1482:, which marks the boundary between the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. This could offer a possible explanation for the dramatic drop in atmospheric ozone during the Hangenberg event that could have permitted massive ultraviolet damage to the genetic material of lifeforms, triggering a mass extinction. Recent research offers evidence of ultraviolet damage to pollen and spores over many thousands of years during this event as observed in the fossil record and that, in turn, points to a possible long-term destruction of the ozone layer. A supernova explosion is an alternative explanation to global temperature rise, that could account for the drop in atmospheric ozone. Because very high mass stars, required to produce a supernova, tend to form in dense star-forming regions of space and have short lifespans lasting only at most tens of millions of years, it is likely that if a supernova did occur, multiple others also did within a few million years of it. Thus, supernovae have also been speculated to have been responsible for the Kellwasser event, as well as the entire sequence of environmental crises covering several millions of years towards the end of the Devonian period. Detecting either of the long-lived, extra-terrestrial radioisotopes
1459:, cannot generally be dated with sufficient precision to link them to the event; others dated precisely are not contemporaneous with the extinction. Although some evidence of meteoric impact have been observed in places, including iridium anomalies and microspherules, these were probably caused by other factors. Some lines of evidence suggest that the meteorite impact and its associated geochemical signals postdate the extinction event. Modelling studies have ruled out a single impact as entirely inconsistent with available evidence, although a multiple impact scenario may still be viable.
972:
7125:
859:
1055:) were eliminated. The family is a great unit, and to lose so many signifies a deep loss of ecosystem diversity. On a smaller scale, 57% of genera and at least 75% of species did not survive into the Carboniferous. These latter estimates need to be treated with a degree of caution, as the estimates of species loss depend on surveys of Devonian marine taxa that are perhaps not well enough known to assess their true rate of losses, so it is difficult to estimate the effects of differential preservation and
119:
24:
1087:, is the term given to the extinction pulse that occurred near the Frasnian–Famennian boundary (372.2 ± 1.6 Ma). Most references to the "Late Devonian extinction" are in fact referring to the Kellwasser, which was the first event to be detected based on marine invertebrate record and was the most severe of the extinction crises of the Late Devonian. There may in fact have been two closely spaced events here, as shown by the presence of two distinct anoxic shale layers.
7537:
1424:
igneous province emissions and extraterrestrial impacts and the fact that there is no confirmed evidence of the latter occurring in association with the
Kellwasser event, this enrichment strongly suggests a causal relationship between volcanism and the Kellwasser extinction event. However, not all sites show evidence of mercury enrichment across the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, leading other studies to reject volcanism as an explanation for the crisis.
7547:
1191:, the Frasnian-Famennian boundary instead shows evidence of increased oxygenation of the seafloor. Trace metal proxies in black shales from New York state point to anoxic conditions only occurring intermittently, being interrupted by oxic intervals, further indicating that anoxia was not globally synchronous, a finding also supported by the prevalence of cyanobacterial mats in the
1305:, covers most of the present day north-eastern margin of the Siberian Platform. The triple-junction rift system was formed during the Devonian Period; the Viluy rift is the western remaining branch of the system and two other branches form the modern margin of the Siberian Platform. Volcanic rocks are covered with post Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous sediments. Volcanic rocks,
1168:
dominant role in extinction. Evidence exists of a rapid increase in the rate of organic carbon burial and for widespread anoxia in oceanic bottom waters. Signs of anoxia in shallow waters have also been described from a variety of localities. Good evidence has been found for high-frequency sea-level changes around the
Frasnian–Famennian Kellwasser event, with one
1224:; conodont apatite δO excursions also occurred at this time. A similar positive δO excursion in phosphates is known from the boundary, corresponding to a removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide and a global cooling event. This oxygen isotope excursion is known from time-equivalent strata in South China and in the western
1162:
and subsequent anoxia. For example, during an algal bloom, organic material formed at the surface can sink at such a rate that decomposition of dead organisms uses up all available oxygen, creating anoxic conditions and suffocating bottom-dwelling fish. The fossil reefs of the
Frasnian were dominated
1143:
archaeopterids, at the end of the period. This increase in height was made possible by the evolution of advanced vascular systems, which permitted the growth of complex branching and rooting systems, facilitating their ability to colonise drier areas previously off limits to them. In conjunction with
988:
Vertebrates were not strongly affected by the
Kellwasser event, but still experienced some diversity loss. Around half of placoderm families died out, primarily species-poor bottom-feeding groups. More diverse placoderm families survived the event only to succumb in the Hangenberg event at the end of
953:
evolved smaller eyes in the run-up to the
Kellwasser event, with eye size increasing again afterwards. This suggests vision was less important around the event, perhaps due to increasing water depth or turbidity. The brims of trilobites (i.e. the rims of their heads) also expanded across this period.
1260:
concentrations from about 15 to three times present levels. Carbon in the form of plant matter would be produced on prodigious scales, and given the right conditions, could be stored and buried, eventually producing vast coal measures (e.g. in China) which locked the carbon out of the atmosphere and
1150:
forests expanded rapidly during the closing ages of the
Devonian. These tall trees required deep rooting systems to acquire water and nutrients, and provide anchorage. These systems broke up the upper layers of bedrock and stabilized a deep layer of soil, which would have been of the order of metres
1255:
sequestration by mountain building has been suggested as a cause of the decline in greenhouse gases during the
Frasnian-Famennian transition. This mountain-building may have also enhanced biological sequestration through an increase in nutrient runoff. The combination of silicate weathering and the
849:
The
Kellwasser event and most other Later Devonian pulses primarily affected the marine community, and had a greater effect on shallow warm-water organisms than on cool-water organisms. The Kellwasser event's effects were also stronger at low latitudes than high ones. Large differences are observed
1195:
in the time period around the
Kellwasser event. Evidence from various European sections reveals that Kellwasser anoxia was relegated to epicontinental seas and developed as a result of upwelling of poorly oxygenated waters within ocean basins into shallow waters rather than a global oceanic anoxic
1067:
Extinction rates appear to have been higher than the background rate for an extended interval covering the last 20–25 million years of the
Devonian. During this time, about eight to ten distinct events can be seen, of which two, the Kellwasser and the Hangenberg events, stand out as particularly
1423:
enrichment has been found in deposits dating back to the Kellwasser event, with similar enrichments found in deposits coeval with the Frasnes event at the Givetian-Frasnian boundary and in ones coeval with the Hangenberg event. Because coronene enrichment is only known in association with large
1167:
and (to a lesser degree) corals—organisms which only thrive in low-nutrient conditions. Therefore, the postulated influx of high levels of nutrients may have caused an extinction. Anoxic conditions correlate better with biotic crises than phases of cooling, suggesting anoxia may have played the
203:
in the Late Devonian, the timespan of this event is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 500,000 to 25 million years, extending from the mid-Givetian to the end-Famennian. Some consider the extinction to be as many as seven distinct events, spread over about 25 million years, with notable
897:, although there is evidence this shift in reef composition began prior to the Frasnian-Famennian boundary. The collapse of the reef system was so stark that it would take until the Mesozoic for reefs to recover their Middle Devonian extent. Mesozoic and modern reefs are based on
1317:
large igneous provinces were suggested to correlate with the Frasnian / Famennian extinction, with the Kola and Timan-Pechora magmatic provinces being suggested to be related to the Hangenberg event at the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary. Viluy magmatism may have injected enough
1144:
this, the evolution of seeds permitted reproduction and dispersal in areas which were not waterlogged, allowing plants to colonise previously inhospitable inland and upland areas. The two factors combined to greatly magnify the role of plants on the global scale. In particular,
3434:
Lutzoni, François; Nowak, Michael D.; Alfaro, Michael E.; Reeb, Valérie; Miadlikowska, Jolanta; Krug, Michael; Arnold, A. Elizabeth; Lewis, Louise A.; Swofford, David L.; Hibbett, David; Hilu, Khidir; James, Timothy Y.; Quandt, Dietmar; Magallón, Susana (21 December 2018).
1123:), several environmental changes can be detected from the sedimentary record, which directly affected organisms and caused extinction. What caused these changes is somewhat more open to debate. Possible triggers for the Kellwasser event are as follows:
962:
as nutrient input changed. As with most extinction events, specialist taxa occupying small niches were harder hit than generalists. Marine invertebrates that lived in warmer ecoregions were devastated more compared to those living in colder biomes.
901:("stony") corals, which would not evolve until the Triassic period. Devonian reef-builders are entirely extinct in the modern day: Stromatoporoids died out in the end-Devonian Hangenberg event, while rugose and tabulate corals went extinct at the
3771:
Stein, William E.; Berry, Christopher M.; Morris, Jennifer L.; Hernick, Linda VanAller; Mannolini, Frank; Ver Straeten, Charles; Landing, Ed; Marshall, John E. A.; Wellman, Charles H.; Beerling, David J.; Leake, Jonathan R. (3 February 2020).
1228:, suggesting it was a globally synchronous climatic change. The concomitance of the drop in global temperatures and the swift decline of metazoan reefs indicates the blameworthiness of global cooling in precipitating the extinction event.
1439:
approximately 374 million years ago. Remains of this caldera can be found in the modern day state of Victoria, Australia. Eovariscan volcanic activity in present-day Europe may have also played a role in conjunction with the Viluy Traps.
298:; that is, a lack of oxygen, prohibiting decay and allowing the preservation of organic matter. This, combined with the ability of porous reef rocks to hold oil, has led to Devonian rocks being an important source of oil, especially in
1239:
is a greenhouse gas, reduced levels might have helped produce a chillier climate, in contrast to the warm climate of the Middle Devonian. The biological sequestration of carbon dioxide may have ultimately led to the beginning of the
1296:
and rifting in the Russian and Siberian platforms, which were situated above the hot mantle plumes and suggested as a cause of the Frasnian / Famennian and end-Devonian extinctions. The Viluy Large igneous province, located in the
5182:
Kuzmin, M.I.; Yarmolyuk, V.V.; Kravchinsky, V.A. (2010). "Phanerozoic hot spot traces and paleogeographic reconstructions of the Siberian continent based on interaction with the African large low shear velocity province".
3091:
Algeo, T.J., S.E. Scheckler and J. B. Maynard (2001). "Effects of the Middle to Late Devonian spread of vascular land plants on weathering regimes, marine biota, and global climate". In P.G. Gensel; D. Edwards (eds.).
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systems that allowed them to survive away from places that were constantly wet—and so grew huge forests on the highlands. Several clades had developed a shrubby or tree-like habit by the Late Givetian, including the
4365:
Zheng, Wang; Gilleaudeau, Geoffrey J.; Algeo, Thomas J.; Zhao, Yaqiu; Song, Yi; Zhang, Yuanming; Sahoo, Swapan K.; Anbar, Ariel D.; Carmichael, Sarah K.; Xie, Shucheng; Liu, Cong-Qiang; Chen, Jiubin (1 July 2023).
1090:
There is evidence that the Kellwasser event was a two-pulsed event, with the two extinction pulses being separated by an interval of approximately 800,000 years. The second pulse was more severe than the first.
6190:
1151:
thick. In contrast, early Devonian plants bore only rhizoids and rhizomes that could penetrate no more than a few centimeters. The mobilization of a large portion of soil had a huge effect: soil promotes
954:
The brims are thought to have served a respiratory purpose, and the increasing anoxia of waters led to an increase in their brim area in response. The shape of conodonts' feeding apparatus varied with
1817:
Sole, R. V., and Newman, M., 2002. "Extinctions and Biodiversity in the Fossil Record - Volume Two, The earth system: biological and ecological dimensions of global environment change" pp. 297-391,
1543:
Though a super eruption on its own would have devastating effects in both short term and long term, the Late Devonian extinction was caused by a series of events which contributed to the extinction.
1099:
Since the Kellwasser-related extinctions occurred over such a long time, it is difficult to assign a single cause, and indeed to separate cause from effect. From the end of the Middle Devonian (
2250:
Kaufmann, B.; Trapp, E.; Mezger, K. (2004). "The numerical age of the Upper Frasnian (Upper Devonian) Kellwasser horizons: A new U-Pb zircon date from Steinbruch Schmidt(Kellerwald, Germany)".
2400:
1231:
The "greening" of the continents during the Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution that led to them being covered with massive photosynthesizing land plants in the first forests reduced CO
6363:"Photic-zone euxinia and anoxic events in a Middle-Late Devonian shelfal sea of Panthalassan continental margin, NW Canada: Changing paradigm of Devonian ocean and sea level fluctuations"
4180:
Da Silva, Anne-Christine; Sinesael, Matthias; Claeys, Philippe; Davies, Joshua H. M. L.; De Winter, Niels J.; Percival, L. M. E.; Schaltegger, Urs; De Vleeschouwer, David (31 July 2020).
889:
and manticoceratids devastated. Following the Kellwasser event, reefs of the Famennian were primarily dominated by siliceous sponges and calcifying bacteria, producing structures such as
3953:
Joachimski, Michael M.; Ostertag-Henning, Christian; Pancost, Richard D.; Strauss, Harald; Freeman, Katherine H.; Littke, Ralf; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S.; Racki, Grzegorz (1 May 2001).
1269:
would have caused global cooling and resulted in at least one period of late Devonian glaciation (and subsequent sea level fall), probably fluctuating in intensity alongside the 40ka
3833:"Relationships between bacterial-algal proliferating and mass extinction in the Late Devonian Frasnian-Famennian transition: Enlightening from carbon isotopes and molecular fossils"
3613:"Silurian-Devonian terrestrial revolution in South China: Taxonomy, diversity, and character evolution of vascular plants in a paleogeographically isolated, low-latitude region"
5412:
Ricci, J.; et al. (2013). "New Ar/Ar and K–Ar ages of the Viluy traps (Eastern Siberia): Further evidence for a relationship with the Frasnian–Famennian mass extinction".
