215:
grid frequency. When grid frequency is above normal, e.g. Indian grid frequency is exceeding the rated 50 Hz for most of the duration in a month/day, the extra power available can be consumed by adding extra load, say agriculture water pumps, to the grid and this new energy draw is available at nominal price or no price. However, there may not be a guarantee of continued supply at that price when the grid frequency falls below normal, which would then call for a higher price.
566:
power being generated is fed or surplus grid power is drawn, in case cheaply available, to the battery units for energy storage. The grid frequency keeps on fluctuating 50 to 100 times in a day above and below the rated value depending on the type of load encountered and the type of generating plants in the electrical grid. Recently, the cost of battery units, solar power plants, etc. have come down drastically to utilise secondary power for power grid stabilization as an on line
1727:
2306:
247:
233:) with large hydro, base load thermal generation and intermittent wind power. Hydro is load following and managing the peaks, with some response from base load thermal. Note that total generation is always greater than the total BPA load because most of the time BPA is a net exporter of energy. The BPA load does not include scheduled energy to other balancing authority areas.
465:) to modify power levels. For PWRs not explicitly designed with load following in mind, load following operation isn't quite as common as it is with BWRs. Modern PWRs are generally designed to handle extensive regular load following, and both French and German PWRs in particular have historically been designed with varying degrees of enhanced load following capabilities.
224:
434:(BWRs) can vary the speed of recirculation water flow to quickly reduce their power level down to 60% of rated power (up to 10%/minute), making them useful for overnight load-following. They can also use control rod manipulation to achieve deeper reductions in power. A few BWR designs do not have recirculation pumps, and these designs must rely solely on
721:"Transmission and distribution upgrade deferral. When load forecasts indicate transmission or distribution nodes will exceed their rated load carrying capacity, incremental investments in energy storage can be used to effectively increase the node’s capacity and avoid large, overbuilt, expensive upgrades to the nodes themselves."
411:
follow a variable load program with one or two large power changes per day. Some designs allow for rapid changes of power level around rated power, a capability that is usable for frequency regulation. A more efficient solution is to maintain the primary circuit at full power and to use the excess power for cogeneration.
219:
generate power up to full load in case the grid frequency is below 50 Hz. Thus a utility can draw two or more times energy from the grid by loading the hydro units less than 50% of the duration and the effective use of available water is enhanced more than twice the conventional peak load operation.
115:, demand peaks around the middle of the afternoon, so a typical peaking power plant may start up a couple of hours before this point and shut down a couple of hours after. The duration of operation for peaking plants varies from a good portion of the waking day to only a couple of dozen hours per year.
214:
When electrical generation supplying the grid and the consumption or load on the electrical grid are in balance, the frequency of the alternating current is at its normal rate (either 50 or 60 hertz). Hydroelectric power plants can be utilized for making extra revenue in an electric grid with erratic
206:
or associated reservoirs exist, these can often be backed up, reserving the hydro draw for a peak time. This introduces ecological and mechanical stress, so is practiced less today than previously. Lakes and man-made reservoirs used for hydropower come in all sizes, holding enough water for as little
134:
By way of contrast, load-following power plants usually run during the day and early evening, and are operated in direct response to changing demand for power supply. They either shut down or greatly curtail output during the night and early morning, when the demand for electricity is the lowest. The
582:
The decentralized and intermittent nature of solar and wind generation entails building signalling networks across vast areas. These include large consumers with discretionary uses, and increasingly include much smaller users. Collectively, these signalling and communication technologies are called
565:
batteries, cost $ 209 per kWh on average in the United States. When the grid frequency is below the desired or rated value, the power being generated, if any, and the stored battery power is fed to the grid to raise the grid frequency. When the grid frequency is above the desired or rated value, the
146:
in that region, especially how much base load generating capacity it has, and the variation in demand are also very important. An additional factor for operational variability is that demand does not vary just between night and day. There are significant variations in the time of year and day of the
515:
Hydrogen based fuel cell power plants are perfect load-following power plants like emergency DG sets or battery storage systems. They can be run from zero to full load within few minutes. As the transportation of hydrogen to the far away industrial consumers is costly, the surplus hydrogen produced
218:
To arrest the fall of frequency below normal, the available hydro power plants are kept in no load/nominal load operation and the load is automatically ramped up or down strictly following the grid frequency, i.e. the hydro units would run at no load condition when frequency is above 50 Hz and
410:
Modern nuclear plants with light water reactors are designed to have maneuvering capabilities in the 30-100% range with 5%/minute slope, up to 140 MW/minute. Nuclear power plants in France operate in load-following mode and so participate in the primary and secondary frequency control. Some units
406:
Historically, nuclear power plants were built as baseload plants, without load following capability to keep the design simple. Their startup or shutdown took many hours as they were designed to operate at maximum power, and heating up steam generators to the desired temperature took time. Nuclear
477:
These reactors have the capability to regularly vary their output between 30–100% of rated power, to maneuver power up or down by 2–5%/minute during load following activities, and to participate in primary and secondary frequency control at ±2–3% (primary frequency control) and ±3–5% (secondary
716:
RMI claimed "batteries can provide these services more reliably and at a lower cost than the technology that currently provides a majority of them thermal power plants (see above re coal and gas)", and also that "storage systems installed behind the customer meter can be dispatched to provide
650:
over dedicated power plants. Such stationary arrays act as a true load-following power plant, and their deployment can "improve the affordability of purchasing such vehicles...Batteries that reach the end of their useful lifespan within the automotive industry can still be considered for other
183:
Diesel and gas engine power plants can be used for base load to stand-by power production due to their high overall flexibility. Such power plants can be started rapidly to meet the grid demands. These engines can be operated efficiently on a wide variety of fuels, adding to their flexibility.
