27:
254:
longer an issue. Salas demonstrated that this separation meant that a number of common tasks that required lengthy calculations on existing spreadsheets could be handled almost for free simply by changing the view. For instance, if a spreadsheet contained a list of monthly sales, it was not uncommon to have an output column that summed up the sales by month. But if one wanted that summed by year, this would normally require another formula column and a different output sheet.
1633:
274:. As they worked on the project, it became clear that the basic concept was a good one, and was especially useful for financial modeling. At the end of the spring, they hired Bonnie Sullivan to write up a project specification, and Jeff Anderholm was hired to examine the market for a new program aimed at the financials industry. That summer, the team took Modeler to a number of financials companies, and found an overwhelmingly positive reception.
250:
This insight led to ideas for a new spreadsheet that would cleanly separate these concepts — data, formulas, and output views that would combine data and formulas in a format suitable for the end user. At the same time, the new product would allow users to group data "by purpose", giving it a name instead of referring to it by its position in the sheet. This meant that moving the data on the sheet would have no effect on calculation.
1657:
1645:
177:, was a proponent of using spreadsheets for financial modeling and "what if" calculations for businesses, but noted that it could take so long to recalculate it to run a different scenario that the inputs would be out of date by the time the calculation was finished. In 1964 he proposed using a computer to run all of the calculations from the point of the change on, thereby updating the sheet in seconds, rather than days.
246:, a developer at ATG, decided to attack this problem. After a few months of studying existing real-world examples, it became clear that the data, views of that data, and the formulas that acted on that data were very separate concepts. Yet in every case, the existing spreadsheet programs required the user to type all of these items into the same (typically single) sheet's cells.
451:). Then that formula must be copied into all of the cells in column C, making sure to change the reference to A1 to a new reference for A2, etc. The sheet can automate this to some degree, but the real problem is that it simply has no idea what the formula means. Any changes to the layout of the spreadsheet will often make the entire sheet stop working properly.
439:
sheet was given a name, and could then be grouped into categories. Formulas were typed into a separate section, and referred to data through their range, not their physical position in the sheets. Views of the data, some of which looked like spreadsheets, others like charts, could be created dynamically and were not limited in number.
338:
allowed output sheets to be re-arranged in seconds. Jobs remained a supporter throughout, and constantly drove the team to improve the product in many ways. Blumberg remained on-call to help with technical issues, which became serious as NeXT was in the process of releasing NeXTSTEP 2.0, the first major update to the system.
337:
Returning for a visit in April 1989, Jobs took the team to task about their categorization system. He demanded a way to directly manipulate the categories and data on-screen, rather than using menus or separate windows. This led to one of Improv's most noted features, the category "tiles", icons that
383:
In spite of the positive reviews, sales on
Windows were slow. In March 1994, Lotus decided to attack this problem by re-positioning Improv as an add-in for 1-2-3, although the programs had nothing in common other than Improv's ability to read data in 1-2-3 files. This had no effect on the sales, and
442:
To illustrate the difference between Improv and other systems, consider the simple task of calculating the total sales for a product, given unit sales per month and unit prices. In a conventional spreadsheet the unit price would be typed into one set of cells, say the "A" column, and the sales into
438:
The core of what would become Improv was to separate the concepts of data, views of the data, and formulas into three portions. The spreadsheet itself would contain only input data. Instead of referring to the data as, in effect, "the data that happens to be in these cells", each set of data in the
249:
This overlap of functionality led to considerable confusion, because it's not obvious which cells hold what sort of data. Is this cell an input value that is used elsewhere? Is it an intermediate value used for a calculation? Perhaps it is an output value from a calculation? There's no way to know.
