365:, being convinced that Lisp machines had a bright commercial future due to the strength of the Lisp language and the enabling factor of hardware acceleration, proposed to Greenblatt that they commercialize the technology. In a counter-intuitive move for an AI Lab hacker, Greenblatt acquiesced, hoping perhaps that he could recreate the informal and productive atmosphere of the Lab in a real business. These ideas and goals were considerably different from those of Noftsker. The two negotiated at length, but neither would compromise. As the proposed firm could succeed only with the full and undivided assistance of the AI Lab hackers as a group, Noftsker and Greenblatt decided that the fate of the enterprise was up to them, and so the choice should be left to the hackers.
384:, who was trying to put together a natural language computer application with a group of West-coast programmers, came to Greenblatt, seeking a Lisp machine for his group to work with, about eight months after the disastrous conference with Noftsker. Greenblatt had decided to start his own rival Lisp machine firm, but he had done nothing. The consultant, Alexander Jacobson, decided that the only way Greenblatt was going to start the firm and build the Lisp machines that Jacobson desperately needed was if Jacobson pushed and otherwise helped Greenblatt launch the firm. Jacobson pulled together business plans, a board, a partner for Greenblatt (one F. Stephen Wyle). The newfound firm was named
217:. More specifically, since Lisp variables are typed at runtime rather than compile time, a simple addition of two variables could take five times as long on conventional hardware, due to test and branch instructions. Lisp Machines ran the tests in parallel with the more conventional single instruction additions. If the simultaneous tests failed, then the result was discarded and recomputed; this meant in many cases a speed increase by several factors. This simultaneous checking approach was used as well in testing the bounds of arrays when referenced, and other memory management necessities (not merely garbage collection or arrays).
354:
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643:, which would sweep away the minicomputer and workstation makers, cheaper desktop PCs soon could run Lisp programs even faster than Lisp machines, with no use of special purpose hardware. Their high profit margin hardware business eliminated, most Lisp machine makers had gone out of business by the early 90s, leaving only software based firms like
410:, Inc. sold it as the LMI-CADR. Symbolics did not intend to produce many LM-2s, since the 3600 family of Lisp machines was supposed to ship quickly, but the 3600s were repeatedly delayed, and Symbolics ended up producing ~100 LM-2s, each of which sold for $ 70,000. Both firms developed second-generation products based on the CADR: the
149:(AI) computer programs of the 1960s and 1970s intrinsically required what was then considered a huge amount of computer power, as measured in processor time and memory space. The power requirements of AI research were exacerbated by the Lisp symbolic programming language, when commercial hardware was designed and optimized for
403:. Stallman, however, blamed Symbolics for the decline of the hacker community that had centered around the AI lab. For two years, from 1982 to the end of 1983, Stallman worked by himself to clone the output of the Symbolics programmers, with the aim of preventing them from gaining a monopoly on the lab's computers.
271:, as some pronounce the word "cadre") which was based on essentially the same architecture. About 25 of what were essentially prototype CADRs were sold within and without MIT for ~$ 50,000; it quickly became the favorite machine for hacking- many of the most favored software tools were quickly ported to it (e.g.
129:
702:
Initially the Lisp machines were designed as personal workstations for software development in Lisp. They were used by one person and offered no multi-user mode. The machines provided a large, black and white, bitmap display, keyboard and mouse, network adapter, local hard disks, more than 1 MB RAM,
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3600 and the LMI-LAMBDA (of which LMI managed to sell ~200). The 3600, which shipped a year late, expanded on the CADR by widening the machine word to 36-bits, expanding the address space to 28-bits, and adding hardware to accelerate certain common functions that were implemented in microcode on the
450:
implementation of the
Symbolics architecture. Starting in 1987, several machines based on the Ivory processor were developed: boards for Suns and Macs, stand-alone workstations and even embedded systems (I-Machine Custom LSI, 32 bit address, Symbolics XL-400, UX-400, MacIvory II; in 1989 available
1197:
All operating system software was written in Lisp. Xerox used
Interlisp. Symbolics, LMI, and TI used Lisp Machine Lisp (descendant of MacLisp). With the appearance of Common Lisp, Common Lisp was supported on the Lisp Machines and some system software was ported to Common Lisp or later written in
663:
Several attempts to write open-source emulators for various Lisp
Machines have been made: CADR Emulation, Symbolics L Lisp Machine Emulation, the E3 Project (TI Explorer II Emulation), Meroko (TI Explorer I), and Nevermore (TI Explorer I). On 3 October 2005, the MIT released the CADR Lisp Machine
710:
with instructions optimized for compiled Lisp. The early Lisp machines used microcode to provide the instruction set. For several operations, type checking and dispatching was done in hardware at runtime. For example, only one addition operation could be used with various numeric types (integer,
368:
The ensuing discussions of the choice divided the lab into two factions. In
February 1979, matters came to a head. The hackers sided with Noftsker, believing that a commercial venture fund-backed firm had a better chance of surviving and commercializing Lisp machines than Greenblatt's proposed
395:, and by severe delays in procuring venture capital. Symbolics still had the major advantage that while 3 or 4 of the AI Lab hackers had gone to work for Greenblatt, a solid 14 other hackers had signed onto Symbolics. Two AI Lab people were not hired by either:
236:(wherein the usual linked list elements are compressed to occupy roughly half the space), aiding garbage collection by reportedly an order of magnitude. A further improvement was two microcode instructions which specifically supported Lisp
618:
mainframe co-processor, NTT's Elis, Toshiba's AI processor (AIP) and NEC's LIME. Several university research efforts produced working prototypes, among them are Kobe
University's TAKITAC-7, RIKEN's FLATS, and Osaka University's EVLIS.