422:
as such for purely economic reasons: nuclear power generation is composed almost entirely of fixed and sunk costs so lowering the power output doesn't significantly reduce generating costs, so it is more effective to run them at full power most of the time. In countries where the baseload was
210:
A plant with a reservoir that holds less than the annual river flow may change its operating style depending on the season of the year. For example, the plant may operate as a peaking plant during the dry season, as a base load plant during the wet season and as a load-following plant between
198:
power plants can operate as base load, load following or peaking power plants. They have the ability to start within minutes, and in some cases seconds. How the plant operates depends heavily on its water supply, as many plants do not have enough water to operate near their full capacity on a
490:
is a CANDU pressurized heavy water reactor that regularly utilizes its ability to partially bypass steam to the condenser for extended periods of time while the turbine is operating to provide 300 MW per unit (2400 MW total for the eight-unit plant) of flexible (load following) operation
625:
battery integration into the grid was beginning. Wellinghof referred (ibid) to "these cars now getting paid in
Delaware: $ 7 to $ 10 a day per car. They are getting paid over $ 3,000 a year to use these cars to simply control regulation service on the grid when they are charged".
573:
New studies have also evaluated both wind and solar plants to follow fast load changes. A study by
Gevorgian et al has shown the ability of solar plants to provide load following and fast reserves in both island power systems like Puerto Rico and large power systems in California.
126:, allowing greater flexibility in choice of operation- for example, while most gas turbine plants primarily burn natural gas, a supply of fuel oil and/or diesel is sometimes kept on hand in case the gas supply is interrupted. Other gas turbines can only burn a single fuel.
551:
to rapidly respond to changes in this supply, there may be a need for dedicated peaking or load-following power plants and the use of a grid intertie, at least until the peak blunting and load shifting mechanisms are implemented widely enough to match supply.
502:
plants with thermal storage are emerging as an option for load-following power plants. They can cater the load demand and work as base load power plants when the extracted solar energy is found excess in a day. Proper mix of solar thermal storage and
223:
135:
exact hours of operation depend on numerous factors. One of the most important factors for a particular plant is how efficiently it can convert fuel into electricity. The most efficient plants, which are almost invariably the least costly to run per
614:"turning off the defrost cycle on the refrigerator at a given time...the grid could signal...As long as that refrigerator got defrosted at the end of the day, you, as a consumer, wouldn't care but ultimately the grid could operate more efficiently."
468:
France in particular has a long history of utilizing aggressive load following with their PWRs, which are capable of, and used for, both primary and secondary frequency control, in addition to load following. French PWRs use so called "grey"
478:
frequency control, ≥5% for N4 reactors in Mode X). Depending on the exact design and operating mode, their ability to handle low power operation or fast ramping may be partially limited during the very late stages of the fuel cycle.
473:
which have lower neutron absorption capability and are used for fine-tuning reactor power, as opposed to "black" control rods in order to maneuver power more rapidly than chemical shim control or conventional control rods allow.
147:
week. A region that has large variations in demand will require a large load following or peaking power plant capacity because base load power plants can only cover the capacity equal to that needed during times of lowest demand.
166:
Gas turbine power plants are the most flexible in terms of adjusting power level, but are also among the most expensive to operate. Therefore, they are generally used as "peaking" units at times of maximum power demand or
670:, because the high load (one Japanese estimate was over 7 GW for half the cars in Kanto) simply cannot be managed on an analog grid, lest "The uncoordinated charging can result in creation of a new peak-load" (ibid).
