1241:
361:. Impaired calcium and vitamin D absorption and chelation of calcium by unabsorbed fatty acids resulting in fecal loss of calcium may all contribute. If calcium deficiency is prolonged, secondary hyperparathyroidism may develop. Prolonged malnutrition may induce amenorrhea, infertility, and impotence. Edema and even ascites may reflect hypoproteinemia associated with protein losing enteropathy caused by
316:. Malabsorption of dietary nutrients and excessive fluid secretion by inflamed small intestine also contribute to abdominal distention and bloating. Prevalence, severity, and character of abdominal pain vary considerably among the various disease processes associated with intestinal malabsorption. For example, pain is common in patients with chronic pancreatitis or pancreatic cancer and
34:
290:, and pain may be present. Although diarrhea is a common complaint, the character and frequency of stools may vary considerably ranging from over 10 watery stools per day to less than one voluminous putty-like stool, the latter causing some patients to complain of constipation. On the other hand, stool mass is invariably increased in patients with
304:
nutrients by significantly increasing their oral intake. Eliciting a careful dietary history from patients with suspected malabsorption is therefore crucial. Excessive flatus and abdominal bloating may reflect excessive gas production due to fermentation of unabsorbed carbohydrate, especially among patients with a primary or secondary
328:
Substantial numbers of patients with intestinal malabsorption present initially with symptoms or laboratory abnormalities that point to other organ systems in the absence of or overshadowing symptoms referable to the gastrointestinal tract. For example, there is increasing epidemiologic evidence that
1016:
and signs. A range of different conditions can produce malabsorption and it is necessary to look for each of these specifically. Many tests have been advocated, and some, such as tests for pancreatic function are complex, vary between centers and have not been widely adopted. However, better tests
303:
both impair absorption and induce secretion of water and electrolytes by the colon adding to stool mass. Weight loss is common among patients with significant intestinal malabsorption but must be evaluated in the context of caloric intake. Some patients compensate for fecal wastage of unabsorbed
201:
secretions add an additional 7â8 L of protein-, lipid-, and electrolyte-containing fluid to intestinal contents. This massive load is reduced by the small and large intestines to less than 200 g of stool that contains less than 8 g of fat, 1â2 g of nitrogen, and less than 20 mmol each of
160:
Normally the human gastrointestinal tract digests and absorbs dietary nutrients with remarkable efficiency. A typical
Western diet ingested by an adult in one day includes approximately 100 g of fat, 400 g of carbohydrate, 100 g of protein, 2 L of fluid, and the required
1017:
have become available with greater ease of use, better sensitivity and specificity for the causative conditions. Tests are also needed to detect the systemic effects of deficiency of the malabsorbed nutrients (such as anaemia with vitamin B12 malabsorption).
294:
and generalized malabsorption above the normal with 150â200 g/day. Not only do unabsorbed nutrients contribute to stool mass but mucosal fluid and electrolyte secretion is also increased in diseases associated with mucosal inflammation such as
1657:
2041:
2025:
374:
1766:"Chronic diarrhea and malabsorption (including short gut syndrome): Working Group Report of the First World Congress of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition"
270:
Depending on the nature of the disease process causing malabsorption and its extent, gastrointestinal symptoms may range from severe to subtle or may even be totally absent.
2963:
365:
or extensive mucosal inflammation. Dermatitis and peripheral neuropathy may be caused by malabsorption of specific vitamins or micronutrients and essential fatty acids.
1661:
396:, is the most common feature. Watery, diurnal and nocturnal, bulky, frequent stools are the clinical hallmark of overt malabsorption. It is due to impaired water,
245:, or if the disease process is limited to the very proximal small intestine, then selective malabsorption of only a single nutrient may occur. However, generalized
2141:
947:
is initiated by intraluminal processes requiring gastric, pancreatic, and biliary secretions. The final products of digestion are absorbed through the
249:
of multiple dietary nutrients develops when the disease process is extensive, thus disturbing several digestive and absorptive processes, as occurs in
2645:
357:, or even frank bleeding may reflect hypoprothrombinemia secondary to vitamin K malabsorption. Osteopenia is common, especially in the presence of
1880:
Bertomeu A, Ros E, BarragĂĄn V, Sachje L, Navarro S (1991). "Chronic diarrhea with normal stool and colonic examinations: organic or functional?".
1329:
1228:
1098:
absorption or both. Low cholesterol or triglyceride may give a clue toward fat malabsorption. Low calcium and phosphate may give a clue toward
2240:
1961:
Thomas P, Forbes A, Green J, Howdle P, Long R, Playford R, Sheridan M, Stevens R, Valori R, Walters J, Addison G, Hill P, Brydon G (2003).