6530:
2955:
Balter, Vincent; Renaud, Sabrina; Girard, Catherine; Joachimski, Michael M. (November 2008). "Record of climate-driven morphological changes in 376 Ma Devonian fossils".
1172:
associated with the onset of anoxic deposits; marine transgressions likely helped spread deoxygenated waters. Evidence exists for the modulation of the intensity of anoxia by
5528:
Clemens, J. D.; Birch, W. D. (2012). "Assembly of a zoned volcanic magma chamber from multiple magma batches: The Cerberean Cauldron, Marysville Igneous Complex, Australia".
1506:, sea-level change, and oceanic overturning. These have all been discounted because they are unable to explain the duration, selectivity, and periodicity of the extinctions.
5271:
Ma, X. P.; et al. (2015). "The Late Devonian Frasnian–Famennian event in South China — Patterns and causes of extinctions, sea level changes, and isotope variations".
6184:
Fields, Brian D.; Melott, Adrian L.; Ellis, John; Ertel, Adrienne F.; Fry, Brian J.; Lieberman, Bruce S.; Liu, Zhenghai; Miller, Jesse A.; Thomas, Brian C. (2020-08-18).
1365:
and the Kellwasser extinction by Ar/Ar dating. Ages show that the two volcanic phase hypotheses are well supported and the weighted mean ages of each volcanic phase are
2285:
Algeo, T. J. (1998). "Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events".
5447:
Kaiho, Kunio; Miura, Mami; Tezuka, Mio; Hayashi, Naohiro; Jones, David S.; Oikawa, Kazuma; Casier, Jean-Georges; Fujibayashi, Megumu; Chen, Zhong-Qiang (April 2021).
3660:
3704:
Gurung, Khushboo; Field, Katie J.; Batterman, Sarah J.; Goddéris, Yves; Donnadieu, Yannick; Porada, Philipp; Taylor, Lyla L.; Mills, Benjamin J. W. (4 August 2022).
168:, which collectively represent one of the five largest mass extinction events in the history of life on Earth. The term primarily refers to a major extinction, the
3955:"Water column anoxia, enhanced productivity and concomitant changes in δ13C and δ34S across the Frasnian–Famennian boundary (Kowala — Holy Cross Mountains/Poland)"
4940:"Mountain building-enhanced continental weathering and organic carbon burial as major causes for climatic cooling at the Frasnian–Famennian boundary (c. 376 Ma)?"
2907:
6026:
192:, also known as the end-Devonian extinction, occurred 359 million years ago, bringing an end to the Famennian and Devonian, as the world transitioned into the
1451:
impacts can be dramatic triggers of mass extinctions. An asteroid impact was proposed as the prime cause of this faunal turnover. The impact that created the
1313:
that cover more than 320,000 km, and a gigantic amount of magmatic material (more than 1 million km) formed in the Viluy branch. The Viluy and
870:
The most hard-hit biological category affected by the Kellwasser event were the calcite-based reef-builders of the great Devonian reef-systems, including the
2181:"Late Devonian and Early Mississippian Bakken and Exshaw Black Shale Source Rocks, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin: A Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation"
344:
3050:"Five hundred million years of extinction and recovery: a phanerozoic survey of large-scale diversity patterns in fishes: EXTINCTION AND RECOVERY IN FISHES"
5681:"Laser argon dating of melt breccias from the Siljan impact structure, Sweden: Implications for a possible relationship to Late Devonian extinction events"
3895:"Enhanced terrestrial nutrient release during the Devonian emergence and expansion of forests: Evidence from lacustrine phosphorus and geochemical records"
1176:
as well. Negative δU excursions concomitant with both the Lower and Upper Kellwasser events provide direct evidence for an increase in anoxia. Photic zone
1354:
deposition. Viluy Traps activity may have also enabled euxinia by fertilising the oceans with sulphate, increasing rates of microbial sulphate reduction.
5374:
Courtillot, V.; et al. (2010). "Preliminary dating of the Viluy traps (Eastern Siberia): Eruption at the time of Late Devonian extinction events?".
2124:
3280:
7581:
6523:
4368:"Mercury isotope evidence for recurrent photic-zone euxinia triggered by enhanced terrestrial nutrient inputs during the Late Devonian mass extinction"
1187:
The timing, magnitude, and causes of Kellwasser anoxia remain poorly understood. Anoxia was not omnipresent across the globe; in some regions, such as
5564:
1023:(defined as four-limbed vertebrates with digits) survived and experienced an evolutionary radiation following the Kellwasser extinction, though their
6269:
5983:
5273:
5054:
4903:
4703:
4542:
4438:
4145:
4055:
3333:
2998:
2804:
2724:
1976:
1758:
287:
were hit hard by the Kellwasser event and completely died out in the Hangenberg event, but most other jawed vertebrates were less strongly impacted.
2180:
1490:
in one or more end-Devonian extinction strata would confirm a supernova origin. However, there is currently no direct evidence for this hypothesis.
4642:
3107:
263:; the latter almost completely disappeared. The causes of these extinctions are unclear. Leading hypotheses include changes in sea level and ocean
5901:
4051:"A new model for the Kellwasser Anoxia Events (Late Devonian): Shallow water anoxia in an open oceanic setting in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt"
2079:"Shale oil and gas resources in organic pores of the Devonian Duvernay Shale, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin based on petroleum system modeling"
6447:
Racki, Grzegorz, "Toward understanding Late Devonian global events: few answers, many questions" in Jeff Over, Jared Morrow, P. Wignall (eds.),
5302:"Sulfur isotope evidence for low and fluctuating sulfate levels in the Late Devonian ocean and the potential link with the mass extinction event"
3329:"Strategies of survival during extreme environmental perturbations: evolution of conodonts in response to the Kellwasser crisis (Upper Devonian)"
1405: Ma proposed for the Kellwasser event. However, the second volcanic phase is slightly older than Hangenberg event, which is dated to around
2396:"Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events"
7464:
5948:
Wang K, Attrep M, Orth CJ (December 2017). "Global iridium anomaly, mass extinction, and redox change at the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary".
6516:
2125:"A model for porosity evolution in shale reservoirs: An example from the Upper Devonian Duvernay Formation, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin"
6489:
6474:
4643:"Extent and duration of marine anoxia during the Frasnian–Famennian (Late Devonian) mass extinction in Poland, Germany, Austria and France"
6464:
5902:"Geochemistry of the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in Belgium: Mass extinction, anoxic oceans and microtektite layer, but not much iridium?"
6316:
6078:
5611:"A volcanic scenario for the Frasnian–Famennian major biotic crisis and other Late Devonian global changes: More answers than questions?"
5106:"Palaeomagnetism of East Siberian traps and kimberlites: two new poles and palaeogeographic reconstructions at about 360 and 250 Ma"
4102:
3233:"The Late Frasnian Kellwasser horizons of the Harz Mountains (Germany): Two oxygen-deficient periods resulting from different mechanisms"
2023:"Paleogeography and paleoenvironments of the Late Devonian Kellwasser event: A review of its sedimentological and geochemical expression"
7521:
2462:
283:
than by an increase in extinctions. This might have been caused by invasions of cosmopolitan species, rather than by any single event.
1834:
7298:
6752:
5104:
Kravchinsky, V.A.; K.M. Konstantinov; V. Courtillot; J.-P. Valet; J.I. Savrasov; S.D. Cherniy; S.G. Mishenin; B.S. Parasotka (2002).
4849:
Le Hir, Guillaume; Donnadieu, Yannick; Goddéris, Yves; Meyer-Berthaud, Brigitte; Ramstein, Gilles; Blakey, Ronald C. (October 2011).
1851:
1040:
337:
75:
4247:
De Vleeschouwer, David; Rakociński, Michał; Racki, Grzegorz; Bond, David P. G.; Sobień, Katarzyna; Claeys, Philippe (1 March 2013).
2077:
Wang, Pengwei; Chen, Zhuoheng; Jin, Zhijun; Jiang, Chunqing; Sun, Mingliang; Guo, Yingchun; Chen, Xiao; Jia, Zekai (February 2018).
7346:
6678:
4803:"Did climate changes trigger the Late Devonian Kellwasser Crisis? Evidence from a high-resolution conodont record from South China"
1136:
737:
7308:
5979:"Upper Devonian iridium anomalies, conodont zonation and the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in the Canning Basin, Western Australia"
6313:"Devonian stromatoporoid originations, extinctions, and paleobiogeography: how they relate to the Frasnian-Famennian extinction"
3893:
Smart, Matthew S.; Filippelli, Gabriel; Gilhooly III, William P.; Marshall, John E.A.; Whiteside, Jessica H. (9 November 2022).
7448:
7293:
6740:
5503:
5449:"Coronene, mercury, and biomarker data support a link between extinction magnitude and volcanic intensity in the Late Devonian"
3172:
Percival, L. M. E.; Davies, J. H. F. L.; Schaltegger, Urs; De Vleeschouwer, D.; Da Silva, A.-C.; Föllmi, K. B. (22 June 2018).
1623:
188:
in the Devonian Period. Overall, 19% of all families and 50% of all genera became extinct. A second mass extinction called the
82:
1754:"Devonian–Carboniferous Hangenberg mass extinction event, widespread organic-rich mudrock and anoxia: causes and consequences"
1180:, documented by concurrent negative ∆Hg and positive δHg excursions, occurred in the North American Devonian Seaway. Elevated
7406:
7288:
6728:
6431:
6338:
6100:
5148:
Kravchinsky, V. A. (2012). "Paleozoic large igneous provinces of Northern Eurasia: Correlation with mass extinction events".
5024:
4120:
3552:"The Silurian–Devonian terrestrial revolution: Diversity patterns and sampling bias of the vascular plant macrofossil record"
3550:
Capel, Elliot; Cleal, Christopher J.; Xue, Jinzhuang; Monnet, Claude; Servais, Thomas; Cascales-Miñana, Borja (August 2022).
1701:
Sallan, L.; Galimberti, A. K. (2015-11-13). "Body-size reduction in vertebrates following the end-Devonian mass extinction".
902:
89:
3231:
Riquier, Laurent; Tribovillard, Nicolas; Averbuch, Olivier; Devleeschuwer, Xavier; Riboulleau, Armelle (30 September 2006).
7046:
4536:
Haddad, Emily E.; Boyer, Diana L.; Droser, Mary L.; Lee, Bridget K.; Lyons, Timothy W.; Love, Gordon D. (15 January 2018).
330:
4480:
Cui, Yixin; Shen, Bing; Sun, Yuanlin; Ma, Haoran; Chang, Jieqiong; Li, Fangbing; Lang, Xianguo; Peng, Yongbo (July 2021).
2123:
Dong, Tian; Harris, Nicholas B.; McMillan, Julia M.; Twemlow, Cory E.; Nassichuk, Brent R.; Bish, David L. (15 May 2019).
1292:
was suggested as a cause of the Late Devonian extinction in 2002. The end of the Devonian Period had extremely widespread
7479:
7228:
5794:
5306:
4855:
4807:
4372:
4309:
4253:
4182:"Anchoring the Late Devonian mass extinction in absolute time by integrating climatic controls and radio-isotopic dating"
1666:
McGhee, George R. Jr, 1996. The Late Devonian Mass Extinction: the Frasnian/Famennian Crisis (Columbia University Press)
1572:
4538:"Ichnofabrics and chemostratigraphy argue against persistent anoxia during the Upper Kellwasser Event in New York State"
1619:"Kellwasser Events and goniatite successions in the Devonian of the Montagne Noire with comments on possible causations"
1158:
The relatively sudden input of nutrients into river water as rooted plants expanded into upland regions may have caused
7571:
7401:
6618:
6025:
McGhee Jr., George R.; Orth, Charles J.; Quintana, Leonard R.; Gilmore, James S.; Olsen, Edward J. (1 September 1986).
5685:
6027:"Late Devonian "Kellwasser Event" mass-extinction horizon in Germany: No geochemical evidence for a large-body impact"
4305:"Global seawater redox trends during the Late Devonian mass extinction detected using U isotopes of marine limestones"
801:
The biota was also very different. Plants, which had been on land in forms similar to mosses and liverworts since the
7366:
6642:
5925:
5248:
4993:
Carbon locked in Devonian coal, the earliest of Earth's coal deposits, is currently being returned to the atmosphere.
1671:
850:
between the biotas before and after the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, demonstrating the extinction event's magnitude.
279:
event in Sweden. Some statistical analysis suggests that the decrease in diversity was caused more by a decrease in
126:
31:
7500:
7469:
6666:
6654:
4938:
Averbuch, O.; Tribovillard, N.; Devleeschouwer, X.; Riquier, L.; Mistiaen, B.; Van Vliet-Lanoe, B. (2 March 2005).
3174:"Precisely dating the Frasnian–Famennian boundary: implications for the cause of the Late Devonian mass extinction"
3123:"Late Frasnian--Famennian climates based on palynomorph analyses and the question of the Late Devonian glaciations"
2221:"A high-precision U–Pb age constraint on the Rhynie Chert Konservat-Lagerstätte: time scale and other implications"
1503:
1455:
either was just before the Kellwasser event or coincided with it. Most impact craters, such as the Kellwasser-aged
96:
4697:
van Geldern, R.; Joachimski, M. M.; Day, J.; Jansen, U.; Alvarez, F.; Yolkin, E. A.; Ma, X. -P. (6 October 2006).