455:. LMI abandoned the CADR architecture and developed its own K-Machine, but LMI went bankrupt before the machine could be brought to market. Before its demise, LMI was working on a distributed system for the LAMBDA using Moby space.
674:
The
Bitsavers' PDF Document Archive has PDF versions of the extensive documentation for the Symbolics Lisp Machines, the TI Explorer and MicroExplorer Lisp Machines and the Xerox Interlisp-D Lisp Machines.
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Some Lisp machines, such as the
Symbolics XL1200, had extensive graphics abilities using special graphics boards. These machines were used in domains like medical image processing, 3D animation, and CAD.
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Some later Lisp machines (like the TI MicroExplorer, the
Symbolics MacIvory or the Symbolics UX400/1200) were no longer complete workstations, but boards designed to be embedded in host computers: Apple
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platforms were
Symbolics XL-1200, MacIvory III, UX-1200, Zora, NXP1000 "pizza box"). Texas Instruments shrank the Explorer into silicon as the MicroExplorer which was offered as a card for the Apple
205:(AI Lab), began what would become the MIT Lisp Machine Project when they first began building a computer hardwired to run certain basic Lisp operations, rather than run them in software, in a 24-bit
647:
or hardware makers who had switched to software and services to avoid the crash. As of
January 2015, besides Xerox and TI, Symbolics is the only Lisp machine firm still operating, selling the
565:. The Xerox machine was well known for its advanced development environment (InterLisp-D), the ROOMS window manager, for its early graphical user interface and for novel applications like
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The Xerox 1186, nicknamed Daybreak, provides several unique, powerful features at a relatively low cost. The 1186 closely resembles an earlier machine from Xerox—the 1108, or Dandelion.
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that, in exchange for allowing Symbolics' staff to keep working out of MIT, Symbolics would let MIT use internally and freely all the software Symbolics developed. A consultant from
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Domains using the Lisp machines were mostly in the wide field of artificial intelligence applications, but also in computer graphics, medical image processing, and many others.
376:, Noftsker's enterprise, slowly came together. While Noftsker was paying his staff a salary, he had no building or any equipment for the hackers to work on. He bargained with
1868:
Legutko, Christian; Schäfer, Eberhard; Tappe, Jürgen (9–11 March 1988), "Die Befehlspipeline des Colibri-Systems" [The instruction pipeline of the Colibri system],
173:, researchers considered a new approach: a computer designed specifically to develop and run large artificial intelligence programs, and tailored to the semantics of the
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691:
485:. The operating systems were written from the ground up in Lisp, often using object-oriented extensions. Later, these Lisp machines also supported various versions of
69:. Despite being modest in number (perhaps 7,000 units total as of 1988) Lisp machines commercially pioneered many now-commonplace technologies, including effective
415:
CADR. The LMI-LAMBDA, which came out a year after the 3600, in 1983, was compatible with the CADR (it could run CADR microcode), but hardware differences existed.