1224:
2279:
1429:
and fluid may be necessary. In severe deficiency, hospital admission may be required for nutritional support and detailed advice from
3429:
2134:
237:
If there is impairment of any of the many steps involved in the complex process of nutrient digestion and absorption, intestinal
3434:
2507:
113:
2419:
2159:
1438:
2720:
2127:
381:
Symptoms can manifest in a variety of ways and features might give a clue to the underlying condition. Symptoms can be
3392:
3239:
1823:
1691:
109:
3137:
1132:
821:
3278:
2890:
2873:
2378:
2373:
2250:
1012:
There is no single, specific test for malabsorption. As for most medical conditions, investigation is guided by
299:. In addition, unabsorbed fatty acids, converted to hydroxy-fatty acids by colonic flora, as well as unabsorbed
3132:
3088:
2982:
2804:
2403:
465:
presenting as fatigue and weakness, and the first of which can give rise to neuropsychiatric symptoms such as
3343:
3189:
3098:
2617:
2225:
1144:
900:
626:
138:
2312:
1445:. In patients whose intestinal absorptive surface is severely limited from disease or surgery, long term
1217:
CT abdomen is useful in ruling out structural abnormality, done in pancreatic protocol when visualising
1117:
levels can be checked. Fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) are affected in fat malabsorption. Prolonged
2678:
2607:
2208:
1709:"Proton pump inhibitors and risk of vitamin and mineral deficiency: evidence and clinical implications"
1514:
1446:
1350:
1269:
1136:
783:
753:
462:
354:
1565:
Fine KD, Schiller LR (1999). "technical review on the evaluation and management of chronic diarrhea".
958:(intraluminal process), absorption (mucosal process) and transport (postmucosal events) of nutrients.
2951:
2907:
2860:
2666:
2284:
988:
565:
3297:
2977:
2612:
2570:
2383:
2258:
2245:
2215:
2186:
2056:
149:. Impairment can be of single or multiple nutrients depending on the abnormality. This may lead to
1437:
may be able to provide sufficient nutritional supplementation. Tube placement may also be done by
954:
Malabsorption constitutes the pathological interference with the normal physiological sequence of
3222:
2999:
2740:
2532:
2191:
1496:
1376:
1346:
738:
70:
1392:
absorption test for mucosal disease or bacterial overgrowth. Normal in pancreatic insufficiency.
3302:
3026:
3009:
2393:
2269:
2220:
2181:
2151:
1509:
1492:
892:
693:
575:
146:
2096:
241:
may ensue. If the abnormality involves a single step in the absorptive process, as in primary
3234:
3153:
3142:
3103:
3031:
2334:
1192:
1043:
1033:
948:
766:
3273:
3217:
3038:
2934:
2517:
2512:
2346:
2264:
2230:
1482:
1357:
1289:
806:
801:
771:
748:
743:
642:
585:
320:, but it is absent in many patients with coeliac disease or postgastrectomy malabsorption.
117:
101:
41:
1082:; which shows a high correlation for the presence of an organic disease. In this setting,
8:
3367:
3177:
3070:
3053:
3014:
2987:
2939:
2782:
2759:
2752:
2701:
2673:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2502:
2119:
2045:
1470:
1366:
968:
857:
723:
711:
662:
637:
599:
416:
and abdominal discomfort. Cramping pain usually suggests obstructive intestinal segment
313:
309:
3379:
3244:
3227:
3212:
3199:
3182:
3048:
2683:
2575:
2547:
2481:
2307:
2203:
2168:
1983:
1962:
1795:
1741:
1708:
1638:
1590:
1075:
861:
811:
647:
632:
503:
421:
317:
242:
105:
1578:
1543:
1128:
Serological studies. Specific tests are carried out to determine the underlying cause.
3439:
3357:
3338:
2711:
2067:
1988:
1938:
1933:
1916:
1897:
1893:
1862:
1819:
1787:
1782:
1765:
1746:
1728:
1687:
1630:
1582:
1313:
1253:
1083:
852:
829:
338:
60:
49:
2050:
1799:
1642:
1594:
3404:
3324:
3319:
3309:
3171:
3043:
2971:
2789:
2696:
2691:
2621:
2580:
2388:
2353:
2107:
1978:
1970:
1928:
1889:
1852:
1777:
1736:
1720:
1622:
1574:
1118:
833:
794:
542:
362:
3362:
3292:
3158:
3093:
3058:
2929:
2794:
2730:
2632:
2551:
2542:
2492:
2432:
2317:
2294:
2061:
1463:
1317:
1281:
1249:
1207:
1196:
1140:
1053:
940:
920:
847:
816:
776:
685:
296:
254:
250:
97:
3399:
3314:
2868:
2841:
2706:
2641:
2637:
2527:
2497:
1488:
1405:
1285:
843:
580:
305:
2072:
1974:
1025:
Some prefer to classify malabsorption clinically into three basic categories:
373:
3423:
3332:
3285:
3078:
3021:
3004:
2916:
2661:
2363:
2329:
2274:
1732:
1724:
1110:
1079:
337:
in the absence of significant classic gastrointestinal symptoms. Microcytic,
16:
Abnormality in absorption of food nutrients across the gastrointestinal tract
2034:
3207:
3119:
2992:
2895:
2846:
2831:
2826:
2822:
2735:
2560:
2476:
2368:
2358:
2324:
1992:
1866:
1791:
1750:
1586:
1434:
1303:
1203:
1179:
1168:
1099:
1087:
924:
908:
608:
530:
493:
489:
397:
393:
150:
83:
75:
1942:
1901:
1764:
Walker-Smith J, Barnard J, Bhutta Z, Heubi J, Reeves Z, Schmitz J (2002).