312:
computer. When he saw Back Bay he immediately got excited and started pressing for it to be developed on the NeXT platform. The Lotus team was equally excited about NeXT, but continued work on the OS/2 platform. This proved to be much more difficult than imagined; at the time, OS/2 was very buggy,
454:
In Improv, one simply enters the data into columns called "Unit Price" and "Unit Sales". A formula can then be created that says "Total Sales = Unit Price times Unit Sales". Then if "Total Sales" view is added to the workbook, the totals would automatically appear there, because the sheet "knows"
341:
Improv for NeXT was released in
February 1991, resulting in "truckloads" of flowers from Jobs. The program was an immediate hit, receiving praise and excellent reviews from major computer publications, and, unusually, mainstream business magazines as well. Earlier predictions that Improv might be
325:
After struggling with OS/2 for months, in
February 1989 they decided to move it to NeXT. When Jobs learned of the decision he sent an enormous bouquet of flowers to the team. More importantly, he also sent Bruce Blumberg, one of NeXT's software experts, to teach the Lotus team about NeXTSTEP. One
122:
Improv was an attempt to redefine the way a spreadsheet program should work, to make it easier to build new spreadsheets and to modify existing ones. Conventional spreadsheets used on-screen cells to store all data, formulas, and notes. Improv separated these concepts and used the cells only for
253:
Salas also noted that it was the views of output data that was often the weakest part of existing spreadsheets. Since the input, calculations and output were all mixed on a sheet, changing the layout could lead to serious problems if data moved. With the data and formulas separated, this was no
239:
Lotus set up an advanced technology group in 1986. One of their initial tasks was to see if they could simplify the task of setting up a spreadsheet. Completed spreadsheets were easy to use, but many users found it difficult to imagine what the sheet needed to look like in order to get started
458:
But the real power of Improv did not become clear until work had already started on the project. With the grouping system, one could collect monthly sales into groups like "1995" and "1996", and call the category "years". Then the unit prices could be grouped in terms of the product type, say
400:
platform could be explained by NeXTs limited marketshare, but the failure on the PC was another issue. Among the favored explanations are the fact that, unlike the release on NeXT, the
Windows version faced strong internal resistance from 1-2-3, and
405:
became an issue. Lotus' sales and marketing teams, well versed in selling 1-2-3, did not know how to sell Improv into the market, so they simply didn't, selling the well known and understood 1-2-3. Other explanations include the fact that
421:
Although Improv disappeared in the 1990s, the program is fondly recalled in the industry and continues to be mentioned in books on Excel. When Improv disappeared a number of clones of Improv quickly appeared. Notable among these was
734:
346:
proved true, and thousands of machines would eventually be sold into the financials market, initially just to run Improv. This gave NeXT a foothold in this market that lasted into the late 1990s, even after their purchase by
358:
After release on NeXT (a version known as "Black Marlin"), attempts were made to port to
Windows ("Blue Marlin") and Macintosh ("Red Marlin"). The APIs and programming language for NeXTSTEP were so different from
173:
uses. Users would enter data into rectangular areas on the sheets, known as cells, then apply formulas to the data to produce output values that were written down in other cells. A Berkeley professor,
123:
input and output data. Formulas, macros and other objects existed outside the cells, to simplify editing and reduce errors. Improv used named ranges for all formulas, as opposed to cell addresses.
539:
Garfinkel and Jelen appear to disagree on Salas' role in ATG. Garfinkel implies that he simply worked at ATG, while Jelen seems to imply he set it up. See
Garfinkel, p. 34 and Jelen, p. 28.
384:
after the release of the minor 2.1 upgrade, development ended in August 1994. The project was left in limbo until April 1996 when the product was officially killed, shortly after
459:"clothing" and "food". Now by dragging these groups around (represented by small tabs) the view could be quickly changed. This concept has later been implemented in the form of
396:
Improv's disappointing sales and eventual cancellation on the PC platform has been used as a case study in numerous post-failure analyses of the software market. Sales on the
240:
creating it. Should data be entered down columns, or across rows? Should intermediate values be stored within the sheet, or on a separate one? How much room will we need?