1190:. All data objects were stored with a tag in memory, so that the type could be determined at runtime. Multiple execution threads were supported and termed
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wrote his master's thesis on the subject; it was extremely well received. It was subsequently improved into a version called CADR (a pun; in Lisp, the
561:. The operating system of the Xerox Lisp machines has also been ported to a virtual machine and is available for several platforms as a product named
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had, simultaneously with Greenblatt's own development at MIT, developed their own Lisp machines which were designed to run InterLisp (and later
615:
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Hafer, Christian; Plankl, Josef; Schmitt, FJ (7–9 March 1990), "COLIBRI: Ein RISC-LISP-System" [Colibri: a RISC, Lisp system],
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technology shrank the size and cost of computers in the 1960s and early 1970s, and the memory needs of AI programs began to exceed the
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3600-model Lisp machines and eventually to 40-bits or more (usually, the excess bits not accounted for by the following were used for
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Around this time Symbolics (Noftsker's firm) began operating. It had been hindered by Noftsker's promise to give Greenblatt a year's
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62:
2244:
Design of LISP-based Processors, or SCHEME: A Dielectric LISP, or Finite Memories Considered Harmful, or LAMBDA: The Ultimate Opcode
406:
Regardless, after a series of internal battles, Symbolics did get off the ground in 1980/1981, selling the CADR as the LM-2, while
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157:-like programming languages. At first, the cost of such computer hardware meant that it had to be shared among many users. As
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serial interfaces, and a local bus for extension cards. Color graphics cards, tape drives, and laser printers were optional.
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70:
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470:, but was never adapted for conventional purposes. The Symbolics Lisp Machines were also sold to some non-AI markets like
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Type checking was further improved and automated when the conventional byte word of 32-bits was lengthened to 36-bits for
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466:. They ran large Lisp programs very efficiently. The Symbolics machine was competitive against many commercial super
340:
322:
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2731:
2213:
1446:"The AAAI-86 Conference Exhibits: New Directions for Commercial AI, VLSI Lisp Machine Implementations Are Coming"
714:
The following example uses a function that counts the number of elements of a list for which a predicate returns
276:
190:
2378: (archived 23 June 2015) – A set of links and locally stored documents regarding all manner of Lisp machines
1234:
software originally developed on a Lisp machine that was useful enough to be then ported via Common Lisp to Unix
580:(RISC), using the 'Xerox Common Lisp Processor' and planned to bring it to market by 1987, which did not occur.
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2752:
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Hafer, Christian; Plankl, Josef; Schmidt, Franz Josef (1991), "COLIBRI: A Coprocessor for LISP based on RISC",
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240:, reducing the cost of calling a function to as little as 20 clock cycles, in some Symbolics implementations.
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float, rational, and complex numbers). The result was a very compact compiled representation of Lisp code.
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2800:
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In the mid-1980s, Integrated Inference Machines (IIM) built prototypes of Lisp machines named Inferstar.
174:
54:
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1590:"A 32-bit LISP Processor for the Al Workstation ELIS with a Multiple Programming Paradigm Language, TAO"
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3014:
2999:
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supermini as a microcoded Lisp machine, running CADR software: the Knowledge Processing System (KPS).
518:. It was never marketed. Frustrated, the whole AI group resigned, and were hired mostly by Xerox. So,
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3102:
2974:
2696:
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2266:. A.I. Memo 628, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, June 1981.
2195:. Ablex Publishing Corporation USA, 1988, Chapter 3, An Evaluation of Expert System Development Tools
2068:
622:
In France, two Lisp Machine projects arose: M3L at Toulouse Paul Sabatier University and later MAIA.
498:
443:
1522:
1496:"Computer Algebra in Norway, Racal-Norsk KPS-5 and KPS-10 Multi-User Lisp Machines". Springer link.
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version of its Lisp CPU for the TI Explorer. This Lisp chip also was used for the MicroExplorer – a
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3200:
2810:
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640:
511:
392:
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181:(relatively) simple, these machines would not be shared, but would be dedicated to single users.
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The disassembled machine code for above function (for the Ivory microprocessor from Symbolics):
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to provide a large address space. Memory management was done with garbage collection. All code
254:
194:
1468:"The AAAI-86 Conference Exhibits: New Directions for Commercial AI, A New Lisp Machine Vendor"
458:
These machines had hardware support for various primitive Lisp operations (data type testing,
419:(TI) joined the fray when it licensed the LMI-LAMBDA design and produced its own variant, the
3514:
3216:
3172:
3150:
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2507:
1509:
3630:
1830:
Müller-Schloer (1988), "Bewertung der RISC-Methodik am Beispiel COLIBRI", in Bode, A (ed.),
611:
There were several attempts by Japanese manufacturers to enter the Lisp machine market: the
3418:
3372:
3140:
2239:", Thomas Knight, David A. Moon, Jack Holloway, Guy L. Steele. AI Lab memos, AIM-528, 1979.