1634:
427:
Weight loss can be significant despite increased oral intake of nutrients.
3387:
3149:
3127:
2958:
2878:
2522:
2423:
2176:
2091:
1812:
Gasbarrini G, Frisono M: Critical evaluation of malabsorption tests; in
1442:
1426:
1323:
1295:
1257:
1245:
1095:
994:
667:
618:
466:
451:
401:
358:
346:
291:
275:
53:
2017:
1841:"Coeliac disease in the 21st century: paradigm shifts in the modern age"
3163:
2836:
2814:
2459:
2398:
1478:
1261:
1157:
Microscopy is particularly useful in diarrhoea, may show protozoa like
1091:
1067:
982:
612:
550:
535:
458:
413:
405:
385:
or extra-intestinal - the former predominates in severe malabsorption.
334:
279:
198:
190:
1857:
1840:
1626:
1421:
Treatment is directed largely towards management of underlying cause:
3113:
3083:
2946:
2924:
2777:
2628:
2602:
2464:
2454:
2341:
2302:
2235:
2102:
1915:
Read N, Krejs G, Read M, Santa Ana C, Morawski S, Fordtran J (1980).
1430:
1399:
1395:
1164:
1122:
1106:
961:
955:
928:
896:
499:
481:
389:
382:
300:
166:
87:
1963:"Guidelines for the investigation of chronic diarrhoea, 2nd edition"
939:
include chewing, gastric churning, and the to-and-fro mixing in the
2747:
2725:
2437:
1389:
1307:
1273:
1218:
1175:
1000:
671:
622:
604:
558:
409:
283:
271:
182:
178:
170:
142:
2799:
2565:
2469:
2441:
1453:
1362:
1299:
1199:
1158:
1071:
1013:
916:
912:
485:
447:
442:
431:
350:
194:
186:
174:
79:
3265:
2883:
2769:
2029:
1342:
1277:
1240:
1211:
932:
470:
438:
330:
287:
162:
154:
1763:
2715:
2445:
477:
45:
1383:
1372:
1114:
342:
33:
2149:
1332:
will show pancreatic and biliary structural abnormalities.
1879:
1129:
975:
904:
523:
1960:
1914:
1459:
Dietary modification is important in some conditions:
2007:
1456:
are supplemented orally in pancreatic insufficiency.
1433:. Use of enteral nutrition by naso-gastric or other
1814:Dobrilla G, Bertaccini G (1986). Langman G (ed.).
1813:
265:
323:
3421:
714:(constitutional, secondary or rarely congenital)
329:more patients with coeliac disease present with
430:Growth retardation, failure to thrive, delayed
377:Small intestine : major site of absorption
1816:Problems and Controversies in Gastroenterology
1681:
758:Terminal ileal disease such as Crohn's disease
2135:
1227:(MRCP) to complement or as an alternative to
424:, especially if it persists after defecation.
2241:Esophagogastric junction outflow obstruction
1564:
1706:
1225:Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography
1178:is indicative of pancreatic insufficiency.
971:or acquired reduction in absorptive surface
341:, or dimorphic anemia may reflect impaired
2280:Esophageal intramural pseudodiverticulosis
2142:
2128:
1838:
1832:
1398:breath test (C-glycocholate) to determine
1326:is necessary in colonic and ileal disease.
32:
1982:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1932:
1856:
1781:
1740:
1613:Bai J (1998). "Malabsorption syndromes".
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1235:
1182:and pancreolauryl can be assessed as well
404:absorption or irritation from unabsorbed
1818:. New York: Raven Pr. pp. 123â130.
1384:Obsolete tests no longer used clinically
1239:
372:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1336:
1186:
1161:, ova, cyst and other infective agents.
822:Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID)
663:Bariatric surgery (Weight loss surgery)
137:is a state arising from abnormality in
120:; genetic diseases; certain medications
3422:
1949:
1527:
3264:
2508:Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth
2123:
1612:
1495:will help with reducing diarrhoea in
720:Intestinal enteropeptidase deficiency
260:
114:small intestinal bacterial overgrowth
1917:"Chronic diarrhea of unknown origin"
1686:. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
1601:
1086:usually implies iron deficiency and
717:Intestinal disaccharidase deficiency
1713:Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety
1439:percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy
631:Inflammatory bowel diseases, as in
13:
1684:Malabsorption in clinical practice
886:
658:Due to surgical structural changes
253:with extensive involvement of the
14:
3451:
3393:Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
3240:Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
2003:
1356:Glucose hydrogen breath test for
1020:
878:Chronic Proton Pump Inhibitor Use
473:, and decreased mental abilities.
110:exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
3430:Gastrointestinal tract disorders
3138:Secondary sclerosing cholangitis
1894:10.1097/00004836-199110000-00011
1783:10.1097/00005176-200208002-00006
1151:
1133:Anti-transglutaminase antibodies
617:Infiltrative conditions such as
2379:Gastric antral vascular ectasia
2374:Portal hypertensive gastropathy
2251:Gastroesophageal reflux disease
1908:
1873:
1770:J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr
1316:is able to visualise the whole
368:
266:Gastrointestinal manifestations
3133:Primary sclerosing cholangitis
2983:Hepatic veno-occlusive disease
2805:Solitary rectal ulcer syndrome
1806:
1757:
1700:
1675:
1649:
1558:
1060:
650:and collagen vascular diseases
324:Extraintestinal manifestations
44:: Alcian blue with apparently
1:
3190:Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction
1969:. 52 Suppl 5 (90005): v1â15.
1579:10.1016/s0016-5085(99)70513-5
1520:
1481:therapy to treat Small Bowel
1416:
1292:, abetalipoproteinaemia etc.)
1171:is rarely performed nowadays.
1052:, as in exceptional cases of
964:malabsorption can be due to:
931:involves both mechanical and
408:. The latter also results in
3435:Steatorrhea-related diseases
3099:Postcholecystectomy syndrome
2618:Intestinal pseudoobstruction
2226:Esophageal motility disorder
1934:10.1016/0016-5085(80)90575-2
1707:Heidelbaugh JJ (June 2013).
1145:gluten sensitive enteropathy
1007:
763:Pancreatic insufficiencies:
710:Lactase deficiency inducing
627:eosinophilic gastroenteritis
7:
1503:
1320:and is occasionally useful.
147:gastrointestinal (GI) tract
10:
3456:
3084:Gallstone / Cholelithiasis
2608:Functional colonic disease
2404:ZollingerâEllison syndrome
1515:Protein losing enteropathy
1447:total parenteral nutrition
1425:Replacement of nutrients,
1351:primary bile acid diarrhea
1252:manifested by blunting of
1137:Anti-endomysial antibodies
1090:can be caused by impaired
784:Zollinger-Ellison syndrome
754:Primary bile acid diarrhea
706:Due to enzyme deficiencies
681:Due to mucosal abnormality
355:subconjunctival hemorrhage
3378:
3257:
3198:
3112:
3069:
2915:
2906:
2859:
2813:
2768:
2654:
2541:
2431:
2418:
2293:
2285:Acute esophageal necrosis
2167:
2158:
2082:
2011:
1975:10.1136/gut.52.suppl_5.v1
1365:hydrogen breath test for
1206:may be undertaken to see
1195:is useful in delineating
989:enterohepatic circulation
595:Due to structural defects
510:
498:Bleeding tendencies from
488:absorption. Also lead to
124:
93:
69:
59:
40:
31:
26:
2384:Gastric dumping syndrome
2259:Laryngopharyngeal reflux
2246:Diffuse esophageal spasm
1725:10.1177/2042098613482484
1658:"Malabsorption syndrome"
1544:"Malabsorption Syndrome"
1276:pathology and obtain D2
891:The main purpose of the
733:Due to digestive failure
3000:Alcoholic liver disease
2533:Bile acid malabsorption
2477:Peptic (duodenal) ulcer
1845:J Gastroenterol Hepatol
1682:Losowsky, M.S. (1974).
1497:bile acid malabsorption
1408:to establish cause of B
1377:intestinal permeability
1347:bile acid malabsorption
1264:infiltration of crypts.
1105:Specific vitamins like
739:Bile salt malabsorption
519:Due to infective agents
181:, and other elements.
3010:Hepatic encephalopathy
2394:Buried bumper syndrome
2325:Peptic (gastric) ulcer
2209:MalloryâWeiss syndrome
2152:human digestive system
1882:J. Clin. Gastroenterol
1510:Fructose malabsorption
1493:bile acid sequestrants
1265:
1236:Interventional studies
893:gastrointestinal tract
694:Fructose malabsorption
690:Cows' milk intolerance
378:
48:counterstain enlarged
3235:Pancreatic pseudocyst
3104:Porcelain gallbladder
2216:Zenker's diverticulum
1469:Lactose avoidance in
1243:
1193:Barium follow through
1174:Low fecal pancreatic
1044:abetalipoproteinaemia
1034:lactose malabsorption
949:intestinal epithelial
874:Other Possible Causes
802:Abetalipoproteinaemia
767:Carcinoma of pancreas
698:Soya milk intolerance
563:Ancylostoma duodenale
526:related malabsorption
376:
363:lymphatic obstruction
3039:Hepatorenal syndrome
2978:BuddâChiari syndrome
2935:Autoimmune hepatitis
2760:Intestinal adhesions
2518:Short bowel syndrome
2347:Functional dyspepsia
2265:Esophageal stricture
2231:Nutcracker esophagus
1776:(Suppl 2): S98â105.