654:
Such batteries are often repurposed in home arrays which primarily serve as backup, so can participate much more readily in grid stabilizing. The number of such batteries doing nothing is increasing rapidly, e.g. in
534:
The variable power from renewable energy such as solar and wind power plants can be used to follow the load or stabilize the grid frequency with the help of various means of storage. For countries that are trending
73:
plants that tend to operate at maximum output. They generally shut down or reduce power only to perform maintenance or repair or due to grid constraints. Power plants operated mostly in this way include
683:
in 2015 listed the applications of such distributed networks of batteries as (for "ISOs / RTOs") including "energy storage can bid into wholesale electricity markets" or for utility services including:
491:
capabilities. Reactor power is maintained at the same level during steam bypass operations, which completely avoids xenon poisoning and other concerns associated with maneuvering reactor power output.
516:
as byproduct from various chemical plants are used for power generation by the fuel cell power plants. Also they do not cause air and water pollution. In fact they clean the ambient air by extracting
383:
The needed warm and hot start up of these power stations are designed to take lesser time to achieve full load operation. Thus these power plants are not strictly base load power generation units.
158:, although heavy fuel oil plants make up a very small portion of the energy mix. A relatively efficient model of gas turbine that runs on natural gas can also make a decent load-following plant.
1301:
728:
relief. At certain times of the day, ISOs charge utilities to use congested transmission lines. Discharging energy storage systems located downstream of congested lines can avoid these charges."
617:"...if you didn't do that with the refrigerator you would have do that with the coal plant or combustion turbine running up and down, and doing that makes that unit run much more inefficiently."
407:
power generation has been also portrayed as inflexible by anti-nuclear activists and the German
Federal Environment Ministry, while others claimed "that the plants might clog the power grid".
358:
Sliding pressure operation of the steam generator allows the power plant to generate electricity without much deterioration in fuel efficiency at part load operation down to 75% of the
677:, merely a software change and in some cases a payment for the inconvenience of less than complete charging or for battery wear (e.g. "$ 7 to $ 10 a day per car" paid in Delaware).
486:
Modern CANDU designs have extensive steam bypass capabilities that allow for a different method of load following that does not necessarily involve changes in reactor power output.
587:". When these technologies reach into most grid-connected devices the term Energy Internet is sometimes used, though this is more commonly considered to be an aspect of the
826:
1276:
211:
seasons. A plant with a large reservoir may operate independently of wet and dry seasons, such as operating at maximum capacity during peak heating or cooling seasons.
1079:
735:. Instead of using or investing in combustion turbines to meet peak generation requirements, utilities can call upon other assets like energy storage instead."
850:
700:
710:
175:
power plants where turbine exhaust waste heat can be economically used to generate additional power and thermal energy for process or space heating.
1534:
423:
predominantly nuclear (e.g. France) the load-following mode became economical due to overall electricity demand fluctuating throughout the day.
1578:
958:
929:"Bonneville Power Administration, BPA Balancing Authority Load and Total Wind, Hydro, Fossil/Biomass, and Nuclear Generation, Near-Real-Time"
2251:
882:
311:
264:
666:
Home and vehicle batteries are always and necessarily charged responsively when supply is available, meaning they all participate in a
283:
17:
1253:
343:
Large size coal fired thermal power plants can also be used as load following / variable load power stations to varying extents, with
290:
1409:
1211:
673:
Given the charging must be managed, there is no incremental cost to delay charging or discharge these batteries as required for
351:
fueled coal plants. Some of the features which may be found in coal plants that have been optimized for load following include:
1232:
442:
where half of the local utility's fleet is BWRs, it is common to load-follow (although potentially less economic to do so).
297:
2309:
1726:
2148:
646:
arrays as an end-of-life re-use once they no longer hold enough charge for road use, has become the preferred method of
2256:
1571:
279:
154:
power plants, combined cycle gas turbine power plants and steam turbine power plants that run on natural gas or heavy
2330:
1876:
805:
755:
330:
91:
207:
as a one-day supply (a diurnal peak variance), or as much as a year's supply, allowing for seasonal peak variance.
487:
2039:
1964:
1835:
1490:"Secondary Re-Use of Batteries From Electric Vehicles for Building Integrated Photo-Voltaic (BIP V) applications"
1160:
857:
230:
187:
Some applications are: base load power generation, wind-diesel, load following, cogeneration and trigeneration.