7278:
7175:
6704:
5742:"Sedimentary and faunal changes across the frasnian/famennian boundary in the canning basin of Western Australia"
1794:
291:(jawless fish) were in decline long before the end of the Frasnian and were nearly wiped out by the extinctions.
110:
5963:
4772:
3306:
1877:
140:
Comparison of the three episodes of extinction in the Late Devonian (Late D) to other mass extinction events in
7155:
5679:
Reimold, Wolf U.; Kelley, Simon P.; Sherlock, Sarah C.; Henkel, Herbert; Koeberl, Christian (26 January 2010).
1515:
6052:
4755:"Conodont apatite δ18O signatures indicate climatic cooling as a trigger of the Late Devonian mass extinction"
7505:
6497:
5680:
3375:
Pier, Jaleigh Q.; Brisson, Sarah K.; Beard, J. Andrew; Hren, Michael T.; Bush, Andrew M. (21 December 2021).
2901:
Brisson, Sarah K.; Pier, Jaleigh Q.; Beard, J. Andrew; Fernandes, Anjali M.; Bush, Andrew M. (5 April 2023).
1135:
and Devonian, land plants, assisted by fungi, underwent a hugely significant phase of evolution known as the
118:
23:
4049:
Carmichael, Sarah K.; Waters, Johnny A.; Suttner, Thomas J.; Kido, Erika; DeReuil, Aubry A. (1 April 2014).
2021:
Carmichael, Sarah K.; Waters, Johnny A.; Königshof, Peter; Suttner, Thomas J.; Kido, Erika (December 2019).
7336:
6487:
Understanding Late Devonian and Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events: Towards an Integrated Approach
6318:
Understanding Late Devonian And Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events: Towards an Integrated Approach
6123:
Brunton, Ian R.; O’Mahoney, Connor; Fields, Brian D.; Melott, Adrian L.; Thomas, Brian C. (19 April 2023).
6080:
Understanding Late Devonian And Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events: Towards an Integrated Approach
4104:
Understanding Late Devonian And Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events: Towards an Integrated Approach
3929:"Late Devonian Oceanic Anoxic Events and Biotic Crises: "Rooted" in the Evolution of Vascular Land Plants?"
2659:"Tabulate Corals after the Frasnian/Famennian Crisis: A Unique Fauna from the Holy Cross Mountains, Poland"
941:
disappeared during this event. The surviving taxa show morphological trends through the event. Atrypid and
130:
35:
6362:
6312:
6264:
6074:
5448:
5049:
4802:
4481:
4138:"The role of sea-level change and marine anoxia in the Frasnian-Famennian (Late Devonian) mass extinction"
4098:
4050:
3954:
3612:
3495:
3328:
3232:
2541:
2078:
2022:
1971:
1795:"GSA Today - Speciation collapse and invasive species dynamics during the Late Devonian "Mass Extinction""
1753:
7550:
7421:
6367:
5978:
5789:
5615:
5453:
5004:
4003:"Evidence for shallow-water 'Upper Kellwasser' anoxia in the Frasnian–Famennian reefs of Alberta, Canada"
2546:
2331:
2027:
123:
28:
4249:"The astronomical rhythm of Late-Devonian climate change (Kowala section, Holy Cross Mountains, Poland)"
131:
36:
7576:
7069:
4939:
4754:
4580:
2848:
5301:
4698:
4433:
4367:
4248:
2799:
2719:
1972:"Quantitative conodont-based approaches for correlation of the Late Devonian Kellwasser anoxic events"
750:
During the Late Devonian, the continents were arranged differently from today, with a supercontinent,
7411:
6764:
6630:
6129:
5728:
Revised Dating Of Alamo And Some Other Late Devonian Impacts In Relation To Resulting Mass Extinction
1428:
185:
129:
128:
34:
33:
125:
30:
7586:
7443:
7435:
7331:
7039:
6570:
6503:
124:
122:
29:
27:
2483:
Neil H. Shubin, Edward B. Daeschler and Farish A. Jenkins Jr (6 April 2006). "The pectoral fin of
132:
127:
37:
32:
7381:
6594:
6486:
4850:
4482:"A pulse of seafloor oxygenation at the Late Devonian Frasnian-Famennian boundary in South China"
4099:"Evidence for Late Devonian (Kellwasser) anoxic events in the Great Basin, Western United States"
3611:
Xue, Jinzhuang; Huang, Pu; Wang, Deming; Xiong, Conghui; Liu, Le; Basinger, James F. (May 2018).
3054:
2849:"Microbial mounds prior to the Frasnian-Famennian mass extinctions, Hantang, Guilin, South China"
2542:"Astronomical climate changes trigger Late Devonian bio- and environmental events in South China"
1241:
1076:
5837:
5790:"Microtektite-like impact glass associated with the Frasnian-Famennian boundary mass extinction"
5741:
2198:
54:
7248:
7200:
6461:
1856:
6479:
7371:
7326:
7205:
7094:
7084:
6690:
5185:
4707:. Evolution of the System Earth in the Late Palaeozoic: Clues from Sedimentary Geochemistry.
4486:
4434:"A multiproxy analysis of the Frasnian-Famennian transition in western New York State, U.S.A"
4002:
3710:
3617:
3556:
3441:
3127:
1913:"End-Devonian extinction and a bottleneck in the early evolution of modern jawed vertebrates"
1005:
only barely survived, succumbing early in the Famennian. Among freshwater and shallow marine
6421:
5807:
5740:
Becker, R. Thomas; House, Michael R.; Kirchgasser, William T.; Playford, Phillip E. (1991).
5319:
4899:"Evidence for long-term climate change in Upper Devonian strata of the central Appalachians"
4868:
4385:
4322:
4266:
4107:. Developments in Palaeontology and Stratigraphy. Vol. 20. Elsevier. pp. 225–262.
2482:
2438:
2312:
2220:
1155:, the chemical breakdown of rocks, releasing ions which are nutrients for plants and algae.
835:. Fish were also undergoing a huge radiation, and tetrapodomorphs, such as the Frasnian-age
7474:
7243:
7233:
7190:
6376:
6278:
6209:
6148:
6040:
5992:
5851:
5803:
5755:
5727:
5624:
5576:
5563:
Racki, Grzegorz; Rakociński, Michał; Marynowski, Leszek; Wignall, Paul B. (26 April 2018).
5537:
5462:
5421:
5383:
5315:
5224:
5194:
5153:
5117:
5063:
4953:
4944:
4912:
4864:
4712:
4656:
4592:
4551:
4495:
4381:
4318:
4262:
4195:
4154:
4064:
4016:
3968:
3844:
3787:
3719:
3626:
3565:
3509:
3450:
3390:
3342:
3294:
3246:
3187:
3136:
3007:
2966:
2860:
2813:
2733:
2672:
2603:
2555:
2498:
2343:
2259:
2138:
2090:
2036:
1985:
1924:
1865:
1831:
1767:
1710:
1470:
have been speculated as possible drivers of mass extinctions due to their ability to cause
1467:
1192:
1169:
971:
949:, whose spiny shells made them more resistant to predation and environmental disturbances.
200:
5565:"Mercury enrichments and the Frasnian-Famennian biotic crisis: A volcanic trigger proved?"
5103:
1427:
Another overlooked contributor to the Kellwasser mass extinction could be the now extinct
8:
7540:
7303:
7185:
7180:
7170:
7089:
7032:
4647:
3774:"Mid-Devonian Archaeopteris Roots Signal Revolutionary Change in Earliest Fossil Forests"
1456:
1314:
1173:
759:
66:
6380:
6282:
6213:
6152:
6044:
5996:
5855:
5759:
5628:
5580:
5541:
5466:
5425:
5387:
5198:
5157:
5121:
5067:
4957:
4916:
4716:
4660:
4596:
4555:
4499:
4199:
4158:
4068:
4020:
4001:
Bond, David P. G.; Zatoń, Michał; Wignall, Paul B.; Marynowski, Leszek (11 March 2013).
3972:
3848:
3791:
3723:
3630:
3569:
3513:
3454:
3394:
3346:
3298:
3250:
3191:
3140:
3011:
2970:
2929:
2902:
2864:
2817:
2737:
2676:
2607:
2559:
2502:
2347:
2263:
2142:
2094:
2040:
1989:
1928:
1869:
1771:
1714:
958:, and thus with the sea water temperature; this may relate to their occupying different
6392:
6240:
6199:
6185:
6138:
5875:
5746:
5702:
5698:
5652:
5478:
5349:
5079:
5030:
5016:
4969:
4824:
4672:
4616:
4511:
4407:
4344:
4229:
4216:
4186:
4181:
3868:
3813:
3753:
3740:
3705:
3680:
3593:
3525:
3471:
3436:
3411:
3381:
3377:"Accelerated mass extinction in an isolated biota during Late Devonian climate changes"
3376:
3208:
3178:
3173:
3101:
3073:
2876:
2695:
2658:
2634:
2590:"Devonian geoheritage of Siberia: A case of the northwestern Kemerovo region of Russia"
2589:
2522:
2454:
2422:
2395:
2359:
2154:
2052:
1947:
1912:
1881:
1734:
1567:
1225:
787:
783:
6330:
6290:
6092:
4112:
3980:
3927:
Algeo, T.J.; Berner, R.A.; Maynard, J.B.; Scheckler, S.E.; Archives, G.S.A.T. (1995).
3354:
3148:
2993:
2825:
2745:
1779:
721:
7510:
7396:
7386:
7139:
7099:
6606:
6427:
6396:
6334:
6245:
6227:
6166:
6096:
6031:
6004:
5950:
5921:
5867:
5842:
5815:
5656:
5482:
5341:
5244:
5130:
5105:
5083:
5034:
5020:
4973:
4965:
4898:
4828:
4776:
4759:
4728:
4608:
4604:
4515:
4455:
4411:
4399:
4348:
4336:
4303:
White, David A.; Elrick, Maya; Romaniello, Stephen; Zhang, Feifei (1 December 2018).
4278:
4233:
4221:
4116:
3872:
3860:
3817:
3805:
3757:
3745:
3597:
3529:
3500:
3476:
3416:
3285:
3213:
3068:
3049:
3023:
3019:
2994:"Paleolatitudes in the Devonian of Brazil and the Frasnian-Famennian mass extinction"
2957:
2934:
2880:
2872:
2829:
2749:
2700:
2639:
2621:
2514:
2458:
2158:
2056:
1952:
1738:
1726:
1667:
1618:
1589:
1420:
1069:
775:
6388:
5879:
5706:
5637:
5610:
5474:
5395:
5353:
5206:
5165:
4676:
4620:
4507:
3638:
3578:
3551:
3281:"Anoxic events in the late Frasnian—Causes of the Frasnian-Famennian faunal crisis?"
3077:
2774:
2567:
2363:
2048:
1885:
7515:
7263:
7238:
7195:
7165:
7114:
7109:
6539:
6384:
6326:
6286:
6235:
6217:
6156:
6088:
6048:
6000:
5959:
5913:
5859:
5811:
5763:
5694:
5642:
5632:
5584:
5545:
5470:
5429:
5391:
5331:
5323:
5282:
5236:
5202:
5161:
5125:
5071:
5012:
4961:
4920:
4872:
4816:
4768:
4720:
4699:"Carbon, oxygen and strontium isotope records of Devonian brachiopod shell calcite"
4664:
4600:
4559:
4503:
4447:
4389:
4326:
4270:
4211:
4203:
4162:
4137:
4108:
4072:
4024:
3976:
3959:
3928:
3926:
3902:
3852:
3795:
3735:
3727:
3684:
3676:
3634:
3583:
3573:
3517:
3466:
3458:
3406:
3398:
3350:
3302:
3254:
3237:
3203:
3195:
3152:
3144:
3063:
3015:
2974:
2924:
2916:
2903:"Niche conservatism and ecological change during the Late Devonian mass extinction"
2868:
2821:
2741:
2690:
2680:
2629:
2611:
2563:
2526:
2506:
2489:
2446:
2417:
2409:
2351:
2294:
2267:
2232:
2194:
2146:
2098:
2044:
1993:
1942:
1932:
1873:
1775:
1718:
1581:
1479:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1244:
during the Famennian, which has been suggested as a cause of the Hangenberg event.
1164:
1048:
659:
232:
189:
158:
141:
5863:
5838:"Microtektites and Mass Extinctions: Evidence for a Late Devonian Asteroid Impact"
5050:"Global events of the Late Paleozoic (Early Devonian to Middle Permian): A review"
3258:
2616:
1273:. The continued drawdown of organic carbon eventually pulled the Earth out of its
7223:
7160:
6493:
6468:
5549:
5433:
5286:
5075:
4924:
4896:
4724:
4564:
4537:
4451:
4166:
4076:
3831:
Gong, Yiming; Xu, Ran; Tang, Zhongdao; Si, Yuanlan; Li, Baohua (1 October 2005).
3778:
2685:
1997:
1838:
1471:
1362:
1302:
1208:
excursion is observed across the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in brachiopods from
1010:
1006:
981:
818:
540:
165:
16:
One of the five most severe extinction events in the history of the Earth's biota
2102:
858:
7376:
7351:
6191:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6161:
6124:
5836:
Claeys, Philippe; Casier, Jean-Georges; Margolis, Stanley V. (21 August 1992).
5327:
5048:
Qie, Wenkun; Algeo, Thomas J.; Luo, Genming; Herrmann, Achim (1 October 2019).