1483:Bacterial overgrowth
1462:Gluten-free diet in
1358:bacterial overgrowth
1349:in ileal disease or
1337:Other investigations
1298:for enteropathy and
1187:Radiological studies
981:Defects of specific
945:Enzymatic hydrolysis
937:Mechanical processes
772:Chronic pancreatitis
749:Obstructive jaundice
744:Bacterial overgrowth
643:Short bowel syndrome
545:(fish tape worm) (B
308:deficiency, such as
102:short bowel syndrome
3178:Choledocholithiasis
3049:Metabolic disorders
3015:Acute liver failure
2988:Portal hypertension
2940:Alcoholic hepatitis
2783:Radiation proctitis
2702:Mesenteric ischemia
2674:Gastroenterocolitis
2503:Blind loop syndrome
2313:Ménétrier's disease
2221:Barrett's esophagus
1839:Newnham ED (2017).
1471:lactose intolerance
1371:Sugar probes or Cr-
1367:lactose intolerance
1102:from low vitamin D.
935:breakdown of food.
858:Hyperparathyroidism
724:Sucrose intolerance
712:lactose intolerance
638:Radiation enteritis
576:Traveler's diarrhea
467:abnormal sensations
314:sucrose intolerance
310:lactose intolerance
3353:Undefined location
3344:GrynfelttâLesshaft
3245:Pancreatic fistula
3228:Pancreatic abscess
3183:Biliary dyskinesia
3154:Mirizzi's syndrome
2655:Large and/or small
2335:Dieulafoy's lesion
2204:Boerhaave syndrome
2083:External resources
1851:(Suppl 1): 82â85.
1266:
1084:microcytic anaemia
915:, micronutrients (
862:Hypoparathyroidism
812:Carcinoid syndrome
797:affecting GI tract
648:Systemic sclerosis
570:Necator americanus
504:coagulation factor
471:difficulty walking
379:
261:Signs and symptoms
243:lactase deficiency
106:lactase deficiency
3417:
3416:
3413:
3412:
3253:
3252:
2855:
2854:
2712:Bowel obstruction
2414:
2413:
2117:
2116:
1858:10.1111/jgh.13704
1627:10.1159/000007529
1345:test to diagnose
1314:Capsule Endoscopy
1290:Whipple's disease
1121:can be caused by
1042:, as observed in
884:
883:
853:Diabetes mellitus
830:Pernicious anemia
807:Addison's disease
795:systemic diseases
586:Whipple's disease
153:and a variety of
132:
131:
118:Whipple's disease
42:Whipple's disease
21:Medical condition
3447:
3405:Pneumoperitoneum
3262:
3261:
3172:Common bile duct
3054:Wilson's disease
3044:Peliosis hepatis
2913:
2912:
2790:Proctalgia fugax
2697:Abdominal angina
2622:Ogilvie syndrome
2571:Pseudomembranous
2429:
2428:
2389:Gastric volvulus
2354:Pyloric stenosis
2165:
2164:
2150:Diseases of the
2144:
2137:
2130:
2121:
2120:
2009:
2008:
1997:
1996:
1986:
1958:
1947:
1946:
1936:
1921:Gastroenterology
1912:
1906:
1905:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1860:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1785:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1744:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1679:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1660:. Archived from
1653:
1647:
1646:
1610:
1599:
1598:
1573:(6): 1464â1486.
1567:Gastroenterology
1562:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1540:
1197:small intestinal
1119:prothrombin time
993:Mucosal damage (
834:intrinsic factor
826:Fiber Deficiency
549:malabsorption),
543:diphyllobothrium
515:
514:
450:, commonly from
233:
229:
225:
224:
223:
220:
213:
209:
205:
128:Depends on cause
65:Gastroenterology
36:
24:
23:
3455:
3454:
3450:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3445:
3444:
3420:
3419:
3418:
3409:
3374:
3363:Internal hernia
3249:
3194:
3159:Biliary fistula
3117:
3108:
3094:Adenomyomatosis
3089:Cholesterolosis
3065:
3059:Hemochromatosis
2930:Viral hepatitis
2902:
2851:
2809:
2795:Rectal prolapse
2764:
2731:Fecal impaction
2721:Intussusception
2684:Crohn's disease
2650:
2633:Toxic megacolon
2545:
2543:Large intestine
2537:
2482:Curling's ulcer
2435:
2433:Small intestine
2422:
2410:
2318:Gastroenteritis
2289:
2154:
2148:
2118:
2113:
2112:
2078:
2077:
2020:
2006:
2001:
2000:
1959:
1950:
1913:
1909:
1878:
1874:
1837:
1833:
1826:
1811:
1807:
1762:
1758:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1680:
1676:
1667:
1665:
1656:
1654:
1650:
1611:
1602:
1563:
1559:
1549:
1547:
1542:
1541:
1528:
1523:
1506:
1464:coeliac disease
1419:
1411:
1386:
1339:
1318:small intestine
1282:coeliac disease
1250:coeliac disease
1238:
1189:
1165:Fecal fat study
1154:
1141:Coeliac disease
1063:
1054:coeliac disease
1023:
1010:
941:small intestine
889:
887:Pathophysiology
848:hyperthyroidism
839:
817:Coeliac disease
777:Cystic fibrosis
686:Coeliac disease
633:Crohn's disease
555:Giardia lamblia
548:
513:
480:from decreased
463:iron deficiency
455:
422:Crohn's disease
371:
326:
318:Crohn's disease
297:coeliac disease
268:
263:
255:small intestine
251:coeliac disease
231:
227:
221:
218:
217:
215:
211:
207:
203:
98:Coeliac disease
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3453:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3415:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3407:
3402:
3400:Hemoperitoneum
3397:
3396:
3395:
3384:
3382:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3349:
3348:
3347:
3346:
3341:
3328:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3306:
3305:
3300:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3270:
3268:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3204:
3202:
3196:
3195:
3193:
3192:
3187:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3124:
3122:
3110:
3109:
3107:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3075:
3073:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3056:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3002:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2968:
2967:
2966:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2944:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2921:
2919:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2881:
2871:
2869:Blood in stool
2865:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2842:Anal dysplasia
2839:
2834:
2829:
2819:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2774:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2709:
2707:Angiodysplasia
2704:
2699:
2688:
2687:
2686:
2676:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2651:
2649:
2648:
2642:Diverticulosis
2638:Diverticulitis
2635:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2615:
2605:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2563:
2557:
2555:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2528:Milroy disease
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2498:Tropical sprue
2495:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2474:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2451:
2449:
2426:
2420:Lower GI tract
2416:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2406:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2339:
2338:
2337:
2332:
2322:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2299:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2173:
2171:
2162:
2160:Upper GI tract
2156:
2155:
2147:
2146:
2139:
2132:
2124:
2115:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2099:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2080:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2064:
2053:
2038:
2021:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2012:Classification
2005:
2004:External links
2002:
1999:
1998:
1948:
1907:
1872:
1831:
1824:
1805:
1756:
1719:(3): 125â133.
1699:
1692:
1674:
1648:
1600:
1557:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1489:Cholestyramine
1486:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1467:
1457:
1450:
1449:may be needed.
1441:, or surgical
1418:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1406:Schilling test
1403:
1402:malabsorption.
1393:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1369:
1360:
1354:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1327:
1321:
1311:
1293:
1286:tropical sprue
1237:
1234:
1233:
1232:
1222:
1215:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1172:
1162:
1153:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1126:
1103:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1047:
1037:
1022:
1021:Classification
1019:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1004:
998:
991:
985:
979:
972:
923:), water, and
921:trace minerals
888:
885:
882:
881:
880:
879:
870:
869:
868:
867:
864:
855:
850:
844:Hypothyroidism
841:
840:malabsorption)
837:
827:
824:
819:
814:
809:
804:
789:
788:
787:
786:
781:
780:
779:
774:
769:
761:
760:
759:
756:
751:
746:
729:
728:
727:
726:
721:
718:
715:
702:
701:
700:
699:
696:
691:
688:
677:
676:
675:
674:
665:
654:
653:
652:
651:
645:
640:
635:
629:
615:
602:
591:
590:
589:
588:
583:
581:Tropical sprue
578:
573:
546:
533:
527:
512:
509:
508:
507:
496:
474:
453:
445:
435:
428:
425:
370:
367:
325:
322:
306:disaccharidase
267:
264:
262:
259:
143:food nutrients
130:
129:
126:
122:
121:
95:
91:
90:
73:
67:
66:
63:
57:
56:
38:
37:
29:
28:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3452:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3425:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3394:
3391:
3390:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3383:
3381:
3377:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3274:Diaphragmatic
3272:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3263:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3188:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3169:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3151:
3148:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3121:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3079:Cholecystitis
3077:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3068:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3022:Liver abscess
3020:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3005:Liver failure
3003:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2960:
2957:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2905:
2897:
2894:
2893:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2761:
2758:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2749:
2746:
2742:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2682:
2681:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2668:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2662:Enterocolitis
2660:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2489:Malabsorption
2487:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2475:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:Gastroparesis
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2340:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2330:Cushing ulcer
2328:
2327:
2326:
2323:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2275:Megaesophagus
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2145:
2140:
2138:
2133:
2131:
2126:
2125:
2122:
2109:
2105:
2104:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2081:
2074:
2070:
2069:
2065:
2063:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2022:
2019:
2014:
2010:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1944:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1927:(2): 264â71.
1926:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1827:
1825:88-85037-75-5
1821:
1817:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1760:
1752:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1703:
1695:
1693:0-443-01007-2
1689:
1685:
1678:
1664:on 2007-05-22
1663:
1659:
1655:health a to z
1652:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1621:(5): 530â46.
1620:
1616:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1546:. MedlinePlus
1545:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1526:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1480:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1435:feeding tubes
1432:
1428:
1424:
1423:
1422:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1378:
1375:to determine
1374:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1341:
1340:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1302:aspirate and
1301:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1230:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1198:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1155:
1152:Stool studies
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1111:micronutrient
1108:
1104:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1064:
1055:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:, as seen in
1031:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1018:
1015:
1003:insufficiency
1002:
999:
996:
992:
990:
986:
984:
980:
977:
973:
970:
967:
966:
965:
963:
959:
957:
952:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
877:
876:
875:
872:
871:
865:
863:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
845:
842:
835:
831:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
799:
798:
796:
793:Due to other
791:
790:
785:
782:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
764:
762:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
741:
740:
736:
735:
734:
731:
730:
725:
722:
719:
716:
713:
709:
708:
707:
704:
703:
697:
695:
692:
689:
687:
684:
683:
682:
679:
678:
673:
669:
666:
664:
661:
660:
659:
656:
655:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
630:
628:
624:
620:
616:
614:
610:
606:
603:
601:
598:
597:
596:
593:
592:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
571:
567:
564:
560:
556:
552:
544:
540:
537:
534:
532:
528:
525:
522:
521:
520:
517:
516:
506:deficiencies.