1511:
1395:
368:
The power plants are generally designed to run at 5 to 7% above the name plate rating for 5% duration in a year
268:
2211:
2143:
2133:
2009:
1909:
1564:
1489:
750:
2064:
2024:
1601:
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signalling over dedicated load-following power plants, describing following as inherently inefficient. In
2291:
2286:
2004:
1979:
1969:
1945:
1940:
1646:
304:
2206:
1924:
1894:
540:
462:
2261:
1750:
1711:
1161:"Wind and the Electrical Grid: Mitigating the Rise in Electricity Rates and Greenhouse Gas Emissions"
529:
450:
142:
As demand increases, the next most efficient plants are brought on line and so on. The status of the
928:
914:
2236:
2044:
1984:
1641:
1109:
680:
499:
536:
2175:
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771:
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992:
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1959:
1742:
1631:
889:
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548:
2231:
1999:
1994:
1974:
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431:
122:
power plants. Many gas turbine power plants can be fueled with natural gas, fuel oil, and/or
66:
47:
1464:"Demonstration of Essential Reliability Services by a 300-MW Solar Photovoltaic Power Plant"
1085:(Report). Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada. August 2006. p. 16. IA06-002
1825:
1587:
1373:
688:
599:
558:
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in efficiency, speed of start-up and shut-down, construction cost, cost of electricity and
8:
2196:
2029:
1929:
1904:
1857:
1666:
1656:
1621:
1438:"Advanced Grid-Friendly Controls Demonstration Project for Utility-Scale PV Power Plants"
1035:
Locatelli, Giorgio; Boarin, Sara; Pellegrino, Francesco; Ricotti, Marco E. (2015-02-01).
991:
Locatelli, Giorgio; Boarin, Sara; Pellegrino, Francesco; Ricotti, Marco E. (2015-02-01).
766:
745:
643:
607:
108:
51:
2070:
1681:
1134:
588:
438:
manipulation in order to load follow, which is possibly less ideal. In markets such as
359:
629:
2221:
2101:
1706:
801:
732:
567:
461:, in the moderator/coolant, control rod manipulation, and turbine speed control (see
439:
372:
203:
520:
particulates and also generate pure water for drinking and industrial applications.
2170:
2111:
1815:
1810:
1787:
1696:
1636:
1059:
1051:
1015:
1007:
635:
622:
562:
195:
151:
112:
87:
507:
can fully match the load fluctuations without the need of costly battery storage.
2201:
2160:
2138:
2019:
1989:
1954:
1914:
1716:
1346:"2018 U.S. Utility-Scale PhotovoltaicsPlus-Energy Storage System Costs Benchmark"
1055:
1011:
660:
390:
377:
The load generation can be automatically varied to suit the grid frequency needs.
143:
55:
1185:
959:"Quo Vadis, Grid Stability? Challenges Increase as Generation Portfolio Changes"
2226:
2216:
2014:
1626:
1463:
1437:
1345:
696:
674:
647:
168:
99:
46:
fluctuates throughout the day. Load-following plants are typically in between
2324:
2246:
2034:
1919:
1899:
1830:
1820:
1777:
1661:
1616:
1414:
1277:"Salt, silicon or graphite: energy storage goes beyond lithium ion batteries"
504:
454:
414:
While most nuclear power plants in operation as of early 2000's were already
136:
83:
1396:"Tesla's $ 3,000 Powerwall Will Let Households Run Entirely On Solar Energy"
1110:"Technical and Economic Aspects of Load Following with Nuclear Power Plants"
561:
storage as of 2018, when custom-built new for this purpose without re-using
2266:
2241:
2106:
2075:
1889:
1691:
1037:"Load following with Small Modular Reactors (SMR): A real options analysis"
993:"Load following with Small Modular Reactors (SMR): A real options analysis"
851:"page 13, Operational Performance Report for the Month of March 2015, NLDC"
651:
applications as between 70-80% of their original capacity still remains."
172:
2091:
2059:
1852:
1840:
1760:
1686:
1676:
1606:
1535:"The 10 Things Likely To Be Missing From Tesla's Stationary Storage News"
705:
470:
435:
123:
119:
102:
43:
39:
35:
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1020:
2054:
2049:
1862:
1845:
1701:
1556:
667:
639:
603:
584:
544:
344:
271: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
111:
operate only during times of peak demand. In countries with widespread
1233:"UAE's push on concentrated solar power should open eyes across world"
883:"Load acceptance criteria for hydro electric power plants, CEA, India"
1770:
1765:
1651:
1611:
1323:
1254:"Aurora: What you should know about Port Augusta's solar power-tower"
656:
246:
1884:
1512:"Tesla Powerwall demand jumps 30x following blackouts in Australia"
1212:"Dispatchable Concentrated Solar Power Broke Price Records in 2017"
630:
Electric vehicle batteries as distributed load following or storage
155:
79:
1324:"Doosan Corporation to supply 50MW hydrogen fuel cell power plant"
418:
with strong load following capabilities, they might have not been
1805:
1795:
1462:
Loutan, Clyde; Klauer, Peter; Chowdhury, Sirajul; Hall, Stephen.