4876:
4820:
4394:
4331:
4304:
4274:
4207:
3731:
3462:
3402:
3199:
2588:
Gutak, Jaroslav M.; Ruban, Dmitry A.; Ermolaev, Vladimir A. (1 February 2023).
1568:"Devonian climate change, breathing, and the origin of the tetrapod stem group"
1327:
1319:
1310:
1306:
1293:
1159:
871:
863:
531:
268:
7416:
5917:
5767:
5647:
5240:
4668:
3800:
3773:
3588:
3120:
2236:
1534:
The species estimate is the toughest to assess and most likely to be adjusted.
7565:
7253:
7104:
7079:
6832:
6231:
6170:
5345:
4780:
4732:
4459:
4403:
4340:
4282:
3864:
3521:
3090:
3027:
2833:
2753:
2625:
2185:
2129:
1487:
1436:
1209:
1146:
1132:
1056:
959:
942:
894:
886:
832:
829:
811:
549:
522:
303:
193:
162:
6222:
5181:
3832:
1937:
1722:
984:. They were among the vertebrates which died out due to the Kellwasser event
7495:
7074:
6449:
Understanding Late Devonian and Permian-Triassic Biotic and Climatic Events
6249:
5871:
4612:
4225:
3809:
3749:
3706:"Climate windows of opportunity for plant expansion during the Phanerozoic"
3480:
3420:
3217:
3122:
2938:
2920:
2704:
2643:
2518:
2413:
2355:
2298:
1956:
1730:
1683:
1593:
1483:
1347:
1080:
1052:
1036:
998:
898:
825:
795:
641:
295:
264:
176:, which occurred around 372 million years ago, at the boundary between the
3689:
3604:
2657:
Zapalski, Mikołaj K.; Berkowski, Błażej; Wrzołek, Tomasz (23 March 2016).
1068:
severe. The Kellwasser event was preceded by a longer period of prolonged
7356:
7341:
7124:
5336:
4937:
2450:
1585:
1452:
1397: Ma, which the first volcanic phase is in agreement with the age of
1262:
1188:
990:
934:
791:
779:
276:
248:
47:
3952:
3230:
3171:
2540:
Ma, Kunyuan; Hinnov, Linda; Zhang, Xinsong; Gong, Yiming (August 2022).
2510:
2150:
1139:. Their maximum height went from 30 cm at the start of the Devonian, to
7055:
6895:
6868:
6805:
5900:
Claeys, P.; Kyte, F. T.; Herbosch, A.; Casier, J.-G. (1 January 1996).
4581:"Late Devonian marine anoxia challenged by benthic cyanobacterial mats"
3157:
1357:
Recent studies have confirmed a correlation between Viluy traps in the
1335:
1181:
1152:
1044:
1002:
994:
946:
914:
802:
557:
284:
280:
252:
236:
4851:"The climate change caused by the land plant invasion in the Devonian"
4028:
2978:
2401:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2287:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
275:
or another extraterrestrial body has also been suggested, such as the
7361:
6877:
6787:
6582:
5588:
4848:
4641:
Bond, David P. G.; Wignall, Paul B.; Racki, Grzegorz (1 March 2004).
3907:
3894:
3856:
3543:
3496:"Ordovician-Devonian lichen canopies before evolution of woody trees"
2800:"Reef development at the Frasnian/Famennian mass extinction boundary"
1475:
1343:
1339:
1289:
1015:
989:
the Devonian. Most lingering agnathan (jawless fish) groups, such as
976:
950:
930:
918:
837:
771:
763:
755:
599:
492:
256:
213:
181:
6508:
4801:
Huang, Cheng; Joachimski, Michael M.; Gong, Yiming (1 August 2018).
3437:"Contemporaneous radiations of fungi and plants linked to symbiosis"
7391:
6859:
6850:
6823:
6814:
6796:
6322:
6204:
6143:
6084:
3892:
2720:"Strength, timing, setting and cause of mid-Palaeozoic extinctions"
2663:
2271:
2219:
Parry, S. F.; Noble, S. R.; Crowley, Q. G.; Wellman, C. H. (2011).
1499:
1432:
1416:
1358:
1298:
1020:
938:
926:
922:
890:
879:
821:
806:
751:
592:
585:
578:
512:
502:
260:
240:
209:
205:
177:
4246:
2847:
Shen, Jianwei; Webb, Gregory E.; Qing, Hairuo (16 November 2010).
1852:"Origination, extinction, and mass depletions of marine diversity"
866:
showing laminae and pillars; Columbus Limestone (Devonian) of Ohio
6886:
6841:
6265:"Frasnian–Famennian biotic crisis: undervalued tectonic control?"
5504:"Devonian Mass Extinction: Causes, Facts, Evidence & Animals"
4007:
3094:
Plants Invade the Land: Evolutionary and Environmental Approaches
2594:
1217:
1177:
1084:
1024:
767:
762:
occupied the Northern Hemisphere, while an equatorial continent,
564:
288:
244:
224:
6423:
The Late Devonian Mass Extinction: The Frasnian/Famennian Crisis
5562:
4897:
Brezinski, D.K.; Cecil, C.B.; Skema, V.W.; Kertis, C.A. (2009).
4135:
2020:
1498:
Other mechanisms put forward to explain the extinctions include
1205:
955:
1448:
1047:. A recent survey (McGhee 1996) estimates that 22% of all the '
875:
571:
299:
220:
6125:"X-Ray-luminous Supernovae: Threats to Terrestrial Biospheres"
5739:
5300:
Sim, Min Sub; Ono, Shuhei; Hurtgen, Matthew T. (1 June 2015).
4696:
4579:
Kazmierczak, J.; Kremer, B.; Racki, Grzegorz (7 August 2012).
144:. Plotted is the extinction intensity, calculated from marine
7024:
6024:
3487:
3121:
Streel, M.; Caputo, M.V.; Loboziak, S.; Melo, J.H.G. (2000).
1351:
1221:
1213:
882:
272:
145:
6122:
4179:
3703:
2954:
1832:
Patterns of extinction and biodiversity in the fossil record
1001:, also went extinct by the end of the Frasnian. The jawless
5964:
10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<1071:giamea>2.3.co;2
5678:
4773:
10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0711:CAOSIC>2.0.CO;2
4048:
3307:
10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0675:AEITLF>2.3.CO;2
1878:
10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0522:OEAMDO>2.0.CO;2
814:
294:
The extinction event was accompanied by widespread oceanic
228:
6315:. In Over, D. J.; Morrow, J. R.; Wignall, Paul B. (eds.).
6077:. In Over, D. J.; Morrow, J. R.; Wignall, Paul B. (eds.).
5977:
Nicoll, Robert S.; Playford, Phillip E. (September 1993).
4753:
Joachimski, Michael M.; Buggisch, Werner (1 August 2002).
4302:
4101:. In Over, D. J.; Morrow, J. R.; Wignall, Paul B. (eds.).
4000:
3279:
Joachimski, Michael M.; Buggisch, Werner (1 August 1993).
1184:
concentrations further support widespread euxinic waters.
6053:
10.1130/0091-7613(1986)14<776:LDKEMH>2.0.CO;2
5225:"Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions: An update"
4364:
3665:, and further consideration of its phylogenetic position"
2900:
2329:
2122:
1281:
that continued throughout the Carboniferous and Permian.
199:
Although it is well established that there was a massive
5899:
2656:
2218:
1850:
Bambach, R.K.; Knoll, A.H.; Wang, S.C. (December 2004).
5446:
3770:
3327:
Renaud, Sabrina; Girard, Catherine (15 February 1999).
2908:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1904:
1019:) disappeared at the Frasnian-Famennian boundary. True
6183:
4578:
3433:
2330:
McKerrow, W.S.; Mac Niocaill, C.; Dewey, J.F. (2000).
1617:
Becker, R. Thomas; House, Michael R. (13 March 1986).
5788:
Claeys, Philippe; Casier, Jean-Georges (April 1994).
4890:
2016:
2014:
1334:
into the atmosphere to have generated a destabilised
945:
brachiopods became rarer, replaced in many niches by
219:
By the Late Devonian, the land had been colonized by
5835:
4535:
3374:
2393:
1256:
burial of organic matter to decreased atmospheric CO
5047:
4800:
3549:
2249:
1970:Girard, Catherine; Renaud, Sabrina (25 June 2007).
1561:
1559:
1247:
The weathering of silicate rocks also draws down CO
313:
5906:Special Paper of the Geological Society of America
5011:(2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 534–545.
4752:
3278:
3096:. Columbia Univ. Press: New York. pp. 13–236.
2587:
2011:
243:were beginning to converge into what would become
6270:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
6186:"Supernova triggers for end-Devonian extinctions"
5984:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
5730:, 68th Annual Meteoritical Society Meeting (2005)
5521:
5414:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
5274:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
5055:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4904:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4704:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4543:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4439:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4146:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4056:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
3610:
3334:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2999:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2805:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2725:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2539:
1977:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1759:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
7563:
4640:
2076:
1897:
1895:
1849:
1700:
1556:
913:Further taxa to be starkly affected include the
841:, were beginning to evolve leg-like structures.
754:, covering much of the Southern Hemisphere. The
6075:"Modelling Late Devonian Extinction Hypotheses"
3427:
2179:Smith, Mark G.; Bustin, R. Marc (1 July 2000).
1917:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
121:
26:
7465:International Union for Conservation of Nature
6500:conference in 2003 reflects current approaches
5976:
5947:
5373:
5007:. In Alderton, David; Elias, Scott A. (eds.).
3047:
2775:"Kellwasser Event | paleontology | Britannica"
2083:Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering
1474:. A recent explanation suggests that a nearby
1196:event that intruded into epicontinental seas.
1030:
7040:
6524:
6471:at The Devonian Times. An excellent overview.
5407:
5405:
5299:
5003:Rosa, Eduardo L. M.; Isbell, John L. (2021).
3041:
2278:
1892:
1648:
1646:
736:Subdivision of the Devonian according to the
338:
247:. The extinction seems to have only affected
6360:
6177:
5787:
5527:
4479:
4097:Bond, David P. G.; Wignall, Paul B. (2005).
3922:
3920:
3918:
3830:
3326:
3106:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3048:Friedman, Matt; Sallan, Lauren Cole (2012).
2846:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2243:
1969:
1910:
1751:
5222:
5147:
5143:
5141:
4136:David P. G. Bond; Paul B. Wignalla (2008).
4096:
2319:. International Commission on Stratigraphy.
2199:10.1306/A9673B76-1738-11D7-8645000102C1865D
2178:
1819:Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change
1752:Caplan, Mark L; Bustin, R.Mark (May 1999).
1616:
743:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago.
7522:The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
7047:
7033:
6531:
6517:
6072:
5402:
5177:
5175:
5002:
3114:
2231:(4). London: Geological Society: 863–872.
1911:Sallan, L. C.; Coates, M. I. (June 2010).
1643:
1027:are rare until the mid-to-late Famennian.
345:
331:
7582:History of climate variability and change
6239:
6221:
6203:
6160:
6142:
5646:
5636:
5411:
5335:
5270:
5129:
4563:
4393:
4330:
4215:
3915:
3906:
3837:Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences
3799:
3739:
3688:
3587:
3577:
3493:
3470:
3410:
3207:
3156:
3084:
3067:
2950:
2948:
2928:
2694:
2684:
2633:
2615:
2421:
2370:
1946:
1936:
1694:
1478:explosion was the cause for the specific
786:were also growing across what is now the
680:
6426:. Columbia University Press. p. 9.
5218:
5216:
5138:
5097:
4129:
2439:"The fish that crawled out of the water"
2323:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1137:Silurian-Devonian Terrestrial Revolution
1126:
970:
857:
5223:Bond, D. P. G.; Wignall, P. B. (2014).
5172:
1792:
1435:period and thought to have undergone a
908:
805:, had just developed roots, seeds, and
7564:
6419:
2991:
2945:
2797:
2487:and the origin of the tetrapod limb".
2436:
2394:Algeo, T.J.; Scheckler, S. E. (1998).
1624:Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg
1062:
844:
733:
309:
271:or oceanic volcanism. The impact of a
80:
73:
64:
59:
7028:
6538:
6512:
6310:
6262:
5608:
5213:
4360:
4358:
2717:
2284:
2212:
1655:
1566:Clack, Jennifer A. (13 August 2007).
1565:
323:
108:
101:
94:
87:
7546:
6420:McGhee, George R. (1 January 1996).
4431:
3658:
3652:
1612:
1610:
1277:state during the Famennian into the
1075:The Kellwasser event, named for its
711:
693:
670:
649:
631:
316:
52:
44:
7480:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
7229:Extinction risk from climate change
6361:Kabanov, P.; Jiang, C. (May 2020).
5795:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
5686:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
5376:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
5307:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
4856:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
4808:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
4373:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
4310:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
4254:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3494:Retallack, Gregory J. (June 2022).
1811:
1573:Integrative and Comparative Biology
1493:
1094:
1039:was more drastic than the familiar
853:
46:Marine extinction intensity during
13:
6263:Racki, Grzegorz (September 1998).
5699:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2005.tb00965.x
5017:10.1016/B978-0-08-102908-4.00063-1
4355:
3681:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1962.tb14953.x
2332:"The Caledonian Orogeny redefined"
1676:
1265:. This reduction in atmospheric CO
1235:levels in the atmosphere. Since CO
117:
22:
14:
7598:
6455:
5110:Geophysical Journal International
2718:House, Michael R (20 June 2002).