505:
501:
497:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
449:
446:
444:
441:from loss of
440:
436:
433:
429:
426:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
388:
387:
386:
384:
375:
366:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
345:, folate, or
344:
340:
336:
332:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
302:
298:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
258:
256:
252:
248:
247:malabsorption
244:
240:
239:malabsorption
235:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
135:Malabsorption
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
96:
92:
89:
85:
81:
77:
74:
72:
71:Complications
68:
64:
62:
58:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
30:
27:Malabsorption
25:
19:
3352:
3331:
3208:Pancreatitis
3170:
3120:biliary tree
2993:Nutmeg liver
2970:
2896:Hematochezia
2847:Pruritus ani
2832:Anal abscess
2827:Anal fistula
2823:Anal fissure
2736:Constipation
2690:
2561:Appendicitis
2488:
2369:Gastroptosis
2359:Achlorhydria
2198:
2187:Eosinophilic
2101:
2090:
2066:
2055:
2040:
2024:
1966:
1924:
1920:
1910:
1888:(5): 531â6.
1885:
1881:
1875:
1848:
1844:
1834:
1815:
1808:
1773:
1769:
1759:
1716:
1712:
1702:
1683:
1677:
1666:. Retrieved
1662:the original
1651:
1618:
1614:
1570:
1566:
1560:
1548:. Retrieved
1427:electrolytes
1420:
1204:Barium enema
1180:Chymotrypsin
1169:steatorrhoea
1167:to diagnose
1100:osteomalacia
1088:macrocytosis
1049:
1039:
1029:
1024:
1011:
960:
953:
944:
936:
925:electrolytes
909:carbohydrate
890:
873:
866:Malnutrition
792:
732:
705:
680:
657:
594:
569:
562:
554:
538:
531:tuberculosis
518:
494:osteoporosis
490:osteomalacia
437:Swelling or
417:
398:carbohydrate
394:steatorrhoea
380:
369:Presentation
349:absorption.
327:
286:, abdominal
282:, abdominal
269:
246:
238:
236:
159:
151:malnutrition
134:
133:
84:steatorrhoea
76:Malnutrition
18:
3388:Peritonitis
3150:Cholestasis
3128:Cholangitis
3071:Gallbladder
2959:Fatty liver
2879:Hematemesis
2861:GI bleeding
2667:Necrotizing
2596:Lymphocytic
2591:Collagenous
2586:Microscopic
2523:Steatorrhea
2424:Enteropathy
2270:Inlet patch
2192:Herpetiform
2177:Esophagitis
2092:MedlinePlus
1452:Pancreatic
1443:jejunostomy
1412:deficiency.
1324:Colonoscopy
1296:Enteroscopy
1258:hyperplasia
1246:small bowel
1125:deficiency.
1070:may reveal
1068:blood tests
1061:Blood tests
995:enteropathy
974:Defects of
903:nutrients (
668:Gastrectomy
619:amyloidosis
609:diverticula
600:Blind loops
529:Intestinal
434:in children
402:electrolyte
359:steatorrhea
347:vitamin B12
292:steatorrhea
276:weight loss
145:across the
54:macrophages
3424:Categories
3380:Peritoneal
3358:Incisional
3279:Congenital
3223:Hereditary
3200:Pancreatic
3164:Haemobilia
2837:Hemorrhoid
2815:Anal canal
2753:Infectious
2741:Functional
2576:Ulcerative
2460:Duodenitis
2399:Gastrinoma
2068:DiseasesDB
1847:(Review).