188:
marked up with a layout similar to the paper versions. Using a chalkboard made it easier to fix errors, and allowed the sheet to be shared with a class. In 1979,
920:
430:. After leaving Sun Microsystems, Peter Murray founded an ISP and then a B2B named GoFish followed by a third new company in 2001 with the name Quantrix.
277:
A year later, in
September 1988, the team was finally given the go-ahead to start implementing Modeler. After examining a number of platforms, including
115:
in 1993. Development was put on hiatus in 1994 after slow sales on the
Windows platform, and officially ended in April 1996 after Lotus was purchased by
859:
414:
bundle at marginal rates that were tiny in comparison, as well as several mis-steps during introduction, like the lack of a macro language or undo.
334:
let the team experiment with different UIs at a rate that was not possible on other platforms, and the system evolved rapidly during this period.
426:'s Quantrix, an almost direct clone aimed at the financial market. Quantrix suffered the same fate as Improv when the company was purchased by
374:(there was no 1.0) shipped in May 1993, running on Windows 3.1. Like the NeXT release, the Windows version also garnered critical praise, with
219:
VisiCalc was an enormous success, so much so that a huge number of clones appeared. One of these was written by a former VisiCalc programmer,
418:
blames it on the design itself, claiming it was too perfectly aimed at a specific market and lacked the generality that Excel featured.
227:, would go on to be an even greater success than VisiCalc, in no small part due to the fact that it ran on, and was tuned for, the new
1076:
1015:
231:. Lotus 1-2-3 shipped 60,000 copies in the first month, and Lotus was soon one of the largest software companies in the world.
1367:
326:
worrying problem turned out to be an enormous advantage in practice; as the back-end was written in C++ and the front-end in
138:. It was very influential within these special markets, and spawned a number of clones on different platforms, notably
1648:
921:"The tech startup | A conversation with Peter Murray, founder and chief technology officer of Portland-based Quantrix"
566:
1000:
500:
1687:
443:
another, say "B". The user would then type a formula into "C" that said "A1 times B1" (typically in a form such as
83:
1697:
1636:
1384:
472:
216:
saw the program, he wrote that "VisiCalc might be the software tail that wagged the computer industry dog."
1660:
1069:
856:
289:, at that time considered to be an up-and-coming system in the commercial space. The project was given the
1597:
512:
152:
combines a formula and naming system similar to Improv's, but running within a conventional spreadsheet.
165:
The original spreadsheets were pieces of paper with vertical and horizontal lines on them, a customized
1692:
1360:
826:
402:
1231:
1180:
1099:
330:, it turned out to be very easy to segregate the program and track down bugs. Additionally, NeXT's
1288:
1062:
491:, a multi-dimensional spreadsheet/modeling program which may have influenced the design of Improv
876:
1464:
1353:
1140:
894:
843:
796:
763:
746:
693:
677:
509:
267:
228:
192:
was using such a device when he decided to attempt to computerize it on the newly introduced
149:
26:
1644:
1432:
1216:
1187:
880:
314:
978:
8:
1150:
1024:
1666:
1562:
1324:
1293:
1236:
343:
174:
135:
1410:
1283:
1258:
996:
962:
764:"Improv for Windows 2.0; Viewing, pruning, structuring options make it truly dynamic"
678:"Lotus Improv Spreadsheet for The Next System Offers Some Unique, Helpful Advantages"
423:
360:
331:
209:
193:
139:
104:
42:
31:
Lotus Improv running on NeXTSTEP showing Improv's interface to multidimensional data
1405:
1400:
1278:
1160:
1145:
1123:
1011:
813:
488:
482:
427:
411:
294:
67:
1587:
1547:
1489:
1469:
1456:
1392:
1314:
1241:
1175:
1155:
1049:
990:
863:
779:
709:
407:
376:
367:
181:
131:
1557:
1525:
1512:
1273:
1195:
1085:
497:, a multi-dimensional business modelling and analytics software based on Improv
364:
282:
213:
1681:
1440:
1309:
1226:
1170:
1103:
735:"NEXTSTEP on HP Workstations and Servers Targets Financial Services Industry"
476:
197:
992:
The
Spreadsheet at 25, The Evolution of the Invention that Changed the World
485:
further separated data and formulas, representing both graphically on-screen
270:. In February 1987 he hired Glenn Edelson to implement a working version in
126:
Although not a commercial success in comparison to mainstream products like
1248:
898:
415:
189:
1602:
1572:
1542:
1507:
1479:
1376:
1221:
516:
460:
327:
224:
220:
127:
112:
100:
88:
76:
1520:
1502:
1497:
1446:
1268:
348:
305:
243:
185:
170:
145:
37:
1607:
1592:
1582:
1535:
1474:
1165:
479:
program that introduced the idea of named formulas and blocks in 1987
290:
263:
166:
134:, Improv found a strong following in certain niche markets, notably
1617:
1552:
1422:
1417:
1334:
504:
205:
201:
108:
72:
1612:
1319:
1253:
1054:
520:
938:
1567:
1345:
298:
1530:
1329:
1200:
271:
317:
UI was in its infancy. Development was not proceeding well.