353:
58:
243:
The first machine was called the CONS machine (named after the list construction operator
8:
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1237:
229:
206:
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3524:
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2650:
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1728:
1702:
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1327:
423:. Some of the LMI-LAMBDAs and the TI Explorer were dual systems with both a Lisp and a
158:
2046:
314:
3600:
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3120:
3004:
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150:
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102:
82:
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1881:
1803:
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228:). The first group of extra bits were used to hold type data, making the machine a
178:
78:
1381:
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3572:
3347:
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2789:
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2644:
2421:"If It Works, It's Not AI: A Commercial Look at Artificial Intelligence startups"
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in 1975). It was so well received at an AI conference held at MIT in 1978 that
74:
2024:
1501:
3679:
3529:
3476:
3456:
3408:
3377:
3059:
2359:
2284:
2257:
2221:
1307:
707:
407:
400:
162:
98:
31:
2443:
2393:
Vintage Computer Festival pictures of some Lisp machines, one running Genera
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2209:
2126:
686:
The main commercial expert systems of the 80s were available: Intellicorp's
514:(BBN) developed its own Lisp machine, named Jericho, which ran a version of
3595:
2538:
2522:
2269:"Implementation of a List Processing Machine". Tom Knight, Master's thesis.
2002:
1908:
1589:
1203:
467:
436:
2104:
1402:"Computing Facilities for AI: A Survey of Present and Near-Future Options"
1323:
591:
3547:
3481:
3448:
3400:
3382:
3133:
2943:
2726:
2613:
2576:
2512:
648:
526:
494:
486:
442:
Symbolics continued to develop the 3600 family and its operating system,
420:
259:
128:
122:
106:
66:
2431:
2339:
2334:
1620:
3423:
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2955:
2815:
2639:
1980:
644:
601:
534:
522:
459:
237:
233:
44:
625:
In Germany Siemens designed the RISC-based Lisp co-processor COLIBRI.
3285:
2979:
2795:
2772:
2747:
2667:
2366:
1958:
635:
570:
566:
530:
515:
411:
373:
221:
114:
94:
2243:
2236:
325:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
3069:
3054:
3039:
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2872:
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2546:
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1922:
668:
90:
3290:
3211:
3034:
3024:
3009:
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2934:
2877:
2867:
2862:
2757:
1877:
1854:
652:
612:
482:
439:(NuBus was initially developed at MIT for use in Lisp machines).
263:
function, which returns the second item of a list, is pronounced
154:
89:, computer graphic rendering, and networking innovations such as
30:
This article is about the type of computer. For the company, see
2316:
2303:
Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software
1936:
3587:
3097:
2994:
2960:
2906:
2895:
2887:
2825:
2721:
2685:
690:(KEE), Knowledge Craft, from The Carnegie Group Inc., and ART (
671:, announced PilMCU, an implementation of PicoLisp in hardware.
605:
452:
170:
39:
2397:
529:). The same hardware was used with different software also as
286:
3177:
3019:
2989:
2901:
2634:
1211:
1207:
597:
519:
432:
272:
110:
2082:
3313:
MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
3107:
2805:
2677:
2384:– A set of links, mostly discussion of buying Lisp machines
424:
245:
93:. Several firms built and sold Lisp machines in the 1980s:
53:
are general-purpose computers designed to efficiently run
596:
In 1984–85 a UK firm, Racal-Norsk, a joint subsidiary of
249:
in Lisp). Often it was affectionately referred to as the
65:. In a sense, they were the first commercial single-user
61:, usually via hardware support. They are an example of a
2426:"Symbolics, Inc.: A failure of Heterogenous engineering"
2355:"The Lisp Machine manual, 6th Edition, HTML/XSL version"
117:-D workstations). The operating systems were written in
1870:
Architektur und Betrieb von Rechensystemen, Tagungsband
592:
Developments of Lisp machines outside the United States
477:
The MIT-derived Lisp machines ran a Lisp dialect named
2432:"My Lisp Experiences and the Development of GNU Emacs"
369:
self-sustaining start-up. Greenblatt lost the battle.
2367:
Information and code for LMI Lambda and LMI K-Machine
2405:– a timeline of Symbolics' and others' Lisp machines
1800:
VLSI for Artificial Intelligence and Neural Networks
1867:
706:The processor did not run Lisp directly, but was a
388:(LMI), and was funded by CDC orders, via Jacobson.
1848:
1797:
667:In September 2014, Alexander Burger, developer of
357:Symbolics 3620 (left) and LMI Lambda Lisp machines
97:(3600, 3640, XL1200, MacIvory, and other models),
3222:Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs
2350:"The Lisp Machine manual, 4th Edition, July 1981"
3677:
583:
232:, and the remaining bits were used to implement
2414:– An account of French efforts in the same vein
1621:"Architecture of an AI Processor Chip (IP1704)"
1829:
1310:(1985). "Architecture of the Symbolics 3600".
