:
1885:
1878:
1864:
1860:
1815:
1811:
1758:
1749:
1720:(6): 995–1003.
1710:
1701:
1648:
1644:
1613:
1609:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1571:
1567:
1541:
1535:
1526:
1522:
1512:
1463:
1456:
1449:
1444:
1435:
1433:Dromedary camel
1430:
1421:
1416:
1407:
1402:
1393:
1388:
1379:
1374:
1365:
1360:
1351:
1346:
1337:
1334:
1325:
1294:
1243:dayak fruit bat
1041:
1017:
1008:
999:
978:
973:
957:
922:
872:
811:beta-1 integrin
783:
778:
766:
726:
714:sexual maturity
699:
633:
628:
515:
482:
472:
436:
358:
352:
238:
165:
161:
145:
129:
112:
110:
105:
87:
86:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4721:
4711:
4710:
4705:
4703:Female mammals
4700:
4698:Mammal anatomy
4695:
4690:
4685:
4683:Breast anatomy
4668:
4667:
4665:
4664:
4659:
4653:
4651:
4647:
4646:
4644:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4622:
4621:
4616:
4615:
4614:
4599:
4598:
4597:
4595:Tail of Spence
4587:
4586:
4585:
4574:
4572:
4568:
4567:
4559:
4558:
4551:
4544:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4523:
4515:
4514:External links
4512:
4511:
4510:
4505:et al. (2010)
4500:
4490:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4467:
4454:10.1086/284177
4432:
4397:
4378:(6): 606–616.
4362:
4350:
4307:
4295:
4268:(3): 253–266.
4252:
4226:
4167:
4132:
4082:
4051:(2): 121–134.
4031:
4024:
4004:
3975:(5): 1339–48.
3951:
3938:
3929:
3922:
3904:
3888:
3859:
3801:
3752:
3725:
3698:(2): 203–211.
3682:
3655:
3636:(4): 829–834.
3619:
3590:(3): 591–603.
3567:
3515:
3486:(6): 650–654.
3466:
3437:(8): 889–894.
3417:
3406:(10): 785–94.
3395:Also cited by
3355:
3328:
3309:(6): 793–802.
3286:
3257:(3): 615–624.
3237:
3188:
3164:10.1186/bcr634
3137:
3108:(7): 365–381.
3088:
3057:(1): 201–203.
3037:
2994:
2945:
2894:
2837:
2810:
2761:
2712:
2668:
2661:
2641:
2624:Anticancer Res
2605:
2598:
2578:
2541:(8): a003186.
2521:
2514:
2491:
2450:
2395:
2354:
2311:
2259:
2213:
2165:
2117:
2065:
2016:
1985:(5): 220–224.
1965:
1929:
1922:
1904:
1893:Apocrine Units
1883:
1876:
1858:
1809:
1747:
1699:
1642:
1623:(6): 698–704.
1607:
1590:
1583:
1565:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1511:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1464:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1445:
1438:
1436:
1431:
1424:
1422:
1417:
1410:
1408:
1403:
1396:
1394:
1389:
1382:
1380:
1375:
1368:
1366:
1361:
1354:
1352:
1347:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1328:
1324:
1321:
1293:
1290:
1247:Male lactation
1233:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1172:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1014:
1005:
996:
977:
974:
972:
969:
956:
953:
921:
918:
909:tight junction
895:giving birth,
880:adipose tissue
871:
868:
782:
779:
777:
774:
765:
764:Postmenopausal
762:
725:
722:
718:estrous cycles
716:and undergoes
698:
695:
632:
629:
627:
624:
598:lobuloalveolar
550:growth factors
522:growth hormone
514:
511:
471:
468:
435:
432:
368:cuboidal cells
351:
348:
318:male lactation
264:to feed young
260:that produces
250:exocrine gland
240:
239:
230:
224:
223:
218:
212:
211:
206:
200:
199:
194:
188:
187:
183:
182:
177:
171:
170:
156:
150:
149:
140:
134:
133:
124:
118:
117:
100:
94:
93:
89:
88:
85:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
43:
41:
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4720:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4663:
4662:Mammary ridge
4660:
4658:
4655:
4654:
4652:
4648:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4620:
4617:
4613:
4610:
4609:
4608:
4605:
4604:
4603:
4602:Mammary gland
4600:
4596:
4593:
4592:
4591:
4588:
4584:
4581:
4580:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4557:
4552:
4550:
4545:
4543:
4538:
4537:
4534:
4527:
4524:
4521:
4518:
4517:
4508:
4504:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4487:
4483:
4482:
4476:
4475:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4436:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4401:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4366:
4359:
4354:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4323:(3): 225–52.
4322:
4318:
4311:
4304:
4299:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4256:
4240:
4236:
4230:
4222:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4171:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4136:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4093:
4086:
4078:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4035:
4027:
4021:
4017:
4016:
4008:
4000:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3955:
3948:
3945:P Smith 2008
3942:
3933:
3925:
3919:
3915:
3908:
3901:
3895:
3893:
3876:
3872:
3866:
3864:
3855:
3848:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3805:
3797:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3756:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3729:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3686:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3659:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3623:
3615:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3574:
3572:
3563:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3522:
3520:
3511:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3470:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3392:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3359:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3332:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3297:
3290:
3282:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3233:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3184:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3133:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3092:
3084:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
2998:
2990:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2965:(2): 209–19.