857:"Moose's Greatest Products of All Time : Lotus Improv"
397:
309:
286:
1117:
648:
646:
644:
631:
629:
627:
625:
623:
621:
619:
385:
278:
116:
494:
266:-like demonstration of a system known as Modeler on the
180:
Teaching the use of spreadsheet modelling was common in
658:
641:
616:
262:
By the end of the summer of 1986, Salas had created a
606:
604:
1023:(Technical report). EUSES Consortium. Archived from
1009:
944:
601:
589:
577:
301:, and a mascot, namd Fluffy Bunny, was selected.
1679:
380:magazine noting its "usability is outstanding".
285:, the team decided the target platform would be
895:"Sun's 'MacOS X' suite to remain in Sun morgue"
558:
1361:
1070:
797:"Lotus' Improv to get new role, lower price"
724:MacUser referred to it this way in 1991, see
1656:
1368:
1354:
1077:
1063:
25:
960:
664:
652:
635:
200:, the two created the first spreadsheet,
892:
893:Orlowski, Andrew (September 22, 2003).
786:, 1993, from "Software reviews on file"
564:
1680:
1349:
1058:
988:
918:
610:
595:
583:
747:"New Dimensions in Number Crunching"
573:. No. Premier. pp. 59–64.
308:visited Lotus to show them the new
13:
1084:
353:
293:"Back Bay", which was named after
14:
1709:
1043:
1014:; Erwig, Martin (16 March 2009).
945:Abraham, Burnett & Erwig 2009
455:that is what the formula is for.
410:was being offered as part of the
370:that porting was very difficult.
304:The next month, in October 1988,
1655:
1643:
1632:
1631:
1375:
919:Gurau, Michael (June 16, 2008).
961:Garfinkel, Simson (Fall 1991).
954:
912:
886:
869:
849:
836:
819:
806:
789:
773:
756:
740:
727:
718:
703:
687:
565:Webster, Bruce (January 1991).
391:
320:
670:
533:
1:
546:
372:Lotus Improv for Windows v2.0
160:
551:
7:
844:"The best software writing"
466:
433:
257:
54:; 33 years ago
10:
1714:
963:"Improv: The Inside Story"
204:, and released it for the
155:
1626:
1488:
1455:
1431:
1383:
1302:
1289:Lotus Symphony (original)
1209:
1133:
1092:
403:corporate immune response
107:released in 1991 for the
82:
66:
48:
36:
24:
989:Jelen, Bill (May 2005).
770:, 24 January 1994, p. 70
737:, NeXT Inc., 25 May 1993
684:, 15 October 1990, p. 86
526:
1688:Lotus Software software
1017:Spreadsheet Programming
977:(PDF version available
827:"Copyrights and wrongs"
877:"Power Excel and Word"
803:, 14 March 1994, p. 10
700:, December 1990, p. 88
234:
111:platform and then for
1210:Discontinued products
881:John Wiley & Sons
846:, Apress, 2005, p. 25
463:in several products.