1166:. Ontario Society of Professional Engineers (OSPE). 14 March 2012
348:
95:
1135:"#12 - Nuclear Flexibility - Nuclear Economics Consulting Group"
1034:
990:
1800:
634:
Due to the very high cost of dedicated battery storage, use of
394:
347:
fueled plants typically being significantly more flexible than
150:
Load-following power plants can be hydroelectric power plants,
517:
458:
1080:
Ontario–U.S. Power Outage—Impacts on
Critical Infrastructure
543:
such as wind and solar, that have not yet fully implemented
1755:
979:
595:
75:
1410:"Storing The Sun's Energy Just Got A Whole Lot Cheaper"
956:
577:
717:
deferral or adequacy services to utilities", such as:
1461:
178:
61:
1302:"Commercializing Standalone Thermal Energy Storage"
481:
381:Two shift daily operation for five days in a week:
523:
2322:
663:demand rose 30 times after major power outages.
1104:
1102:
1100:
638:batteries both while charging in vehicles (see
118:Peaking power plants include hydroelectric and
27:Power plant that adjusts output based on demand
798:Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems
129:
1572:
978:Nuclear Development, June 2011, page 10 from
494:
445:
397:to adjust to the load requirement with a lag.
190:
1487:
1435:
1097:
915:"BPA Balancing Authority Load and Total VER"
42:that adjusts its power output as demand for
161:
1579:
1565:
393:to reduce the load quickly and allows the
236:
1063:
1019:
510:
426:
331:Learn how and when to remove this message
1586:
1178:
1153:
1393:
1127:
1115:. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. June 2011
795:
401:
14:
2323:
1532:
1469:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory
1443:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory
796:Masters, Gilbert M. (3 January 2005).
1560:
1488:McLoughlin, Fintan; Conlon, Michael.
1274:
598:Chairman Jon Wellinghof outlined the
139:produced, are brought online first.
1436:Gevorgian, Vahan; O’Neill, Barbara.
1402:
952:
950:
821:
819:
817:
578:Solar and wind intensive smart grids
269:adding citations to reliable sources
240:
229:Example of daily peak load (for the
24:
2257:Renewable energy commercialization
1343:
1139:Nuclear Economics Consulting Group
693:Spinning and non-spinning reserves
554:See smart grid alternatives below.
179:Diesel and gas engine power plants
62:Base load and peaking power plants
25:
2342:
947:
814:
756:Economics of nuclear power plants
2305:
2304:
1725:
1514:. teslarati.com. 13 October 2016
1492:. Dublin Institute of Technology
602:'s view that strongly preferred
488:Bruce Nuclear Generating Station
482:Pressurized heavy water reactors
245:
222:
38:or mid-priced electricity, is a
1533:Morris, Jesse (30 April 2015).
1526:
1504:
1481:
1455:
1429:
1394:Russell, Jon (April 30, 2015).
1387:
1366:
1337:
1316:
1294:
1268:
1246:
1225:
1204:
1072:
1028:
256:needs additional citations for
231:Bonneville Power Administration
1374:"Frequency Profile, NLDC, GoI"
984:
972:
921:
907:
875:
843:
789:
610:he listed some such measures:
524:Solar PV and wind power plants
453:(PWRs) use a combination of a
389:This feature allows the steam
92:run-of-the-river hydroelectric
13:
1:
2252:Renewable Energy Certificates
2212:Cost of electricity by source
2134:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
2010:High-voltage shore connection
957:Kai Kosowski, Frank Diercks.
782:
751:Cost of electricity by source
2267:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
2065:Transmission system operator
2025:Mains electricity by country
1602:Automatic generation control
1344:Fu, Ran (10 February 2016).
1056:10.1016/j.energy.2014.11.040
1012:10.1016/j.energy.2014.11.040
827:"Load Following Power Plant"
539:baseload plants and towards
280:"Load-following power plant"
7:
2292:List of electricity sectors
2287:Electric energy consumption
2005:High-voltage direct current
1980:Electric power transmission
1970:Electric power distribution
1647:Energy return on investment
1275:Lewis, Dyani (2017-04-05).