1194:. All processes ran in the one address space.
537:office system. These included the Xerox 1100,
2473:
2459:
576:Xerox also worked on a Lisp machine based on
2398:LISPMachine.net – Lisp Books and Information
504:
462:) and also hardware support for incremental
3319:Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
2388:Ralf Möller's Symbolics Lisp Machine Museum
1851:Architektur von Rechensystemen, Tagungsband
1777:"MAIA, Machine for Artificial Intelligence"
1703:"RIKEN FLATS Numerical Processing Computer"
628:
287:Commercializing MIT Lisp machine technology
3620:
2466:
2452:
1981:"The E3 Project, TI Explorer II emulation"
651:Lisp machine software environment and the
165:of the most common research computer, the
3701:High-level language computer architecture
2438:gave about Emacs, Lisp, and Lisp machines
2382:"A Few Things I Know About LISP Machines"
2069:"Announce: PicoLisp in Hardware (PilMCU)"
1923:"A few things I know about LISP Machines"
341:Learn how and when to remove this message
281:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
121:, Interlisp (Xerox), and later partly in
63:high-level language computer architecture
1360:
1255:
352:
127:
38:
1872:, Informatik-Fachberichte (in German),
1587:
283:(DARPA) began funding its development.
209:. The machine also did incremental (or
14:
3678:
1618:
1312:ACM SIGARCH Computer Architecture News
1281:Target, Sinclair (30 September 2018).
1280:
604:, attempted to repurpose Norsk Data's
427:processor. TI also developed a 32-bit
184:
3307:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2447:
2412:"Présentation Générale du projet M3L"
1422:
697:
199:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
141:
3640:
2025:"Nevermore Emulator (TI Explorer I)"
1959:"Symbolics L Lisp Machine Emulation"
1306:
290:
27:Computer specialized in running Lisp
2047:"MIT CADR Lisp Machine Source code"
24:
3696:History of artificial intelligence
3324:University of California, Berkeley
3168:Scheme Requests for Implementation
1880:: 10. ITG/GI-Fachtagung: 142–151,
1588:Yasushi, Hibino (25 August 1990).
1431:. No. 129. pp. 118–125.
203:Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
43:A Knight machine preserved in the
25:
3712:
2985:Knowledge Engineering Environment
2310:
2083:"Bitsavers' PDF Document Archive"
2003:"Meroko Emulator (TI Explorer I)"
1625:Journal of Information Processing
1594:Journal of Information Processing
688:Knowledge Engineering Environment
578:reduced instruction set computing
3660:
3659:
3650:
3649:
3639:
3629:
3619:
2372:Jaap Weel's Lisp Machine Webpage
2149:"TI MicroExplorer documentation"
1619:Mitsuo, Saito (25 August 1990).
639:and the early beginnings of the
295:
2185:
2171:"Xerox Interlisp documentation"
2163:
2141:
2119:
2097:
2075:
2061:
2039:
2017:
1995:
1973:
1951:
1929:
1915:
1901:
1861:
1842:
1823:
1802:, Boston, MA: Springer: 47–56,
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1769:
1747:
1721:
1695:
1669:
1643:
1612:
1581:
1555:
1529:
1489:
1460:
1438:
1256:Newquist, H.P. (1 March 1994).
678:
1677:"Kobe University Lisp Machine"
1416:
1394:
1375:
1351:
1338:
1300:
1274:
1249:
694:) from Inference Corporation.
13:
1:
3094:Common Lisp Interface Manager
2346:Lisp Machine Manual, Chinual
2290:"Anatomy of a LISP Machine",
2151:. Bitsavers. 9 September 2003
1425:"The Xerox 1186 LISP Machine"
1423:Tello, Ernest R (July 1987).
1283:"A Short History of Chaosnet"
1243:
1188:shared a single address space
584:Integrated Inference Machines
372:It was at this juncture that
167:Digital Equipment Corporation
85:, high-resolution bit-mapped
2493:Automatic storage management
2254:, AI Lab memo, AIM-514, 1979
2210:LISP Machine Progress Report
1886:10.1007/978-3-642-73451-9_12
1318:(3). Portal.acm.org: 76–83.
862:;Creating PREDICATE and LIST
664:source code as open source.