1698:Spreadsheet software
1433:Proprietary freeware
1385:Free and open-source
1201:Lotus Sametime Unyte
1181:Lotus Notes Traveler
780:"Improv for Windows"
753:, August 1993, p. 42
315:Presentation Manager
816:, 21 September 2004
762:Christie Williams,
715:, Volume 122, p. 94
21:
16:Spreadsheet program
1667:Online spreadsheet
1563:IBM Lotus Symphony
1232:Freelance Graphics
1050:A review from 1993
862:2012-03-30 at the
855:Michael O'Malley,
833:, 18 February 1999
825:Simsom Garfinkel,
194:personal computers
175:Richard Mattessich
136:financial modeling
99:is a discontinued
19:
1693:NeXTSTEP software
1675:
1674:
1343:
1342:
1325:Approach Software
1284:Lotus Marketplace
1259:Lotus Foundations
1141:Lotus Connections
1012:Burnett, Margaret
866:, 4 February 2002
424:Lighthouse Design
388:purchased Lotus.
332:Interface Builder
140:Lighthouse Design
105:Lotus Development
94:
93:
43:Lotus Development
1705:
1659:
1658:
1647:
1635:
1634:
1401:Collabora Online
1370:
1363:
1356:
1347:
1346:
1279:Lotus Manuscript
1217:Lotus SmartSuite
1134:Current products
1124:HCL Technologies
1079:
1072:
1065:
1056:
1055:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1029:
1022:
1010:Abraham, Robin;
1006:
970:
948:
942:
936:
935:
933:
931:
916:
910:
909:
907:
905:
890:
884:
873:
867:
853:
847:
840:
834:
831:The Boston Globe
823:
817:
810:
804:
793:
787:
777:
771:
760:
754:
744:
738:
731:
725:
722:
716:
707:
701:
691:
685:
676:Michael Miller,
674:
668:
662:
656:
650:
639:
633:
614:
608:
599:
593:
587:
581:
575:
574:
562:
540:
537:
483:Spreadsheet 2000
450:
446:
445:@times(A:1, B:1)
428:Sun Microsystems
182:business schools
68:Operating system
62:
60:
55:
29:
22:
18:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1707:
1706:
1704:
1703:
1702:
1678:
1677:
1676:
1671:
1622:
1588:Microsoft Works
1548:Gobe Productive
1484:
1470:Microsoft Excel
1451:
1447:WPS Spreadsheet
1427:
1393:Calligra Sheets
1379:
1374:
1344:
1339:
1315:Iris Associates
1298:
1205:
1151:Lotus Expeditor
1129:
1088:
1083:
1046:
1033:
1031:
1030:on 26 July 2011
1027:
1020:
1003:
995:. Holy Macro!.