758:(for more cost comparisons)
739:
541:intermittent energy sources
387:HP/LP steam bypass systems:
356:Sliding pressure operation:
130:Load-following power plants
10:
2347:
2207:Carbon offsets and credits
1925:Three-phase electric power
527:
495:Solar thermal power plants
463:nuclear reactor technology
451:Pressurized water reactors
446:Pressurized water reactors
191:Hydroelectric power plants
32:load-following power plant
18:Load following power plant
2300:
2275:
2262:Renewable Energy Payments
2185:
2122:
2084:
1938:
1875:
1786:
1751:Fossil fuel power station
1741:
1734:
1723:
1594:
530:Availability-based tariff
375:follow governor controls:
2331:Power station technology
2045:Single-wire earth return
1985:Electrical busbar system
1642:Energy demand management
980:http://www.oecd-nea.org/
681:Rocky Mountain Institute
500:Concentrated solar power
366:Over loading capability:
162:Gas turbine power plants
34:, regarded as producing
2176:Residual-current device
2166:Power system protection
2156:Generator interlock kit
772:Dispatchable generation
726:Transmission congestion
237:Coal-fired power plants
1960:Distributed generation
1632:Electric power quality
777:Emergency power system
549:demand side management
511:Fuel cell power plants
432:Boiling water reactors
427:Boiling water reactors
67:Base load power plants
2232:Fossil fuel phase-out
2000:Electricity retailing
1995:Electrical substation
1975:Electric power system
762:Base load power plant
642:), and in stationary
152:diesel and gas engine
1588:Electricity delivery
1186:"BPRIA backgrounder"
935:. January 6–13, 2017
933:transmission.bpa.gov
895:on 23 September 2015
689:Frequency regulation
600:Obama administration
559:Rechargeable battery
537:away from coal fired
402:Nuclear power plants
265:improve this article
109:Peaking power plants
52:peaking power plants
2197:Availability factor
2149:Sulfur hexafluoride
2030:Overhead power line
1930:Virtual power plant
1905:Induction generator
1858:Sustainable biofuel
1667:Home energy storage
1657:Grid energy storage
1622:Droop speed control
1141:. 24 September 2015
767:Peaking power plant
746:Grid energy storage
644:grid energy storage
608:Scientific American
2071:Transmission tower
1682:Nameplate capacity
966:atw Vol. 66 (2021)
589:Internet of Things
360:nameplate capacity
204:hydroelectric dams
199:continuous basis.
2318:
2317:
2222:Environmental tax
2102:Cascading failure
1871:
1870:
1707:Utility frequency
1192:. 3 December 2015
733:Resource adequacy
547:measures such as
440:Chicago, Illinois
341:
340:
333:
315:
16:(Redirected from
2338:
2308:
2307:
2217:Energy subsidies
2171:Protective relay
2112:Rolling blackout
1739:
1738:
1729:
1697:Power-flow study
1637:Electrical fault
1581:
1574:
1567:
1558:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1530:
1524:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1468:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1442:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1350:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1304:. 8 January 2016
1298:
1292:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1272:
1266:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1250:
1244:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1165:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1114:
1106:
1095:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1084:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1067:
1041:
1032:
1026:
1025:
1023:
997:
988:
982:
976:
970:
969:
963:
954:
945:
944:
942:
940:
925:
919:
918:
911:
905:
904:
902:
900:
894:
888:. Archived from
887:
879:
873:
872:
870:
868:
862:
856:. Archived from
855:
847:
841:
840:
838:
837:
823:
812:
811:
793:
701:energy arbitrage
636:electric vehicle
623:electric vehicle
568:spinning reserve
563:electric vehicle
336:
329:
325:
322:
316:
314:
273:
249:
241:
226:
113:air conditioning
21:
2346:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2314:
2296:
2280:
2278:
2271:
2202:Capacity factor
2190:
2188:
2181:
2161:Numerical relay
2139:Circuit breaker
2127:
2125:
2118:
2080:
2020:Load management
1990:Electrical grid
1955:Demand response
1948:
1943:
1934:
1915:Microgeneration
1867:
1782:
1730:
1721:
1717:Vehicle-to-grid
1590:
1585:
1555:
1554:
1544:
1542:
1531:
1527:
1517:
1515:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1495:
1493:
1486:
1482:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1460:
1456:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1418:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1392:
1388:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1355:
1348:
1342:
1338:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1307:
1305:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1285:
1283:
1273:
1269:
1259:
1257:
1252:
1251:
1247:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1230:
1226:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1195:
1193:
1184:
1183:
1179:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1144:
1142:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1107:
1098:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1039:
1033:
1029:
995:
989:
985:
977:
973:
961:
955:
948:
938:
936:
927:
926:
922:
913:
912:
908:
898:
896:
892:
885:
881:
880:
876:
866:
864:
860:
853:
849:
848:
844:
835:
833:
825:
824:
815:
808:
800:. p. 140.