2336:Journal of the Geological Society
2225:Journal of the Geological Society
1607:
1199:
7545:
7536:
7535:
7501:Decline in amphibian populations
7470:IUCN Species Survival Commission
7123:
7013:Millions of years before present
6354:
6304:
6256:
6116:
6066:
6018:
5970:
5941:
5131:10.1046/j.0956-540x.2001.01548.x
4966:10.1111/j.1365-3121.2004.00580.x
4605:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2012.00339.x
3069:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2012.01165.x
2873:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2010.01158.x
1342:, causing rapid global cooling,
7176:Human impact on the environment
6389:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103153
5893:
5829:
5781:
5733:
5726:J.R. Morrow and C.A. Sandberg.
5720:
5672:
5663:
5638:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103174
5602:
5556:
5496:
5475:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103452
5440:
5396:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.06.004
5367:
5293:
5264:
5207:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.06.004
5166:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.01.007
5041:
4996:
4987:
4931:
4842:
4794:
4746:
4690:
4634:
4572:
4529:
4508:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103651
4473:
4425:
4296:
4240:
4173:
4090:
4042:
3994:
3946:
3886:
3824:
3764:
3697:
3639:10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.03.004
3579:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104085
3368:
3320:
3272:
3224:
3165:
2985:
2894:
2840:
2791:
2767:
2711:
2650:
2581:
2568:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2022.103874
2533:
2476:
2465:from the original on 2006-04-11
2430:
2305:
2172:
2116:
2070:
2049:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.102984
1963:
1843:
1824:
1537:
1528:
1443:
204:extinctions at the ends of the
7156:Climate variability and change
7054:
6482:"The Late Devonian Extinction"
6462:Late Devonian mass extinctions
6073:McGhee Jr., George R. (2005).
1786:
1745:
1516:Evolutionary history of plants
966:
778:towards Gondwana, closing the
630:
1:
7506:Decline in insect populations
7449:IUCN Red List extinct species
6498:Geological Society of America
6331:10.1016/S0920-5446(05)80005-6
6291:10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00059-5
6093:10.1016/S0920-5446(05)80003-2
5864:10.1126/science.257.5073.1102
5609:Racki, Grezgorz (June 2020).
4113:10.1016/S0920-5446(05)80009-3
3981:10.1016/S0009-2541(00)00365-X
3355:10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00138-2
3259:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2006.02.021
3149:10.1016/S0012-8252(00)00026-X
2992:Copper, Paul (1 April 1977).
2826:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00472-2
2746:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00471-0
2617:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13288
1780:10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00218-1
1550:
1431:which was active in the Late
1051:' of marine animals (largely
174:Frasnian-Famennian extinction
6005:10.1016/0031-0182(93)90123-Z
5816:10.1016/0012-821X(94)90004-3
5550:10.1016/j.lithos.2012.09.007
5434:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.06.020
5287:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.10.047
5076:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.109259
4925:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.10.010
4725:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.045
4565:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.10.025
4452:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.02.032
4432:Lash, Gary G. (1 May 2015).
4167:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.02.015
4077:10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.02.016
3020:10.1016/0031-0182(77)90020-7
2686:10.1371/journal.pone.0149767
1998:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.03.007
1830:Sole, R. V., and Newman, M.
1462:
1284:
766:(formed by the collision of
7:
6368:Global and Planetary Change
5616:Global and Planetary Change
5454:Global and Planetary Change
5150:Global and Planetary Change
5005:"Late Paleozoic Glaciation"
2798:Copper, Paul (2002-06-20).
2547:Global and Planetary Change
2103:10.1016/j.jngse.2017.10.027
2028:Global and Planetary Change
1509:
1350:to occur during Kellwasser
1251:from the atmosphere, and CO
1107:), into the Late Devonian (
1035:The late Devonian crash in
1031:Magnitude of diversity loss
903:Permian-Triassic extinction
734:
487:
318:Devonian graphical timeline
10:
7603:
7070:Background extinction rate
6480:BBC "The Extinction files"
6413:
5328:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.03.009
4877:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.08.042
4821:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.05.016
4395:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118175
4332:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.09.020
4275:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.01.016
4208:10.1038/s41598-020-69097-6
3732:10.1038/s41467-022-32077-7
3669:American Journal of Botany
3463:10.1038/s41467-018-07849-9
3403:10.1038/s41598-021-03510-6
3200:10.1038/s41598-018-27847-7
251:. Hard-hit groups include
7572:Late Devonian extinctions
7531:
7488:
7457:
7434:
7392:End-Jurassic or Tithonian
7319:
7271:
7262:
7214:
7148:
7132:
7121:
7062:
6932:
6546:
6130:The Astrophysical Journal
5918:10.1130/0-8137-2307-8.491
5768:10.1080/10292389109380400
4669:10.1017/S0016756804008866
3801:10.1016/j.cub.2019.11.067
3659:Beck, C.B. (April 1962).
2237:10.1144/0016-76492010-043
980:, an early air-breathing
885:. It left communities of
231:were built by corals and
227:. In the oceans, massive
7444:Lists of extinct species
6475:Devonian Mass Extinction
6162:10.3847/1538-4357/acc728
3522:10.1016/j.gr.2022.01.010
1793:Stigall, Alycia (2011).
1521:
1009:fish, the tetrapod-like
956:the oxygen isotope ratio
685:Late Devonian extinction
355:
267:, possibly triggered by
155:Late Devonian extinction
6311:Stock, Carl W. (2005).
6223:10.1073/pnas.2013774117
5808:1994E&PSL.122..303C
5320:2015E&PSL.419...52S
5009:Encyclopedia of Geology
4869:2011E&PSL.310..203L
4386:2023E&PSL.61318175Z
4323:2018E&PSL.503...68W
4267:2013E&PSL.365...25D
1938:10.1073/pnas.0914000107
1723:10.1126/science.aac7373
1242:Late Palaeozoic Ice Age
1079:, the Kellwassertal in
478:−360 —
468:−365 —
458:−370 —
448:−375 —
438:−380 —
428:−385 —
418:−390 —
408:−395 —
398:−400 —
388:−405 —
378:−410 —
368:−415 —
358:−420 —
7249:Latent extinction risk
2921:10.1098/rspb.2022.2524
2414:10.1098/rstb.1998.0195
2356:10.1144/jgs.157.6.1149
2299:10.1098/rstb.1998.0195
2252:The Journal of Geology
1821:John Wiley & Sons.
1315:Pripyat-Dnieper-Donets
985:
867:
135:
40:
7206:Paradox of enrichment
7095:Functional extinction
7085:Ecological extinction
5241:10.1130/2014.2505(02)
5186:Earth-Science Reviews
4487:Earth-Science Reviews
3711:Nature Communications
3618:Earth-Science Reviews
3557:Earth-Science Reviews
3442:Nature Communications
3128:Earth-Science Reviews
1468:Near-Earth supernovae
1127:Weathering and anoxia
1059:during the Devonian.
974:
861:
157:consisted of several
134:
61:Millions of years ago
39:
7475:Extinction Rebellion
7417:Pliocene–Pleistocene
7299:Cretaceous–Paleogene
7244:Hypothetical species
7234:Extinction threshold
7191:Overabundant species
6753:Cretaceous–Paleogene
3661:"Reconstructions of
2451:10.1038/news060403-7
2437:Dalton, Rex (2006).
2317:www.stratigraphy.org
1193:Holy Cross Mountains
909:Marine invertebrates
784:Caledonian mountains
664:Famennian glaciation
259:, and reef-building
201:loss of biodiversity
194:Carboniferous Period
172:, also known as the
7402:Cenomanian-Turonian
7347:Cambrian–Ordovician
7279:Ordovician–Silurian
7186:Mutational meltdown
7171:Habitat destruction
7090:Extinct in the wild
6705:Ordovician-Silurian
6679:Cambrian-Ordovician
6619:Cenomanian-Turonian
6381:2020GPC...18803153K
6283:1998PPP...141..177R
6214:2020PNAS..11721008F
6198:(35): 21008–21010.
6153:2023ApJ...947...42B
6045:1986Geo....14..776M
5997:1993PPP...104..105N
5856:1992Sci...257.1102C
5850:(5073): 1102–1104.
5760:1991HBio....5..183B
5669:Digby McLaren, 1969
5629:2020GPC...18903174R
5581:2018Geo....46..543R
5542:2012Litho.155..272C
5467:2021GPC...19903452K
5426:2013PPP...386..531R
5388:2010ESRv..102...29K
5199:2010ESRv..102...29K
5158:2012GPC....86...31K
5122:2002GeoJI.148....1K
5068:2019PPP...53109259Q
4958:2005TeNov..17...25A
4917:2009PPP...284..315B
4717:2006PPP...240...47V
4661:2004GeoM..141..173B
4648:Geological Magazine
4597:2012Gbio...10..371K
4556:2018PPP...490..178H
4500:2021ESRv..21803651C
4200:2020NatSR..1012940D
4159:2008PPP...263..107B
4069:2014PPP...399..394C
4021:2013Letha..46..355B
3973:2001ChGeo.175..109J
3849:2005ScChD..48.1656G
3792:2020CBio...30E.421S
3724:2022NatCo..13.4530G
3631:2018ESRv..180...92X
3570:2022ESRv..23104085C
3514:2022GondR.106..211R
3455:2018NatCo...9.5451L
3395:2021NatSR..1124366P
3347:1999PPP...146...19R
3299:1993Geo....21..675J
3251:2006ChGeo.233..137R
3192:2018NatSR...8.9578P
3141:2000ESRv...52..121S
3012:1977PPP....21..165C
2971:2008Geo....36..907B
2865:2010Sedim..57.1615S
2818:2002PPP...181...27C
2738:2002PPP...181....5H
2677:2016PLoSO..1149767Z
2608:2023Heliy...913288G
2560:2022GPC...21503874M
2511:10.1038/nature04637
2503:2006Natur.440..764S
2348:2000JGSoc.157.1149M
2264:2004JG....112..495K
2151:10.1306/10261817272
2143:2019BAAPG.103.1017D
2095:2018JNGSE..50...33W
2041:2019GPC...18302984C
1990:2007PPP...250..114G
1929:2010PNAS..10710131S
1923:(22): 10131–10135.
1870:2004Pbio...30..522B
1772:1999PPP...148..187C
1715:2015Sci...350..812S
1174:Milankovitch cycles
1063:Duration and timing
845:Extinction patterns
798:rose over America.
310:Late Devonian world
6643:Rainforest collaps
6492:2019-04-08 at the
6467:2020-07-27 at the
6325:. pp. 71–92.
6087:. pp. 37–50.
5747:Historical Biology
5648:20.500.12128/14061
5229:GSA Special Papers
4187:Scientific Reports
3589:20.500.12210/76731
3382:Scientific Reports
3179:Scientific Reports
2779:www.britannica.com
2313:"Chart/Time Scale"
1837:2012-03-14 at the
1799:www.geosociety.org
1586:10.1093/icb/icm055
986:
868:
819:lepidosigillarioid
788:Scottish Highlands
705:shrubs & trees
136:
41:
7577:Extinction events
7559:
7558:
7511:Extinction symbol
7430:
7429:
7294:Triassic–Jurassic
7264:Extinction events
7140:Extinction vortex
7100:Genetic pollution
7022:
7021:
6741:Triassic–Jurassic
6667:Smithian-Spathian
6595:Toarcian turnover
6540:Extinction events
6451:, Elsevier, 2005.
6433:978-0-231-07505-3
6340:978-0-444-52127-9
6102:978-0-444-52127-9
5958:(12): 1071–1074.
5026:978-0-08-102909-1
4122:978-0-444-52127-9
4029:10.1111/let.12014
3843:(10): 1656–1665.
3501:Gondwana Research
2979:10.1130/G24989A.1
2497:(7085): 764–771.
2408:(1365): 113–130.
2293:(1365): 113–130.
1709:(6262): 812–815.
1429:Cerberean Caldera
1070:biodiversity loss
1011:elpistostegalians
748:
747:
729:
728:
710:
709:
692:
691:
669:
668:
648:
647:
159:extinction events
69:
7594:
7549:
7548:
7539:
7538:
7516:Human extinction
7407:Eocene–Oligocene
7289:Permian–Triassic
7269:
7268:
7239:Field of Bullets
7196:Overexploitation
7181:Muller's ratchet
7166:Invasive species
7127:
7115:Pseudoextinction
7110:Local extinction
7049:
7042:
7035:
7026:
7025:
6779:
6774:
6767:
6762:
6755:
6750:
6743:
6738:
6731:
6726:
6719:
6714:
6707:
6702:
6693:
6688:
6681:
6676:
6669:
6664:
6657:
6652:
6645:
6640:
6633:
6628:
6621:
6616:
6609:
6604:
6597:
6592:
6585:
6580:
6573:
6568:
6561:
6556:
6533:
6526:
6519:
6510:
6509:
6444:
6442:
6440:
6408:
6407:
6405:
6403:
6358:
6352:
6351:
6349:
6347:
6321:. Vol. 20.
6308:
6302:
6301:
6299:
6297:
6277:(3–4): 177–198.
6260:
6254:
6253:
6243:
6225:
6207:
6181:
6175:
6174:
6164:
6146:
6120:
6114:
6113:
6111:
6109:
6083:. Vol. 20.
6070:
6064:
6063:
6061:
6059:
6022:
6016:
6015:
6013:
6011:
5991:(1–4): 105–113.
5974:
5968:
5967:
5945:
5939:
5938:
5936:
5934:
5897:
5891:
5890:
5888:
5886:
5833:
5827:
5826:
5824:
5822:
5802:(3–4): 303–315.