1668:2007-05-10
1521:References
1479:Antibiotic
1431:dietitians
1417:Management
1310:overgrowth
1272:to detect
1262:lymphocyte
1244:Biopsy of
1092:folic acid
1001:Pancreatic
983:hydrolysis
969:Congenital
962:Intestinal
737:Bile acid/
613:strictures
551:giardiasis
502:and other
459:folic acid
414:flatulence
406:fatty acid
383:intestinal
339:macrocytic
335:osteopenia
301:bile acids
280:flatulence
199:pancreatic
191:intestinal
139:absorption
52:with many
3368:Richter's
3325:Spigelian
3320:Obturator
3310:Umbilical
3143:Ascending
3114:Bile duct
2947:Cirrhosis
2925:Hepatitis
2908:Accessory
2778:Proctitis
2629:Megacolon
2603:Dysentery
2513:Whipple's
2465:Jejunitis
2455:Enteritis
2342:Dyspepsia
2303:Gastritis
2236:Achalasia
2169:Esophagus
2103:eMedicine
1733:2042-0986
1615:Digestion
1491:or other
1400:bile salt
1396:Bile salt
1308:bacterial
1210:or ileal
1123:vitamin K
1107:vitamin D
1030:selective
1008:Diagnosis
987:Impaired
978:transport
956:digestion
933:enzymatic
929:Digestion
832:(lack of
566:roundworm
536:Parasites
500:vitamin K
482:vitamin D
452:vitamin B
390:Diarrhoea
167:potassium
125:Treatment
88:diarrhoea
61:Specialty
3440:Diarrhea
3298:Indirect
3293:Inguinal
3027:Pyogenic
2972:Vascular
2748:Diarrhea
2726:Volvulus
2692:Vascular
2631: /
2620: /
2581:Ischemic
2548:Appendix
2438:Duodenum
2308:Atrophic
2182:Candidal
2108:med/1384
1993:12801941
1867:28244672
1800:10373517
1792:12192177
1751:25083257
1643:46786949
1595:12239612
1587:10348832
1550:29 April
1504:See also
1390:D-xylose
1274:duodenal
1256:, crypt
1248:showing
1219:pancreas
1176:elastase
1066:Routine
1014:symptoms
917:vitamins
672:Vagotomy
623:lymphoma
605:Fistulae
559:hookworm
448:Anaemias
410:bloating
392:, often
284:bloating
272:Diarrhea
183:Salivary
179:vitamins
171:chloride
155:anaemias
3339:Petit's
3315:Femoral
3218:Chronic
3032:Amoebic
2800:Anismus
2566:Colitis
2493:Coeliac
2470:Ileitis
2442:Jejunum
2295:Stomach
2199:Rupture
2062:D008286
1984:1867765
1943:7350049
1902:1744388
1742:4110863
1635:9705537
1454:enzymes
1363:Lactose
1304:culture
1300:jejunal
1212:lesions
1208:colonic
1200:anatomy
1159:Giardia
1135:or IgA
1080:albumin
1078:or low
1074:, high
1072:anaemia
1040:partial
951:cells.
913:protein
486:calcium
476:Muscle
443:protein
432:puberty
351:Purpura
195:hepatic
187:gastric
175:calcium
80:anaemia
3333:Lumbar
3303:Direct
3286:Hiatus
3266:Hernia
3118:Other
2884:Melena
2770:Rectum
2253:(GERD)
2097:000299
1991:
1981:
1941:
1900:
1865:
1822:
1798:
1790:
1749:
1739:
1731:
1690:
1641:
1633:
1593:
1585:
1343:SeHCAT
1278:biopsy
1260:, and
901:absorb
897:digest
895:is to
568:, and
511:Causes
439:oedema
331:anemia
288:cramps
197:, and
163:sodium
94:Causes
50:villus
3258:Other
3213:Acute
2964:MASLD
2917:Liver
2891:Lower
2874:Upper
2716:Ileus
2552:Colon
2446:Ileum
2261:(LPR)
1796:S2CID
1639:S2CID
1591:S2CID
1280:(for
1254:villi
1113:like
1050:total
478:cramp
230:, or
46:eosin
2646:SCAD
2073:7698
2057:MeSH
2046:9-CM
1989:PMID
1939:PMID
1898:PMID
1863:PMID
1820:ISBN
1788:PMID
1747:PMID
1729:ISSN
1688:ISBN
1631:PMID
1583:PMID
1552:2018
1373:EDTA
1330:ERCP
1306:for
1229:ERCP
1139:for
1115:zinc
919:and
899:and
860:and
846:and
611:and
539:e.g.
492:and
461:and
418:e.g.
400:and
343:iron
333:and
2952:PBC
2679:IBD
2613:IBS
2051:579
2042:ICD
2035:K90
2033:: (
2026:ICD
1979:PMC
1971:doi
1967:Gut
1929:doi
1890:doi
1853:doi
1778:doi
1737:PMC
1721:doi
1623:doi
1575:doi
1571:116
1270:OGD
1130:IgA
1109:or
1096:B12
1094:or
1076:CRP
976:ion
905:fat
836:, B
557:),
524:HIV
420:in
312:or
216:HCO
141:of
3426::
3116:/
2714::
2695::
2491::
2106::
2095::
2071::
2060::
2049::
2030:10
1987:.
1977:.
1965:.
1951:^
1937:.
1925:78
1923:.
1919:.
1896:.
1886:13
1884:.
1861:.
1849:32
1843:.
1794:.
1786:.
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1772:.
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1745:.
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1637:.
1629:.
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1617:.
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1581:.
1569:.
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1147:).
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927:.
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907:,
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547:12
541:,
484:,
469:,
457:,
454:12
412:,
353:,
278:,
274:,
257:.
234:.
232:Mg
228:Ca
226:,
214:,
212:Cl
210:,
206:,
204:Na
193:,
189:,
185:,
177:,
173:,
169:,
165:,
157:.
116:;
112:;
108:;
104:;
100:;
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2554:)
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1945:.
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1780::
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