794:
790:
785:
742:
711:Voltage support
661:Tesla Powerwall
632:
580:
532:
526:
513:
497:
484:
448:
429:
404:
395:steam generator
391:turbo generator
337:
326:
320:
317:
274:
272:
262:
250:
239:
193:
181:
164:
144:electrical grid
132:
64:
56:capacity factor
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2344:
2334:
2333:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2294:
2289:
2283:
2281:
2277:Statistics and
2276:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2227:Feed-in tariff
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2193:
2191:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2179:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2136:
2130:
2128:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2114:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2015:Interconnector
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1965:Dynamic demand
1962:
1957:
1951:
1949:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1895:Combined cycle
1892:
1887:
1881:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1849:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1792:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1747:
1745:
1736:
1732:
1731:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1672:Load-following
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1627:Electric power
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1591:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1569:
1561:
1553:
1552:
1525:
1503:
1480:
1454:
1428:
1401:
1386:
1365:
1336:
1315:
1293:
1267:
1245:
1224:
1203:
1177:
1152:
1126:
1096:
1071:
1027:
983:
971:
946:
920:
906:
874:
863:on 24 May 2015
842:
813:
806:
787:
786:
784:
781:
780:
779:
774:
769:
764:
759:
753:
748:
741:
738:
737:
736:
729:
722:
714:
713:
708:
703:
697:Load following
694:
691:
675:load following
648:load following
631:
628:
619:
618:
615:
579:
576:
525:
522:
512:
509:
496:
493:
483:
480:
447:
444:
428:
425:
403:
400:
399:
398:
384:
378:
369:
363:
339:
338:
253:
251:
244:
238:
235:
192:
189:
180:
177:
169:Combined cycle
163:
160:
131:
128:
100:combined cycle
63:
60:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2343:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2311:
2303:
2302:
2299:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2274:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2247:Pigouvian tax
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2184:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2144:Earth-leakage
2142:
2141:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2121:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2085:Failure modes
2083:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2035:Power station
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1920:Rankine cycle
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1900:Cooling tower
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1874:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1743:Non-renewable
1740:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1662:Grid strength
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1617:Demand factor
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1570:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1559:
1540:
1536:
1529:
1513:
1507:
1491:
1484:
1465:
1458:
1439:
1432:
1417:
1416:
1415:ThinkProgress
1411:
1405:
1397:
1390:
1375:
1369:
1354:
1347:
1340:
1325:
1319:
1303:
1297:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1255:
1249:
1234:
1228:
1213:
1207:
1191:
1187:
1181:
1162:
1156:
1140:
1136:
1130:
1111:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1081:
1075:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1038:
1031:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
994:
987:
981:
975:
967:
960:
953:
951:
934:
930:
924:
916:
910:
891:
884:
878:
859:
852:
846:
832:
831:Nuclear Power
828:
822:
820:
818:
809:
807:9780471668831
803:
799:
792:
788:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
743:
734:
730:
727:
723:
720:
719:
718:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
698:
695:
692:
690:
687:
686:
685:
682:
678:
676:
671:
669:
664:
662:
658:
652:
649:
645:
641:
637:
627:
624:
621:At the time,
616:
613:
612:
611:
609:
605:
601:
597:
592:
590:
586:
575:
571:
569:
564:
560:
556:
555:
550:
546:
542:
538:
531:
521:
519:
508:
506:
501:
492:
489:
479:
475:
472:
466:
464:
460:
456:
455:chemical shim