2964:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2941:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2890:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2833:
2829:
2826:(3): 459–90.
2825:
2821:
2814:
2806:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2716:
2708:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2691:(7): 571–80.
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2673:
2664:
2658:
2654:
2653:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2601:
2595:
2591:
2590:
2582:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2525:
2517:
2511:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2495:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2470:(3): 509–13.
2469:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2446:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2399:
2391:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2374:(4): 749–60.
2373:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2327:(4): 353–60.
2326:
2322:
2315:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2232:Endocrinology
2229:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2070:
2061:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1969:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1933:
1925:
1923:9783540536666
1919:
1915:
1908:
1902:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1887:
1879:
1877:9781496347213
1873:
1869:
1862:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1813:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1656:Gland Surgery
1653:
1646:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1603:
1602:
1594:
1586:
1584:9781437735901
1580:
1576:
1569:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1540:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1516:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1473:Mammary tumor
1471:
1469:
1468:Breastfeeding
1466:
1465:
1461:
1448:
1442:
1437:
1434:
1428:
1423:
1420:
1414:
1409:
1406:
1400:
1395:
1392:
1386:
1381:
1378:
1372:
1367:
1364:
1358:
1353:
1350:
1344:
1339:
1332:
1327:
1326:
1320:
1318:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1289:
1287:
1286:cell cultures
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1270:glycoproteins
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1177:
1176:Proboscideans
1174:
1173:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1012:
1006:
1003:
997:
994:
993:
990:
988:
984:
971:Other mammals
968:
966:
965:breast cancer
961:
960:Tumorigenesis
952:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
928:
917:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
893:
889:
885:
882:and a richer
881:
877:
867:
865:
860:
858:
854:
850:
845:
840:
839:myoepithelial
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
773:
771:
770:postmenopause
761:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
742:luminal cells
739:
735:
731:
721:
719:
715:
709:
707:
703:
694:
691:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
668:
664:
660:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
623:
621:
617:
613:
609:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
573:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
527:
523:
519:
510:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
481:
477:
467:
465:
461:
457:
448:
440:
431:
428:
424:
420:
416:
411:
409:
405:
399:
397:
393:
389:
385:
384:
379:
378:
373:
369:
365:
364:
357:
347:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
328:prototherians
325:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
246:mammary gland
235:
229:
225:
222:
219:
217:
213:
210:
207:
205:
201:
198:
195:
193:
189:
184:
181:
178:
176:
172:
164:
160:
157:
155:
151:
148:
147:Axillary vein
144:
141:
139:
135:
132:
128:
125:
123:
119:
104:
101:
99:
95:
90:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
63:
60:
58:
55:
53:
50:
48:
45:
44:
39:
34:
31:Mammary gland
29:
26:
22:
4601:
4506:
4496:the original
4480:
4472:Bibliography
4445:
4441:
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1306:marsupials
1302:monotremes
1239:marsupials
1043:guinea pig
983:milk lines
944:proteinase
927:involution
884:blood flow
776:Physiology
754:involution
706:lymph node
684:mesenchyme
637:epithelium
582:fat tissue
497:, such as
423:fibroblast
419:adipocytes
408:polymastia
404:polythelia
354:See also:
336:eutherians
294:Lactorrhea
256:and other
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4571:Structure
4372:BioEssays
4239:bbc.co.uk
4203:0022-3166
2871:0261-4189
2555:1943-0264
1676:2227-684X
1503:Milk line
1292:Evolution
1260:, mainly
1231:25 to 27
1228:25 to 27
1016:Posterior
1011:abdominal
936:autophagy
932:apoptosis
901:lactation
897:colostrum
888:gestation
876:prolactin
870:Pregnancy
758:apoptosis
738:lactation
730:pregnancy
724:Pregnancy
682:into the
667:Embryonic
647:. During
612:Androgens
602:lactation
594:prolactin
586:pregnancy
560:(TGF-β),
547:paracrine
460:colostrum
434:Histology
350:Structure
308:who have
298:lactation
286:ruminants
266:offspring
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4427:20565255
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2160:30440069
2112:20739412
2060:27544910
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1804:12004111
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1637:18101061
1454:See also
1419:Elephant
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1272:such as
1180:primates
1113:8 or 10
1020:inguinal
1002:thoracic
998:Anterior
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844:integrin
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795:Estrogen
787:hormones
734:alveolar
626:Timeline
614:such as
552:such as
518:Estrogen
507:collagen
456:apocrine
392:oxytocin
310:gestated
111:Ectoderm
103:Mesoderm
4290:8319185
4212:3151199
4127:4369716
4107:Bibcode
4068:8236023
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920:Weaning
864:soybean
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791:puberty
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750:weaning
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606:nursing
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556:(EGF),
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