446:, and produced the Ivory, a
7:
3686:Lisp (programming language)
2742:Game Oriented Assembly Lisp
2127:"TI Explorer documentation"
1808:10.1007/978-1-4615-3752-6_5
1232:knowledge-based engineering
1221:
474:, modeling, and animation.
321:the claims made and adding
132:Symbolics 3640 Lisp machine
101:Incorporated (LMI Lambda),
57:as their main software and
10:
3717:
2173:. Bitsavers. 24 March 2004
1391:Patent application 4779191
1182:The operating system used
136:
29:
3617:
3586:
3538:
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3447:
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2571:Common Lisp Object System
2560:
2488:
2481:
2475:Lisp programming language
2434:– transcript of a speech
2360:"The Lisp Machine manual"
2326:Bitsavers, PDF documents
2105:"Symbolics documentation"
1502:10.1007/3-540-15984-3_297
658:
655:computer algebra system.
523:Palo Alto Research Center
505:Interlisp, BBN, and Xerox
499:Common Lisp Object System
3271:Bolt, Beranek and Newman
3201:Common Lisp the Language
2129:. Bitsavers. 15 May 2003
1683:. IPSJ. 10 February 1979
1569:. IPSJ. 9 September 1983
1387:25 February 2012 at the
820:
720:
692:Automated Reasoning Tool
641:microcomputer revolution
629:End of the Lisp machines
549:(1981); the Xerox 1109,
541:(1979); the Xerox 1132,
512:Bolt, Beranek and Newman
2193:AI Tools and Techniques
1961:. Unlambda. 28 May 2004
1857:: 11. ITG/GI-Fachtagung
1651:"NEC LIME Lisp Machine"
481:, descended from MIT's
147:Artificial intelligence
107:Explorer, MicroExplorer
3206:How to Design Programs
3045:Portable Standard Lisp
2691:Steel Bank Common Lisp
2656:Embeddable Common Lisp
2629:Armed Bear Common Lisp
2508:Higher-order functions
2403:Lisp machines timeline
2340:MIT CADR documentation
2335:MIT CONS documentation
1853:(in German), München,
1517:Cite journal requires
633:With the onset of the
358:
226:error-correcting codes
177:language. To keep the
133:
47:
3691:Computer workstations
3515:Shriram Krishnamurthi
3217:Practical Common Lisp
3173:Common Lisp HyperSpec
2697:Symbolics Common Lisp
2673:Macintosh Common Lisp
1838:] (in German), BI
1755:"M3L, A Lisp-machine"
1324:10.1145/327070.327133
838:#'example-count))
356:
131:
42:
3419:Robert Tappan Morris
3373:Robert Bruce Findler
3141:Space-cadet keyboard
2552:Tree data structures
2529:Read–eval–print loop
2232:memos, AI-444, 1977.
533:machines and as the
435:board for the Apple
59:programming language
3161:Technical standards
2624:Allegro Common Lisp
2273:Lisp Machine manual
1348:. Penguin USA, 1984
1260:. Sams Publishing.
1238:Orphaned technology
230:tagged architecture
207:tagged architecture
185:Initial development
3525:Gerald Jay Sussman
3510:Matthias Felleisen
3462:Richard P. Gabriel
3393:Richard Greenblatt
3368:Matthias Felleisen
2651:Corman Common Lisp
2252:Gerald Jay Sussman
2214:Richard Greenblatt
1836:Risc architectures
1832:RISC-Architekturen
1429:Dr. Dobb's Journal
698:Technical overview
569:(one of the first
545:; the Xerox 1108,
464:garbage collection
386:LISP Machine, Inc.
359:
306:possibly contains
215:garbage collection
191:Richard Greenblatt
159:integrated circuit
142:Historical context
134:
71:garbage collection
48:
3673:
3672:
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3609:
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3601:Robin Popplestone
3520:Guy L. Steele Jr.
3487:Guy L. Steele Jr.
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3005:Lisp Machine Lisp
2915:
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2330:LMI documentation
2317:Symbolics website
2216:, Jack Holloway,
1895:978-3-540-18994-7
1817:978-1-4613-6671-3
1631:(2). NII: 144–149
1600:(2). NII: 156–164
479:Lisp Machine Lisp
472:computer graphics
417:Texas Instruments
351:
350:
343:
308:original research
197:, programmers at
119:Lisp Machine Lisp
103:Texas Instruments
79:windowing systems
16:(Redirected from
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555:Xerox 1186/6085
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378:Patrick Winston
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2782:Pocket Scheme
2781:
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2539:S-expressions
2537:
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2527:
2524:
2523:M-expressions
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2305:
2304:
2300:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2286:
2285:David A. Moon
2282:
2278:
2274:
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2268:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2258:David A. Moon
2256:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2238:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2222:David A. Moon
2219:
2218:Thomas Knight
2215:
2211:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2200:
2194:
2188:
2172:
2166:
2150:
2144:
2128:
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2100:
2084:
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2026:
2020:
2004:
1998:
1982:
1976:
1960:
1954:
1938:
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1918:
1910:
1904:
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1891:
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1879:
1876:, Paderborn,
1875:
1871:
1864:
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1537:"Facom Alpha"
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1230:– example of
1229:
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1215:
1213:
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1199:
1198:Common Lisp.