5785:
5779:
5778:
5776:
5774:
5754:(2–4): 183–196.
5737:
5731:
5724:
5718:
5717:
5715:
5713:
5676:
5670:
5667:
5661:
5660:
5650:
5640:
5606:
5600:
5599:
5597:
5595:
5589:10.1130/G40233.1
5560:
5554:
5553:
5525:
5519:
5518:
5516:
5514:
5500:
5494:
5493:
5491:
5489:
5444:
5438:
5437:
5409:
5400:
5399:
5371:
5365:
5364:
5362:
5360:
5339:
5297:
5291:
5290:
5268:
5262:
5261:
5259:
5257:
5220:
5211:
5210:
5179:
5170:
5169:
5152:. 86–87: 31–36.
5145:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5101:
5095:
5094:
5092:
5090:
5045:
5039:
5038:
5000:
4994:
4991:
4985:
4984:
4982:
4980:
4935:
4929:
4928:
4911:(3–4): 315–325.
4894:
4888:
4887:
4885:
4883:
4863:(3–4): 203–212.
4846:
4840:
4839:
4837:
4835:
4798:
4792:
4791:
4789:
4787:
4750:
4744:
4743:
4741:
4739:
4694:
4688:
4687:
4685:
4683:
4638:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4576:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4533:
4527:
4526:
4524:
4522:
4477:
4471:
4470:
4468:
4466:
4429:
4423:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4397:
4362:
4353:
4352:
4334:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4244:
4238:
4237:
4219:
4177:
4171:
4170:
4153:(3–4): 107–118.
4142:
4133:
4127:
4126:
4094:
4088:
4087:
4085:
4083:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4035:
3998:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3987:
3967:(1–2): 109–131.
3960:Chemical Geology
3950:
3944:
3943:
3933:
3924:
3913:
3912:
3910:
3908:10.1130/B36384.1
3890:
3884:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3857:10.1360/02yd0346
3828:
3822:
3821:
3803:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3743:
3701:
3695:
3694:
3692:
3656:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3645:
3608:
3602:
3601:
3591:
3581:
3547:
3541:
3540:
3538:
3536:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3474:
3431:
3425:
3424:
3414:
3372:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3361:
3324:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3245:(1–2): 137–155.
3238:Chemical Geology
3228:
3222:
3221:
3211:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3135:(1–3): 121–173.
3118:
3112:
3111:
3105:
3097:
3088:
3082:
3081:
3071:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3034:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2952:
2943:
2942:
2932:
2898:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2859:(7): 1615–1639.
2844:
2838:
2837:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2698:
2688:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2637:
2619:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2537:
2531:
2530:
2485:Tiktaalik roseae
2480:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2445:: news060403–7.
2434:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2391:
2368:
2367:
2342:(6): 1149–1154.
2327:
2321:
2320:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2137:(5): 1017–1044.
2120:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2018:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2004:
1984:(1–4): 114–125.
1967:
1961:
1960:
1950:
1940:
1908:
1902:
1899:
1890:
1889:
1847:
1841:
1828:
1822:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1805:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1680:
1674:
1664:
1653:
1650:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1614:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1563:
1544:
1541:
1535:
1532:
1494:Other hypotheses
1480:Hangenberg event
1412:
1410:
1404:
1402:
1396:
1394:
1388:
1386:
1380:
1378:
1372:
1370:
1333:
1271:Milankovic cycle
1142:
1122:
1120:
1114:
1112:
1106:
1104:
1095:Potential causes
1043:that closed the
1041:extinction event
982:elpistostegalian
874:sponges and the
854:Reef destruction
717:
712:
699:
694:
681:Kellwasser event
676:
671:
660:Hangenberg event
655:
650:
637:
632:
552:
543:
534:
515:
495:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
347:
340:
333:
327:
314:
190:Hangenberg event
170:Kellwasser event
113:
106:
99:
92:
85:
78:
71:
67:
62:
57:
56:
50:
7602:
7601:
7597:
7596:
7595:
7593:
7592:
7591:
7587:Devonian events
7562:
7561:
7560:
7555:
7527:
7484:
7453:
7436:Extinct species
7426:
7382:Carnian Pluvial
7327:Great Oxidation
7315:
7258:
7224:Extinction debt
7216:
7210:
7161:Genetic erosion
7144:
7128:
7119:
7058:
7053:
7023:
7018:
7017:
7016:
7015:
7014:
7011:
7010:
7009:
7004:
7003:
6998:
6997:
6992:
6991:
6986:
6985:
6980:
6979:
6974:
6973:
6968:
6967:
6962:
6961:
6956:
6955:
6950:
6949:
6944:
6943:
6938:
6937:
6931:
6930:
6929:
6928:
6923:
6922:
6921:
6916:
6915:
6914:
6909:
6908:
6907:
6901:
6900:
6899:
6898:
6891:
6890:
6889:
6882:
6881:
6880:
6873:
6872:
6871:
6864:
6863:
6862:
6855:
6854:
6853:
6846:
6845:
6844:
6837:
6836:
6835:
6828:
6827:
6826:
6819:
6818:
6817:
6810:
6809:
6808:
6801:
6800:
6799:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6782:
6781:
6780:
6775:
6772:
6769:
6768:
6763:
6760:
6757:
6756:
6751:
6748:
6745:
6744:
6739:
6736:
6733:
6732:
6727:
6724:
6721:
6720:
6715:
6712:
6709:
6708:
6703:
6700:
6696:
6695:
6694:
6689:
6686:
6683:
6682:
6677:
6674:
6671:
6670:
6665:
6662:
6659:
6658:
6653:
6650:
6647:
6646:
6641:
6638:
6635:
6634:
6629:
6626:
6623:
6622:
6617:
6614:
6611:
6610:
6605:
6602:
6599:
6598:
6593:
6590:
6587:
6586:
6581:
6578:
6575:
6574:
6569:
6566:
6563:
6562:
6557:
6554:
6542:
6537:
6494:Wayback Machine
6469:Wayback Machine
6458:
6438:
6436:
6434:
6416:
6411:
6401:
6399:
6359:
6355:
6345:
6343:
6341:
6309:
6305:
6295:
6293:
6261:
6257:
6182:
6178:
6121:
6117:
6107:
6105:
6103:
6071:
6067:
6057:
6055:
6023:
6019:
6009:
6007:
5975:
5971:
5946:
5942:
5932:
5930:
5928:
5898:
5894:
5884:
5882:
5834:
5830:
5820:
5818:
5786:
5782:
5772:
5770:
5738:
5734:
5725:
5721:
5711:
5709:
5677:
5673:
5668:
5664:
5607:
5603:
5593:
5591:
5561:
5557:
5526:
5522:
5512:
5510:
5502:
5501:
5497:
5487:
5485:
5445:
5441:
5410:
5403:
5372:
5368:
5358:
5356:
5298:
5294:
5269:
5265:
5255:
5253:
5251:
5221:
5214:
5180:
5173:
5146:
5139:
5102:
5098:
5088:
5086:
5046:
5042:
5027:
5001:
4997:
4992:
4988:
4978:
4976:
4936:
4932:
4895:
4891:
4881:
4879:
4847:
4843:
4833:
4831:
4799:
4795:
4785:
4783:
4751:
4747:
4737:
4735:
4695:
4691:
4681:
4679:
4639:
4635:
4625:
4623:
4577:
4573:
4534:
4530:
4520:
4518:
4478:
4474:
4464:
4462:
4430:
4426:
4416:
4414:
4363:
4356:
4301:
4297:
4287:
4285:
4245:
4241:
4178:
4174:
4140:
4134:
4130:
4123:
4095:
4091:
4081:
4079:
4047:
4043:
4033:
4031:
3999:
3995:
3985:
3983:
3951:
3947:
3931:
3925:
3916:
3891:
3887:
3877:
3875:
3829:
3825:
3779:Current Biology
3769:
3765:
3702:
3698:
3657:
3653:
3643:
3641:
3609:
3605:
3548:
3544:
3534:
3532:
3492:
3488:
3432:
3428:
3373:
3369:
3359:
3357:
3325:
3321:
3311:
3309:
3277:
3273:
3263:
3261:
3229:
3225:
3170:
3166:
3119:
3115:
3099:
3098:
3089:
3085:
3046:
3042:
3032:
3030:
2990:
2986:
2953:
2946:
2899:
2895:
2885:
2883:
2845:
2841:
2796:
2792:
2783:
2781:
2773:
2772:
2768:
2758:
2756:
2716:
2712:
2671:(3): e0149767.
2655:
2651:
2586:
2582:
2572:
2570:
2538:
2534:
2481:
2477:
2468:
2466:
2435:
2431:
2392:
2371:
2328:
2324:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2283:
2279:
2248:
2244:
2217:
2213:
2203:
2201:
2177:
2173:
2163:
2161:
2121:
2117:
2107:
2105:
2075:
2071:
2061:
2059:
2019:
2012:
2002:
2000:
1968:
1964:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1893:
1848:
1844:
1839:Wayback Machine
1829:
1825:
1816:
1812:
1803:
1801:
1791:
1787:
1750:
1746:
1699:
1695:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1665:
1656:
1651:
1644:
1634:
1632:
1615:
1608:
1598:
1596:
1564:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1512:
1496:
1472:ozone depletion
1465:
1446:
1408:
1406:
1400:
1398:
1392:
1390:
1384:
1382:
1376:
1374:
1368:
1366:
1363:Siberian Craton
1331:
1326:
1323:
1303:Siberian Craton
1287:
1268:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1238:
1234:
1220:, Siberia, and
1202:
1165:stromatoporoids
1140:
1129:
1118:
1116:
1110:
1108:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1065:
1057:sampling biases
1033:
969:
911:
862:Side view of a
856:
847:
807:water transport
744:
742:
725:
724:
715:
706:
704:
697:
688:
674:
665:
663:
653:
644:
635:
628:
627:
623:
622:
618:
617:
613:
612:
608:
607:
603:
602:
596:
595:
589:
588:
582:
581:
575:
574:
568:
567:
561:
560:
554:
553:
548:
545:
544:
539:
536:
535:
530:
527:
526:
518:
517:
511:
507:
506:
498:
497:
491:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
351:
325:
319:
312:
233:stromatoporoids
151:
150:
149:
142:Earth's history
138:
137:
133:
115:
114:
109:
107:
102:
100:
95:
93:
88:
86:
81:
79:
74:
72:
65:
63:
60:
58:
53:
51:
45:
42:
38:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7600:
7590:
7589:
7584:
7579:
7574:
7557:
7556:
7554:
7553:
7543:
7532:
7529:
7528:
7526:
7525:
7518:
7513:
7508:
7503:
7498:
7492:
7490:
7486:
7485:
7483:
7482:
7477:
7472:
7467:
7461:
7459:
7455:
7454:
7452:
7451:
7446:
7440:
7438:
7432:
7431:
7428:
7427:
7425:
7424:
7419:
7414:
7412:Middle Miocene
7409:
7404:
7399:
7394:
7389:
7384:
7379:
7377:End-Capitanian
7374:
7369:
7364:
7359:
7354:
7349:
7344:
7339:
7334:
7329:
7323:
7321:
7317:
7316:
7314:
7313:
7312:
7311:
7301:
7296:
7291:
7286:
7281:
7275:
7273:
7266:
7260:
7259:
7257:
7256:
7251:
7246:
7241:
7236:
7231:
7226:
7220:
7218:
7212:
7211:
7209:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7188:
7183:
7178:
7173:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7152:
7150:
7146:
7145:
7143:
7142:
7136:
7134:
7130:
7129:
7122:
7120:
7118:
7117:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7087:
7082:
7077:
7072:
7066:
7064:
7060:
7059:
7052:
7051:
7044:
7037:
7029:
7020:
7019:
7012:
7007:
7005:
7001:
6999:
6995:
6993:
6989:
6987:
6983:
6981:
6977:
6975:
6971:
6969:
6965:
6963:
6959:
6957:
6953:
6951:
6947:
6945:
6941:
6939:
6935:
6933:
6926:
6925:
6924:
6919:
6918:
6917:
6912:
6911:
6910:
6906:Neoproterozoic
6905:
6904:
6903:
6902:
6894:
6893:
6892:
6885:
6884:
6883:
6876:
6875:
6874:
6867:
6866:
6865:
6858:
6857:
6856:
6849:
6848:
6847:
6840:
6839:
6838:
6831:
6830:
6829:
6822:
6821:
6820:
6813:
6812:
6811:
6804:
6803:
6802:
6795:
6794:
6793:
6786:
6785:
6784:
6783:
6771:
6770:
6759:
6758:
6747:
6746:
6735:
6734:
6729:Permo-Triassic
6723:
6722:
6711:
6710:
6699:
6698:
6697:
6685:
6684:
6673:
6672:
6661:
6660:
6649:
6648:
6637:
6636:
6631:Middle Miocene
6625:
6624:
6613:
6612:
6601:
6600:
6589:
6588:
6577:
6576:
6571:End-Ediacaran?
6565:
6564:
6553:
6552:
6551:
6550:
6549:
6548:
6547:
6544:
6543:
6536:
6535:
6528:
6521:
6513:
6507:
6506:
6504:PBS: Deep Time
6501:
6483:
6477:
6472:
6457:
6456:External links
6454:
6453:
6452:
6445:
6432:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6409:
6353:
6339:
6303:
6255:
6176:
6115:
6101:
6065:
6039:(9): 776–779.