957:
952:
951:
943:
939:
929:
927:
917:
913:
903:
901:
891:
887:
874:
870:
864:Wayback Machine
854:
850:
841:
837:
824:
820:
811:
807:
794:
790:
778:
774:
761:
757:
751:Popular Science
745:
741:
733:Karen Logsdon,
732:
728:
723:
719:
708:
704:
694:"Spreading Out"
692:
688:
675:
671:
663:
659:
651:
642:
634:
617:
609:
602:
594:
590:
582:
578:
563:
559:
554:
549:
544:
543:
538:
534:
529:
469:
448:
444:
436:
408:Microsoft Excel
394:
368:system software
356:
354:Windows release
323:
260:
237:
223:. His version,
163:
158:
132:Microsoft Excel
58:
56:
53:
49:Initial release
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1711:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1652:
1640:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1558:Informix Wingz
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1526:OpenOffice.org
1523:
1515:
1513:Claris Resolve
1510:
1505:
1500:
1494:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1483:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1461:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1444:
1437:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1395:
1389:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1373:
1372:
1365:
1358:
1350:
1341:
1340:
1338:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1306:
1304:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1294:Lotus Symphony
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1274:Lotus Magellan
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1245:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1213:
1211:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1203:
1198:
1196:Lotus Sametime
1193:
1192:
1191:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1121:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1097:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1086:Lotus Software
1082:
1081:
1074:
1067:
1059:
1053:
1052:
1045:
1044:External links
1042:
1041:
1040:
1007:
1001:
985:
984:
983:
982:
972:
971:
956:
953:
950:
949:
937:
911:
885:
883:, 2004, p. 227
868:
848:
842:Joel Spolsky,
835:
818:
814:"Lotus Improv"
805:
788:
772:
755:
739:
726:
717:
702:
686:
669:
665:Garfinkel 1991
657:
653:Garfinkel 1991
640:
636:Garfinkel 1991
615:
600:
588:
576:
567:"Key Software"
556:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
542:
541:
531:
530:
528:
525:
524:
523:
507:
498:
492:
486:
480:
468:
465:
435:
432:
393:
390:
355:
352:
322:
319:
259:
256:
236:
233:
214:Morgan Stanley
208:in 1979. When
184:, often using
162:
159:
157:
154:
142:'s Quantrix.
92:
91:
86:
80:
79:
70:
64:
63:
50:
46:
45:
40:
34:
33:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1710:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1662:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1641:
1639:
1638:
1629:
1628:
1625:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1465:Apple Numbers
1463:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1441:Google Sheets
1439:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1366:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1352:
1351:
1348:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1310:Software Arts
1308:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1254:Lotus cc:Mail
1252:
1250:
1247:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1171:Lotus Mashups
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1104:Massachusetts
1101:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1091:
1087:
1080:
1075:
1073:
1068:
1066:
1061:
1060:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1026:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1004:
1002:9781932802047
998:
994:
993:
987:
986:
980:
976:
975:
974:
973:
968:
964:
959:
958:
946:
941:
926:
922:
915:
900:
896:
889:
882:
878:
872:
865:
861:
858:
852:
845:
839:
832:
828:
822:
815:
812:Bob Congdon,
809:
802:
798:
795:Doug Barney,
792:
785:
781:
776:
769:
765:
759:
752:
748:
743:
736:
730:
721:
714:
710:
706:
699:
695:
690:
683:
679:
673:
667:, p. 79.
666:
661:
655:, p. 35.
654:
649:
647:
645:
638:, p. 34.
637:
632:
630:
628:
626:
624:
622:
620:
613:, p. 16.
612:
607:
605:
598:, p. 12.
597:
592:
585:
580:
572:
568:
561:
557:
536:
532:
522:
518:
514:
513:(source code)
511:
508:
506:
502:
499:
496:
493:
490:
487:
484:
481:
478:
477:classic MacOS
474:
471:
470:
464:
462:
456:
452:
440:
431:
429:
425:
419:
417:
413:
409:
404:
399:
389:
387:
381:
379:
378:
373:
369:
366:
362:
351:
350:
345:
339:
335:
333:
329:
318:
316:
311:
307:
302:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
275:
273:
269:
265:
255:
251:
247:
245:
241:
232:
230:
226:
222:
217:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
198:Bob Frankston
195:
191:
187:
183:
178:
176:
172:
169:intended for
168:
153:
151:
147:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
124:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
103:program from
102:
98:
90:
87:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71:
69:
65:
51:
47:
44:
41:
39:
35:
28:
23:
1654:
1642:
1630:
1578:Lotus Improv
1577:
1490:Discontinued
1377:Spreadsheets
1303:Acquisitions
1264:Lotus Improv
1263:
1249:Lotus Agenda
1185:
1161:Lotus iNotes
1146:Lotus Domino
1120:(until 2019)
1096:Headquarters
1032:. Retrieved
1025:the original
1016:
991:
969:: 33–35, 79.
966:
955:Bibliography
947:, p. 4.