1195:
1193:
1189:
1185:
819:
729:example-count
719:
712:
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708:stack machine
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695:
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408:Lisp Machines
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401:Marvin Minsky
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192:
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163:address space
160:
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99:Lisp Machines
96:
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83:computer mice
80:
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72:
68:
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52:
51:Lisp machines
46:
41:
37:
33:
32:Lisp Machines
19:
18:LISP machines
3664:
3654:
3644:
3634:
3624:
3596:Rod Burstall
3563:Brian Harvey
3129:Lisp machine
3128:
3086:
2947:
2714:
2605:Standardized
2544:Self-hosting
2525:(deprecated)
2513:Linked lists
2498:Conditionals
2301:
2295:
2262:
2192:
2187:
2175:. Retrieved
2165:
2153:. Retrieved
2143:
2131:. Retrieved
2121:
2109:. Retrieved
2099:
2087:. Retrieved
2077:
2063:
2051:. Retrieved
2041:
2029:. Retrieved
2019:
2007:. Retrieved
1997:
1985:. Retrieved
1975:
1963:. Retrieved
1953:
1941:. Retrieved
1931:
1917:
1903:
1873:
1869:
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1850:
1844:
1835:
1831:
1825:
1799:
1793:
1781:. Retrieved
1771:
1759:. Retrieved
1749:
1737:. Retrieved
1732:
1723:
1711:. Retrieved
1706:
1697:
1685:. Retrieved
1680:
1671:
1659:. Retrieved
1654:
1645:
1633:. Retrieved
1628:
1624:
1614:
1602:. Retrieved
1597:
1593:
1583:
1571:. Retrieved
1566:
1557:
1545:. Retrieved
1540:
1531:
1510:cite journal
1491:
1480:, retrieved
1475:
1471:
1462:
1453:
1449:
1440:
1432:
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1409:
1405:
1396:
1377:
1368:
1362:
1353:
1345:
1340:
1315:
1311:
1302:
1290:. Retrieved
1286:
1276:
1257:
1251:
1231:
1216:
1204:Macintosh II
1200:
1196:
1191:
1181:
817:
713:
705:
701:
685:
682:
679:Applications
673:
666:
662:
634:
632:
624:
621:
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595:
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546:
542:
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437:Macintosh II
405:
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360:
337:
328:
305:
250:
242:
219:
210:
188:
145:
67:workstations
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36:
3548:Hal Abelson
3482:Kent Pitman
3449:Common Lisp
3401:Louis Hodes
3388:Paul Graham
3383:Phyllis Fox
3153:of practice
3134:TI Explorer
2727:Chez Scheme
2577:CommonLoops
2417:Discussion
2409:(in French)
2292:Paul Graham
2177:12 November
2155:12 November
2133:12 November
2111:12 November
2107:. Bitsavers
2089:12 November
2085:. Bitsavers
2053:12 November
2031:12 November
2009:12 November
1987:12 November
1965:12 November
1943:12 November
1783:12 November
1761:12 November
1739:12 November
1713:12 November
1687:12 November
1661:12 November
1635:12 November
1604:12 November
1573:12 November
1547:12 November
1482:12 November
1472:AI Magazine
1450:AI Magazine
1406:AI Magazine
904:;Creating I
829:disassemble
649:Open Genera
616:Facom-alpha
527:Common Lisp
495:New Flavors
487:Common Lisp
421:TI Explorer
123:Common Lisp
3680:Categories
3429:David Park
3424:Joel Moses
3405:Mike Levin
3281:Lucid Inc.
3232:Curriculum
3065:Spice Lisp
2966:Franz Lisp
2956:Emacs Lisp
2816:TinyScheme
2640:Clozure CL
2275:, 6th ed.
2027:. Unlambda
2005:. Unlambda
1983:. Unlambda
1939:. Unlambda
1563:"NTT ELIS"
1456:(1). 1987.
1412:(1). 1981.