452:
443:
441:
437:
433:
424:
421:
417:
412:
408:
396:
392:
388:
385:
382:
379:
376:
374:
370:
367:
364:
361:
357:
354:
353:
352:
350:
346:
335:
332:
324:
321:February 2022
313:
310:
306:
303:
299:
296:
292:
289:
285:
282: –
281:
277:
276:Find sources:
270:
266:
260:
259:
254:This section
252:
248:
243:
242:
234:
232:
227:
225:
220:
216:
212:
208:
205:
200:
197:
196:Hydroelectric
188:
185:
176:
174:
170:
159:
157:
153:
148:
145:
140:
138:
137:kilowatt-hour
127:
125:
121:
116:
114:
110:
106:
104:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
72:
68:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2242:Net metering
2189:and policies
2107:Power outage
2076:Utility pole
2040:Pumped hydro
1946:distribution
1941:Transmission
1890:Cogeneration
1692:Power factor
1671:
1543:. Retrieved
1538:
1528:
1516:. Retrieved
1506:
1494:. Retrieved
1483:
1471:. Retrieved
1457:
1445:. Retrieved
1431:
1419:. Retrieved
1413:
1404:
1389:
1377:. Retrieved
1368:
1356:. Retrieved
1352:
1339:
1327:. Retrieved
1318:
1306:. Retrieved
1296:
1284:. Retrieved
1281:The Guardian
1280:
1270:
1258:. Retrieved
1256:. 2017-08-21
1248:
1238:26 September
1236:. Retrieved
1227:
1217:22 September
1215:. Retrieved
1206:
1194:. Retrieved
1189:
1180:
1168:. Retrieved
1155:
1143:. Retrieved
1138:
1129:
1117:. Retrieved
1087:. Retrieved
1074:
1065:11311/881391
1047:
1043:
1030:
1021:11311/881391
1003:
999:
986:
974:
965:
937:. Retrieved
932:
923:
909:
897:. Retrieved
890:the original
877:
865:. Retrieved
858:the original
845:
834:. Retrieved
830:
797:
791:
715:
679:
672:
665:
653:
633:
620:
594:In 2010, US
593:
581:
572:
557:
553:
533:
514:
498:
485:
476:
471:control rods
467:
457:, typically
449:
430:
419:
415:
413:
409:
405:
386:
380:
371:
365:
355:
342:
327:
318:
308:
301:
294:
287:
275:
263:Please help
258:verification
255:
228:
221:
217:
213:
209:
201:
194:
186:
182:
173:cogeneration
165:
149:
141:
133:
117:
107:
71:dispatchable
65:
31:
29:
2237:Load factor
2092:Black start
2060:Transformer
1761:Natural gas
1712:Variability
1687:Peak demand
1677:Merit order
1607:Backfeeding
1545:26 December
1518:26 December
1496:26 December
1473:26 December
1447:26 December
1358:5 September
1308:1 September
1286:1 September
1190:Bruce Power
1089:26 December
939:26 December
706:Black start
436:control rod
120:gas turbine
103:natural gas
44:electricity
40:power plant
2279:production
2124:Protective
2055:Super grid
2050:Smart grid
1877:Generation
1811:Geothermal
1702:Repowering
1196:21 October
1170:21 October
1145:21 October
1119:21 October
836:2020-05-22
783:References
668:smart grid
640:smart grid
604:smart grid
585:smart grid
545:smart grid
528:See also:
291:newspapers
88:geothermal
2187:Economics
1910:Micro CHP
1788:Renewable
1771:Petroleum
1766:Oil shale
1652:Grid code
1612:Base load
1541:. rmi.org
1260:22 August
1050:: 41–54.
1006:: 41–54.
899:25 August
657:Australia
373:Frequency
345:hard coal
48:base load
36:mid-merit
2325:Category
2310:Category
2097:Brownout
1885:AC power
1595:Concepts
1379:6 August
867:25 April
740:See also
505:solar PV
416:designed
156:fuel oil
105:plants.
80:fuel oil
2126:devices
1836:Thermal
1831:Osmotic
1826:Current
1806:Biomass
1796:Biofuel
1778:Nuclear
1735:Sources
1329:6 April
349:lignite
305:scholar
96:biomass
84:nuclear
1821:Marine
1801:Biogas
1421:23 May
1044:Energy
1000:Energy
804:
659:where
307:
300:
293:
286:
278:
202:Where
124:diesel
2178:(GFI)
2067:(TSO)
1853:Solar
1841:Tidal
1816:Hydro
1467:(PDF)
1441:(PDF)
1349:(PDF)
1164:(PDF)
1113:(PDF)
1083:(PDF)
1040:(PDF)
996:(PDF)
962:(PDF)
893:(PDF)
886:(PDF)
861:(PDF)
854:(PDF)
583:the "
518:PM2.5
459:boron
312:JSTOR
298:books
1944:and
1863:Wind
1846:Wave
1756:Coal
1547:2018
1520:2018
1498:2018
1475:2018
1449:2018
1423:2016
1381:2015
1360:2019
1353:NREL
1331:2019
1310:2017
1288:2017
1262:2017
1240:2017
1219:2017
1198:2017
1172:2017
1147:2017
1121:2017
1091:2018
941:2018
901:2014
869:2015
802:ISBN
596:FERC
420:used
284:news
98:and
76:coal
69:are
50:and
1539:Rmi
1060:hdl
1052:doi
1016:hdl
1008:doi
267:by
171:or
2327::
1537:.
1412:.
1351:.
1279:.
1188:.
1137:.
1099:^
1058:.
1048:80
1046:.
1042:.
1014:.
1004:80
1002:.
998:.
964:.
949:^
931:.
829:.
816:^
699:/
591:.
570:.
94:,
90:,
86:,
82:,
78:,
58:.
30:A
1580:e
1573:t
1566:v
1549:.
1522:.
1500:.
1477:.
1451:.
1425:.
1398:.
1383:.
1362:.
1333:.
1312:.
1290:.
1264:.
1242:.
1221:.
1200:.
1174:.
1149:.
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