940:
930:February 10,
928:. Retrieved
924:
914:
904:February 10,
902:. Retrieved
899:The Register
888:
875:Dan Gookin,
871:
851:
838:
830:
821:
808:
800:
791:
783:
775:
767:
758:
750:
742:
729:
720:
712:
705:
697:
689:
681:
672:
660:
591:
586:, p. 6.
579:
570:
560:
535:
461:pivot tables
457:
453:
441:
437:
420:
416:Joel Spolsky
395:
392:After Improv
382:
375:
371:
357:
340:
336:
324:
321:NeXT release
303:
283:Macintosh OS
276:
261:
252:
248:
242:
238:
218:
196:. Joined by
190:Dan Bricklin
179:
164:
144:
125:
121:
97:Lotus Improv
96:
95:
38:Developer(s)
20:Lotus Improv
1573:Lotus 1-2-3
1543:Full Impact
1508:Boeing Calc
1480:Quattro Pro
1406:LibreOffice
1176:Lotus Notes
1156:Lotus Forms
1126:(from 2019)
517:open source
328:Objective-C
225:Lotus 1-2-3
221:Mitch Kapor
186:chalkboards
128:Lotus 1-2-3
113:Windows 3.1
101:spreadsheet
89:spreadsheet
77:Windows 3.1
1682:Categories
1649:Comparison
1521:StarOffice
1503:As-Easy-As
1498:AppleWorks
1411:OpenOffice
1269:Lotus Jazz
1188:QuickPlace
611:Jelen 2005
596:Jelen 2005
584:Jelen 2005
547:References
519:clone for
510:Flexisheet
501:FlexiSheet
349:Apple Inc.
344:killer app
313:and their
306:Steve Jobs
244:Pito Salas
171:accounting
161:Background
146:Apple Inc.
1608:SuperCalc
1593:Multiplan
1583:Lucid 3-D
1536:NeoOffice
1475:PlanMaker
1242:Organizer
1186:formerly
1166:LotusLive
1100:Cambridge
1034:1 October
967:Nextworld
801:InfoWorld
768:InfoWorld
682:InfoWorld
571:NeXTWorld
552:Citations
365:Macintosh
291:code name
264:slideshow
210:Ben Rosen
167:worksheet
1637:Category
1618:VisiCalc
1553:GNU Oleo
1443:(online)
1423:Pyspread
1418:Gnumeric
1335:Outblaze
1237:Approach
925:Mainebiz
860:Archived
713:Newsweek
505:Mac OS X
495:Quantrix
467:See also
434:Concepts
295:Back Bay
281:and the
258:Back Bay
206:Apple II
202:VisiCalc
109:NeXTSTEP
73:NeXTSTEP
1613:T/Maker
1320:cc:Mail
1227:WordPro
1108:Founded
521:GNUstep
489:Javelin
473:Trapeze
361:Windows
342:NeXT's
156:History
150:Numbers
57: (
1568:KCells
1457:Retail
1114:Parent
999:
449:=A1*B1
412:Office
299:Boston
268:IBM PC
229:IBM PC
1531:Go-oo
1517:Calc
1397:Calc
1330:Samna
1222:1-2-3
1028:(PDF)
1021:(PDF)
527:Notes
1661:List
1603:Siag
1111:1982
1036:2012
997:ISBN
979:here
932:2022
906:2022
784:Byte
503:for
475:, a
398:NeXT
377:Byte
363:and
310:NeXT
287:OS/2
84:Type
59:1991
52:1991
1118:IBM
698:CIO
515:an
447:or
386:IBM
297:in
279:DOS
272:C++
235:ATG
212:of
148:'s
130:or
117:IBM
1684::
1598:sc
1102:,
965:.
923:.
897:.
879:,
829:,
799:,
782:,
766:,
749:,
711:,
696:,
680:,
643:^
618:^
603:^
569:.
119:.
75:,
1369:e
1362:t
1355:v
1078:e
1071:t
1064:v
1038:.
1005:.
981:)
934:.
908:.
61:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