1382:Moby space
1292:6 December
1244:References
1021:;PREDICATE
645:Lucid Inc.
602:Norsk Data
553:; and the
551:Dandetiger
535:Xerox Star
460:CDR coding
393:head start
315:improve it
265:/ˈkeɪ.dəɹ/
234:CDR coding
45:MIT Museum
3471:10th rule
3300:Education
3286:Symbolics
3276:Harlequin
3187:Education
3151:Community
2980:Interlisp
2796:Scheme 48
2773:MultiLisp
2748:GNU Guile
2668:LispWorks
2534:Recursion
2296:AI Expert
2049:. Heeltoe
1478:(1), 1987
1369:K-Machine
1357:Moon 1985
1344:Levy, S:
1192:processes
1084:INCREMENT
795:predicate
735:predicate
636:AI winter
571:hypertext
567:NoteCards
547:Dandelion
531:Smalltalk
516:Interlisp
501:(CLOS)).
412:Symbolics
374:Symbolics
361:In 1979,
331:June 2021
319:verifying
269:/ˈkɑ.dəɹ/
238:functions
222:Symbolics
189:In 1973,
115:Interlisp
95:Symbolics
3666:Category
3656:Category
3259:Business
3121:Hardware
3070:Zetalisp
3055:S-1 Lisp
3040:Picolisp
2930:BBN LISP
2925:AutoLISP
2873:StarLogo
2834:OpenLisp
2790:features
2547:compiler
2482:Features
2263:Chaosnet
1385:Archived
1332:17431528
1222:See also
859:OPTIONAL
850:REQUIRED
823:Command:
669:PicoLisp
559:Daybreak
151:assembly
91:Chaosnet
3646:Commons
3315:(CSAIL)
3291:Xanalys
3212:On Lisp
3035:PC-LISP
3025:newLISP
3010:Maclisp
2970:PC-LISP
2949:history
2935:Clojure
2898:(POP-1)
2878:UCBLogo
2868:NetLogo
2863:MSWLogo
2758:JScheme
2732:Chicken
2716:History
2647:(CMUCL)
2582:Flavors
2564:systems
2428:– (PDF)
2374:at the
2287:. 1984.
2202:General
1779:. Limsi
1757:. Limsi
1346:Hackers
1150:ADDRESS
976:ADDRESS
835:compile
792:funcall
653:Macsyma
613:Fujitsu
539:Dolphin
491:Flavors
483:Maclisp
313:Please
155:Fortran
137:History
109:), and
3502:Scheme
3337:People
3224:(SICP)
3208:(HTDP)
3103:Genera
3098:McCLIM
2995:LeLisp
2961:EuLisp
2907:POP-11
2896:COWSEL
2826:ISLISP
2786:Racket
2753:Ikarus
2744:(GOAL)
2737:Gambit
2722:Bigloo
2707:Scheme
2693:(SBCL)
2686:Poplog
2682:Movitz
2631:(ABCL)
2614:Common
2573:(CLOS)
2562:Object
2518:Macros
2322:Medley
2230:AI Lab
1892:
1814:
1735:. IPSJ
1709:. IPSJ
1657:. IPSJ
1543:. IPSJ
1330:
1264:
1171:SINGLE
1165:RETURN
1117:BRANCH
1096:;COUNT
1069:BRANCH
1045:FINISH
910:BRANCH
844:ENTRY:
765:dolist
659:Legacy
606:ND-500
563:Medley
543:Dorado
497:, and
489:(with
453:Mac II
444:Genera
255:Knight
201:(MIT)
171:PDP-10
169:(DEC)
153:- and
3636:Books
3309:(MIT)
3194:Books
3178:X3J13
3060:SKILL
3020:MLisp
2990:*Lisp
2944:Apple
2940:Dylan
2902:POP-2
2664:(GCL)
2658:(ECL)
2635:CLISP
1834:[
1328:S2CID
1212:Sun-4
1208:Sun-3
1177:STACK
1123:FALSE
1075:FALSE
1063:VALUE
1003:START
892:;LIST
813:)))))
810:count
777:count
753:count
726:defun
598:Racal
520:Xerox
433:NuBus
273:Emacs
211:Arena
111:Xerox
3626:List
3540:Logo
3108:Scsh
3088:List
2855:Logo
2806:SIOD
2778:Pico
2763:Kawa
2678:Mocl
2616:Lisp
2237:CADR
2179:2011
2157:2011
2135:2011
2113:2011
2091:2011
2055:2011
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2011:2011
1989:2011
1967:2011
1945:2011
1890:ISBN
1812:ISBN
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