6017:
5969:
5940:
5926:
5892:
5828:
5780:
5732:
5719:
5693:(4): 591–607.
5671:
5662:
5601:
5575:(6): 543–546.
5555:
5520:
5495:
5439:
5401:
5382:(1–2): 29–59.
5366:
5292:
5263:
5249:
5212:
5171:
5137:
5096:
5040:
5025:
4995:
4986:
4930:
4889:
4841:
4793:
4745:
4689:
4655:(2): 173–193.
4633:
4591:(5): 371–383.
4571:
4528:
4472:
4424:
4354:
4295:
4239:
4172:
4128:
4121:
4089:
4041:
4015:(3): 355–368.
3993:
3945:
3914:
3885:
3823:
3786:(3): 321–331.
3763:
3696:
3690:2027.42/141981
3675:(4): 373–382.
3651:
3603:
3542:
3486:
3426:
3367:
3341:(1–4): 19–32.
3319:
3293:(8): 675–678.
3271:
3223:
3164:
3113:
3083:
3062:(4): 707–742.
3040:
3006:(3): 165–207.
2984:
2944:
2893:
2839:
2790:
2766:
2710:
2649:
2580:
2532:
2475:
2429:
2369:
2322:
2304:
2277:
2272:10.1086/421077
2258:(4): 495–501.
2242:
2211:
2193:(7): 940–960.
2171:
2115:
2069:
2010:
1962:
1903:
1891:
1864:(4): 522–542.
1842:
1823:
1810:
1785:
1766:(4): 187–207.
1744:
1693:
1688:April 8, 2006"
1675:
1654:
1642:
1606:
1580:(4): 510–523.
1554:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1536:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1518:
1511:
1508:
1504:climate change
1495:
1492:
1464:
1461:
1445:
1442:
1361:region on the
1329:
1321:
1301:region on the
1294:trap magmatism
1286:
1283:
1266:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1236:
1232:
1201:
1200:Global cooling
1198:
1170:sea-level rise
1160:eutrophication
1128:
1125:
1096:
1093:
1064:
1061:
1032:
1029:
1007:tetrapodomorph
999:heterostracans
968:
965:
960:trophic levels
910:
907:
872:stromatoporoid
864:stromatoporoid
855:
852:
846:
843:
833:progymnosperms
746:
745:
731:
730:
727:
726:
722:Hunsrück fauna
720:
718:
708:
707:
702:
700:
690:
689:
679:
677:
667:
666:
658:
656:
646:
645:
640:
638:
629:
625:
624:
620:
619:
615:
614:
610:
609:
605:
604:
598:
597:
591:
590:
584:
583:
577:
576:
570:
569:
563:
562:
556:
555:
547:
546:
538:
537:
529:
528:
520:
519:
509:
508:
500:
499:
489:
488:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
356:
353:
352:
350:
349:
342:
335:
324:
321:
320:
317:
311:
308:
269:global cooling
184:age, the last
139:
116:
43:
21:
20:
19:
18:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7599:
7588:
7585:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7569:
7567:
7552:
7544:
7542:
7534:
7533:
7530:
7524:
7523:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7512:
7509:
7507:
7504:
7502:
7499:
7497:
7494:
7493:
7491:
7487:
7481:
7478:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7462:
7460:
7458:Organizations
7456:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7441:
7439:
7437:
7433:
7423:
7420:
7418:
7415:
7413:
7410:
7408:
7405:
7403:
7400:
7398:
7395:
7393:
7390:
7388:
7385:
7383:
7380:
7378:
7375:
7373:
7370:
7368:
7367:Carboniferous
7365:
7363:
7360:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7338:
7335:
7333:
7332:End-Ediacaran
7330:
7328:
7325:
7324:
7322:
7318:
7310:
7307:
7306:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7284:Late Devonian
7282:
7280:
7277:
7276:
7274:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7261:
7255:
7254:Living fossil
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7227:
7225:
7222:
7221:
7219:
7213:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7182:
7179:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7153:
7151:
7147:
7141:
7138:
7137:
7135:
7131:
7126:
7116:
7113:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7105:Lazarus taxon
7103:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7081:
7080:De-extinction
7078:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7068:
7067:
7065:
7061:
7057:
7050:
7045:
7043:
7038:
7036:
7031:
7030:
7027:
6897:
6888:
6879:
6870:
6861:
6852:
6843:
6834:
6833:Carboniferous
6825:
6816:
6807:
6798:
6789:
6778:
6766:
6754:
6742:
6730:
6718:
6717:Late Devonian
6706:
6692:
6680:
6668:
6656:
6644:
6632:
6620:
6608:
6596:
6584:
6572:
6560:
6545:
6541:
6534:
6529:
6527:
6522:
6520:
6515:
6514:
6511:
6505:
6502:
6499:
6495:
6491:
6488:
6484:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6470:
6466:
6463:
6460:
6459:
6450:
6446:
6435:
6429:
6425:
6424:
6418:
6417:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6369:
6364:
6357:
6342:
6336:
6332:
6328:
6324:
6320:
6319:
6314:
6307:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6271:
6266:
6259:
6251:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6224:
6219:
6215:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6192:
6187:
6180:
6172:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6145:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6131:
6126:
6119:
6104:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6081:
6076:
6069:
6054:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6033:
6028:
6021:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5985:
5980:
5973:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5952:
5944:
5929:
5927:9780813723075
5923:
5919:
5915:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5896:
5881:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5844:
5839:
5832:
5817:
5813:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5797:
5796:
5791:
5784:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5748:
5743:
5736:
5729:
5723:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5687:
5682:
5675:
5666:
5658:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5618:
5617:
5612:
5605:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5559:
5551:
5547:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5524:
5509:
5505:
5499:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5455:
5450:
5443:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5408:
5406:
5397:
5393:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5370:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5338:
5337:1721.1/109433
5333:
5329:
5325:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5308:
5303:
5296:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5276:
5275:
5267:
5252:
5250:9780813725055
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5226:
5219:
5217:
5208:
5204:
5200:
5196:
5193:(1–2): 1–33.
5192:
5188:
5187:
5178:
5176:
5167:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5144:
5142:
5132:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5115:
5111:
5107:
5100:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5057:
5056:
5051:
5044:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5006:
4999:
4990:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4946:
4941:
4934:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4905:
4900:
4893:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4857:
4852:
4845:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4809:
4804:
4797:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4761:
4756:
4749:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4705:
4700:
4693:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4649:
4644:
4637:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4575:
4566:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4544:
4539:
4532:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4488:
4483:
4476:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4440:
4435:
4428:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4374:
4369:
4361:
4359:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4311:
4306:
4299:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4255:
4250:
4243:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4188:
4183:
4176:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4147:
4139:
4132:
4124:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4105:
4100:
4093:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4057:
4052:
4045:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4009:
4004:
3997:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3961:
3956:
3949:
3941:
3937:
3930:
3923:
3921:
3919:
3909:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3889:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3827:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3780:
3775:
3767:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3712:
3707:
3700:
3691:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3664:
3663:Archaeopteris
3655:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3619:
3614:
3607:
3599:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3553:
3546:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3490:
3482:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3443:
3438:
3430:
3422:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3383:
3378:
3371:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3335:
3330:
3323:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3287:
3282:
3275:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3227:
3219:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3180:
3175:
3168:
3159:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3117:
3109:
3103:
3095:
3087:
3079:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3056:
3055:Palaeontology
3051:
3044:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
3000:
2995:
2988:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2959:
2951:
2949:
2940:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2909:
2904:
2897:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2853:Sedimentology
2850:
2843:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2806:
2801:
2794:
2780:
2776:
2770:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2714:
2706:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2665:
2660:
2653:
2645:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2602:(2): e13288.
2601:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2584:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2536:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2479:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2433:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2402:
2397:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2318:
2314:
2308:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2281:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2246:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2215:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2187:
2186:AAPG Bulletin
2182:
2175:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2131:
2130:AAPG Bulletin
2126:
2119:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2017:
2015:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1901:Stigall, 2011
1898:
1896:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1827:
1820:
1814:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1760:
1755:
1748:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1689:
1687:
1679:
1673:
1672:0-231-07504-9
1669:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1649:
1647:
1630:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1613:
1611:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1562:
1560:
1555:
1540:
1531:
1527:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1441:
1438:
1437:supereruption
1434:
1430:
1425:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1381: Ma, or
1364:
1360:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1348:marine anoxia
1345:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1324:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1264:
1245:
1243:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1210:North America
1207:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1154:
1149:
1148:
1147:Archaeopteris
1138:
1134:
1133:Late Silurian
1124:
1092:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1077:type locality
1073:
1071:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1053:invertebrates
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
991:osteostracans
983:
979:
978:
973:
964:
961:
957:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
906:
904:
900:
899:scleractinian
896:
895:stromatolites
892:
888:
884:
881:
877:
873:
865:
860:
851:
842:
840:
839:
834:
831:
830:archaeopterid
827:
823:
820:
816:
813:
812:cladoxylalean
808:
804:
799:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
741:
740:, as of 2021.
739:
732:
723:
719:
714:
713:
701:
696:
695:
686:
682:
678:
673:
672:
661:
657:
652:
651:
643:
639:
634:
633:
601:
594:
587:
580:
573:
566:
559:
551:
542:
533:
525:
524:
523:Carboniferous
516:
514:
505:
504:
496:
494:
354:
348:
343:
341:
336:
334:
329:
328:
322:
315:
307:
305:
304:United States
301:
297:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
217:
215:
211:
207:
202:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
164:
163:Late Devonian
160:
156:
147:
143:
120:
112:
105:
98:
91:
84:
77:
70:
49:
25:
7520:
7496:Anthropocene
7337:End-Botomian
7283:
7217:and concepts
7075:Coextinction
6777:Major events
6776:
6716:
6559:Minor events
6558:
6448:
6437:. Retrieved
6422:
6400:. Retrieved
6372:
6366:
6356:
6344:. Retrieved
6317:
6306:
6294:. Retrieved
6274:
6268:
6258:
6195:
6189:
6179:
6134:
6128:
6118:
6106:. Retrieved
6079:
6068:
6056:. Retrieved
6036:
6030:
6020:
6008:. Retrieved
5988:
5982:
5972:
5955:
5949:
5943:
5931:. Retrieved
5909:
5905:
5895:
5883:. Retrieved
5847:
5841:
5831:
5819:. Retrieved
5799:
5793:
5783:
5771:. Retrieved
5751:
5745:
5735:
5722:
5710:. Retrieved
5690:
5684:
5674:
5665:
5620:
5614:
5604:
5592:. Retrieved
5572:
5568:
5558:
5533:
5529:
5523:
5511:. Retrieved
5507:
5498:
5486:. Retrieved
5458:
5452:
5442:
5417:
5413:
5379:
5375:
5369:
5357:. Retrieved
5311:
5305:
5295:
5278:
5272:
5266:
5254:. Retrieved
5232:
5228:
5190:
5184:
5149:
5113:
5109:
5099:
5087:. Retrieved
5059:
5053:
5043:
5008:
4998:
4989:
4977:. Retrieved
4952:(1): 25–34.
4949:
4943:
4933:
4908:
4902:
4892:
4880:. Retrieved
4860:
4854:
4844:
4832:. Retrieved
4812:
4806:
4796:
4784:. Retrieved
4764:
4758:
4748:
4736:. Retrieved
4711:(1): 47–67.
4708:
4702:
4692:
4680:. Retrieved
4652:
4646:
4636:
4624:. Retrieved
4588:
4584:
4574:
4547:
4541:
4531:
4519:. Retrieved
4491:
4485:
4475:
4463:. Retrieved
4443:
4437:
4427:
4415:. Retrieved
4377:
4371:
4314:
4308:
4298:
4286:. Retrieved
4258:
4252:
4242:
4194:(1): 12940.
4191:
4185:
4175:
4150:
4144:
4131:
4103:
4092:
4080:. Retrieved
4060:
4054:
4044:
4032:. Retrieved
4012:
4006:
3996:
3984:. Retrieved
3964:
3958:
3948:
3939:
3935:
3899:GSA Bulletin
3898:
3888:
3876:. Retrieved
3840:
3836:
3826:
3783:
3777:
3766:
3715:
3709:
3699:
3672:
3668:
3662:
3654:
3642:. Retrieved
3622:
3616:
3606:
3561:
3555:
3545:
3533:. Retrieved
3505:
3499:
3489:
3446:
3440:
3429:
3389:(1): 24366.
3386:
3380:
3370:
3358:. Retrieved
3338:
3332:
3322:
3310:. Retrieved
3290:
3284:
3274:
3262:. Retrieved
3242:
3236:
3226:
3183:
3177:
3167:
3132:
3126:
3116:
3093:
3086:
3059:
3053:
3043:
3031:. Retrieved
3003:
2997:
2987:
2962:
2956:
2912:
2906:
2896:
2884:. Retrieved
2856:
2852:
2842:
2812:(1): 27–65.
2809:
2803:
2793:
2782:. Retrieved
2778:
2769:
2757:. Retrieved
2729:
2723:
2713:
2668:
2662:
2652:
2599:
2593:
2583:
2571:. Retrieved
2551:
2545:
2535:
2494:
2488:
2484:
2478:
2467:. Retrieved
2442:
2432:
2405:
2399:
2339:
2335:
2325:
2316:
2307:
2290:
2286:
2280:
2255:
2251:
2245:
2228:
2224:
2214:
2202:. Retrieved
2190:
2184:
2174:
2162:. Retrieved
2134:
2128:
2118:
2106:. Retrieved
2086:
2082:
2072:
2060:. Retrieved
2032:
2026:
2001:. Retrieved
1981:
1975:
1965:
1920:
1916:
1906:
1861:
1857:Paleobiology
1855:
1845:
1826:
1818:
1813:
1802:. Retrieved
1798:
1788:
1763:
1757:
1747:
1706:
1702:
1696:
1685:
1684:"John Baez,
1678:
1633:. Retrieved
1628:
1622:
1597:. Retrieved
1577:
1571:
1539:
1530:
1497:
1466:
1447:
1444:Impact event
1426:
1415:
1356:
1288:
1246:
1230:
1226:Palaeotethys
1203:
1186:
1157:
1145:
1130:
1098:
1089:
1081:Lower Saxony
1074:
1066:
1037:biodiversity
1034:
1014:
987:
975:
943:strophomenid
912:
887:beloceratids
869:
848:
836:
800:
796:Appalachians
794:, while the
749:
735:
684:
642:Rhynie chert
521:
510:
501:
490:
293:
218:
198:
180:age and the
173:
169:
154:
152:
103:
7342:Dresbachian
6346:11 November
6108:11 November
5912:: 491–506.
5594:23 December
5536:: 272–288.
5488:23 December
5420:: 531–540.
5359:11 November
5281:: 224–244.
5256:23 December
5116:(1): 1–33.
5089:23 December
4979:23 December
4815:: 174–184.
4786:11 November
4738:11 November
4550:: 178–190.
4465:11 November
4446:: 108–122.
4417:11 November
4288:11 November
4063:: 394–403.
3878:11 November
3718:(1): 4530.
3535:22 November
3508:: 211–223.
3449:(1): 5451.
3186:(1): 9578.
3158:2268/156563
3033:11 November
2965:(11): 907.
2759:11 November
2732:(1): 5–25.
2573:22 November
2062:23 December
1686:Extinction,
1652:Racki, 2005
1453:Siljan Ring
1352:black shale
1346:falls, and
1263:lithosphere
1212:, Germany,
1204:A positive
1189:South China
1131:During the
1121:0.4 Ma
1113:1.6 Ma
1105:1.6 Ma
967:Vertebrates
935:graptolites
915:brachiopods
826:aneurophyte
792:Scandinavia
780:Rheic Ocean
326:This box:
277:Siljan Ring
253:brachiopods
249:marine life
48:Phanerozoic
7566:Categories
7422:Quaternary
7056:Extinction
6896:Quaternary
6869:Cretaceous
6806:Ordovician
6655:Capitanian
6402:26 January
6375:: 103153.
6296:26 January
6205:2007.01887
6144:2210.11622
6010:15 January
5933:26 January
5885:15 January
5821:15 January
5773:15 January
5712:14 January
5623:: 103174.
5461:: 103452.
5062:: 109259.
4945:Terra Nova
4882:15 January
4834:15 January
4767:(8): 711.
4682:15 January
4626:26 January
4585:Geobiology
4521:15 January
4494:: 103651.
4380:: 118175.
4082:12 January
4034:12 January
3986:26 January
3644:15 January
3625:: 92–125.
3564:: 104085.
3360:15 January
3312:15 January
3264:15 January
2886:26 January
2784:2023-01-31
2554:: 103874.
2469:2006-04-06
2204:15 January
2164:15 January
2108:15 January
2035:: 102984.
2003:15 January
1804:2021-03-30
1599:15 January
1551:References
1413: Ma.
1336:greenhouse
1307:dyke belts
1275:greenhouse
1182:molybdenum
1153:weathering
1045:Cretaceous
1003:thelodonts
995:galeaspids
951:Trilobites
947:productids
919:trilobites
803:Ordovician
703:Widespread
558:Lochkovian
285:Placoderms
281:speciation
257:trilobites
237:Euramerica
7201:Overshoot
7063:Phenomena
6913:Palæozoic
6878:Paleogene
6788:Ediacaran
6583:Lau event
6397:216294884
6232:0027-8424
6171:0004-637X
6137:(2): 42.
5657:216223745
5513:4 October
5508:Study.com
5483:234364043
5346:0012-821X
5314:: 52–62.
5235:: 29–55.
5084:198423364
5035:226643402
4974:140189725
4829:133886379
4781:0091-7613
4733:0031-0182
4516:235519724
4460:0031-0182
4412:258636301
4404:0012-821X
4349:134806864
4341:0012-821X
4317:: 68–77.
4283:0012-821X
4261:: 25–37.
4234:220881345
3936:GSA Today
3873:130283448
3865:1006-9313
3818:209422168
3758:245030483
3598:249616013
3530:246320087
3102:cite book
3028:0031-0182
2881:140165154
2834:0031-0182
2754:0031-0182
2626:2405-8440
2459:129031187
2159:135341837
2089:: 33–42.
2057:198415606
1739:206640186
1476:supernova
1463:Supernova
1344:sea-level
1340:ecosystem
1290:Magmatism
1285:Volcanism
1261:into the
1021:tetrapods
1016:Tiktaalik
1013:(such as
977:Tiktaalik
931:acritarch
927:conodonts
923:ammonites
891:oncolites
838:Tiktaalik
822:lycopsids
772:Laurentia
764:Laurussia
756:continent
600:Famennian
493:Paleozoic
289:Agnathans
261:organisms
214:Famennian
182:Famennian
7541:Category
7489:See also
7387:Toarcian
7352:Ireviken
7309:Timeline
7304:Holocene
7215:Theories
6927:Cenozoic
6920:Mesozoic
6860:Jurassic
6851:Triassic
6824:Devonian
6815:Silurian
6797:Cambrian
6765:Holocene
6490:Archived
6465:Archived
6323:Elsevier
6250:32817482
6085:Elsevier
6058:19 April
5880:40588088
5872:17840279
5707:23316812
5354:55911895
4677:54575059
4621:42682449
4613:22882315
4226:32737336
3810:31866369
3750:35927259
3481:30575731
3421:34934059
3218:29934550
3078:59423401
2939:37015271
2930:10072939
2915:(1996).
2705:27007689
2664:PLOS ONE
2644:36816259
2519:16598250
2463:Archived
2364:53608809
1957:20479258
1886:17279135
1835:Archived
1731:26564854
1635:19 April
1594:21672860
1510:See also
1502:-driven
1500:tectonic
1433:Devonian
1417:Coronene
1359:Vilyuysk
1299:Vilyuysk
1279:icehouse
1049:families
939:Cystoids
880:tabulate
776:drifting
752:Gondwana
593:Frasnian
586:Givetian
579:Eifelian
513:Devonian
503:Silurian
302:and the
241:Gondwana
210:Frasnian
206:Givetian
178:Frasnian
7551:Commons
7372:Olson's
6887:Neogene
6842:Permian
6691:Olson's
6439:23 July
6414:Sources
6377:Bibcode
6279:Bibcode
6241:7474607
6210:Bibcode
6149:Bibcode
6041:Bibcode
6032:Geology
5993:Bibcode
5951:Geology
5852:Bibcode
5843:Science
5804:Bibcode
5756:Bibcode
5625:Bibcode
5577:Bibcode
5569:Geology
5538:Bibcode
5463:Bibcode
5422:Bibcode
5384:Bibcode
5316:Bibcode
5195:Bibcode
5154:Bibcode
5118:Bibcode
5064:Bibcode
4954:Bibcode
4913:Bibcode
4865:Bibcode
4760:Geology
4713:Bibcode
4657:Bibcode
4593:Bibcode
4552:Bibcode
4496:Bibcode
4382:Bibcode
4319:Bibcode
4263:Bibcode
4217:7395115
4196:Bibcode
4155:Bibcode
4065:Bibcode
4017:Bibcode
4008:Lethaia
3969:Bibcode
3845:Bibcode
3788:Bibcode
3741:9352767
3720:Bibcode
3627:Bibcode
3566:Bibcode
3510:Bibcode
3472:6303338
3451:Bibcode
3412:8692332
3391:Bibcode
3343:Bibcode
3295:Bibcode
3286:Geology
3247:Bibcode
3209:6014997
3188:Bibcode
3137:Bibcode
3008:Bibcode
2967:Bibcode
2958:Geology
2861:Bibcode
2814:Bibcode
2734:Bibcode
2696:4807921
2673:Bibcode
2635:9936521
2604:Bibcode
2595:Heliyon
2556:Bibcode
2527:4412895
2499:Bibcode
2423:1692181
2344:Bibcode
2260:Bibcode
2139:Bibcode
2091:Bibcode
2037:Bibcode
1986:Bibcode
1948:2890420
1925:Bibcode
1866:Bibcode
1768:Bibcode
1711:Bibcode
1703:Science
1631:: 45–77
1421:mercury
1218:Morocco
1178:euxinia
1085:Germany
1025:fossils
774:), was
768:Baltica
760:Siberia
716:←
698:←
675:←
654:←
636:←
565:Pragian
483:–
473:–
463:–
453:–
443:–
433:–
423:–
413:–
403:–
393:–
383:–
373:–
363:–
245:Pangaea
225:insects
161:in the
7397:Aptian
7149:Causes
7133:Models
6773:
6607:Aptian
6555:
6430:
6395:
6337:
6248:
6238:
6230:
6169:
6099:
5924:
5878:
5870:
5705:
5655:
5530:Lithos
5481:
5352:
5344:
5247:
5082:
5033:
5023:
4972:
4827:
4779:
4731:
4675:
4619:
4611:
4514:
4458:
4410:
4402:
4347:
4339:
4281:
4232:
4224:
4214:
4119:
3871:
3863:
3816:
3808:
3756:
3748:
3738:
3596:
3528:
3479:
3469:
3419:
3409:
3216:
3206:
3076:
3026:
2937:
2927:
2879:
2832:
2752:
2703:
2693:
2642:
2632:
2624:
2525:
2517:
2490:Nature
2457:
2443:Nature
2420:
2362:
2157:
2055:
1955:
1945:
1884:
1737:
1729:
1670:
1592:
1449:Bolide
1309:, and
997:, and
883:corals
876:rugose
824:, and
782:. The
626:
621:
616:
611:
606:
572:Emsian
300:Canada
296:anoxia
265:anoxia
221:plants
216:ages.
212:, and
146:genera
104:Late D
7357:Mulde
7320:Other
7272:Major
6496:": a
6393:S2CID
6200:arXiv
6139:arXiv
5876:S2CID
5703:S2CID
5653:S2CID
5479:S2CID
5350:S2CID
5080:S2CID
5031:S2CID
4970:S2CID
4825:S2CID
4673:S2CID
4617:S2CID
4512:S2CID
4408:S2CID
4345:S2CID
4230:S2CID
4141:(PDF)
3932:(PDF)
3869:S2CID
3814:S2CID
3754:S2CID
3594:S2CID
3526:S2CID
3074:S2CID
2877:S2CID
2523:S2CID
2455:S2CID
2360:S2CID
2155:S2CID
2053:S2CID
1882:S2CID
1735:S2CID
1522:Notes
1457:Alamo
1407:358.9
1399:372.2
1391:363.2
1383:373.4
1375:364.4
1367:376.7
1311:sills
1222:China
1214:Spain
1117:358.9
1109:382.7
1101:382.7
815:ferns
532:Early
273:comet
229:reefs
166:Epoch
6996:−100
6990:−150
6984:−200
6978:−250
6972:−300
6966:−350
6960:−400
6954:−450
6948:−500
6942:−550
6936:−600
6441:2015
6428:ISBN
6404:2023
6348:2023
6335:ISBN
6298:2023
6246:PMID
6228:ISSN
6167:ISSN
6110:2023
6097:ISBN
6060:2023
6012:2023
5935:2023
5922:ISBN
5887:2023
5868:PMID
5823:2023
5775:2023
5714:2023
5596:2022
5515:2019
5490:2022
5361:2023
5342:ISSN
5258:2022
5245:ISBN
5091:2022
5021:ISBN
4981:2022
4884:2023
4836:2023
4788:2023
4777:ISSN
4740:2023
4729:ISSN
4684:2023
4628:2023
4609:PMID
4523:2023
4467:2023
4456:ISSN
4419:2023
4400:ISSN
4337:ISSN
4290:2023
4279:ISSN
4222:PMID
4117:ISBN
4084:2023
4036:2023
3988:2023
3942:(3).
3880:2023
3861:ISSN
3806:PMID
3746:PMID
3646:2023
3537:2022
3477:PMID
3417:PMID
3362:2023
3314:2023
3266:2023
3214:PMID
3108:link
3035:2023
3024:ISSN
2935:PMID
2888:2023
2830:ISSN
2761:2023
2750:ISSN
2701:PMID
2640:PMID
2622:ISSN
2575:2022
2515:PMID
2206:2023
2166:2023
2110:2023
2064:2022
2005:2023
1953:PMID
1727:PMID
1668:ISBN
1637:2023
1601:2023
1590:PMID
1419:and
1389:and
1373:and
1338:and
1325:and
1141:30 m
933:and
893:and
878:and
828:and
790:and
770:and
550:Late
346:edit
339:talk
332:view
239:and
223:and
153:The
90:P–Tr
83:Tr–J
76:K–Pg
7362:Lau
7002:−50
6385:doi
6373:188
6327:doi
6287:doi
6275:141
6236:PMC
6218:doi
6196:117
6157:doi
6135:947
6089:doi
6049:doi
6001:doi
5989:104
5960:doi
5914:doi
5910:307
5860:doi
5848:257
5812:doi
5800:122
5764:doi
5695:doi
5643:hdl
5633:doi
5621:189
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