681:
480:
worked to determine what qualities make a "good language learner". Some of their common findings are that a good language learner uses positive learning strategies, is an active learner who is constantly searching for meaning. Also a good language learner demonstrates a willingness to practice and use the language in real communication. He also monitors himself and his learning, has a strong drive to communicate, and has a good ear and good listening skills.
317:"recasts", the teacher repeating a student's incorrect utterance with the correct version, are not always the most useful because students do not notice the correction. His studies in 2002 showed that students learn better when teachers help students recognize and correct their own errors. Mackey, Gas and McDonough had similar findings in 2000 and attributed the success of this method to the student's active participation in the corrective processes.
78:
2298:
255:, "Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphological development faster than children (where time and exposure are held constant)". Also, "older children acquire faster than younger children do (again, in early stages of morphological and syntactic development where time and exposure are held constant)". In other words, adults and older children are fast learners when it comes to the initial stage of foreign language education.
263:
to Brian A. Jacob, multicultural education affects students' "relations, attitudes, and behaviors". And as children learn more and more foreign languages, children start to adapt, and get absorbed into the foreign culture that they "undertake to describe themselves in ways that engage with representations others have made". Due to such factors, learning foreign languages at an early age may incur one's perspective of his or her native country.
247:. Before a child goes through puberty, the chemical processes in the brain are more geared towards language and social communication. Whereas after puberty, the ability for learning a language without an accent has been rerouted to function in another area of the brain—most likely in the frontal lobe area promoting cognitive functions, or in the neural system of hormone allocated for reproduction and sexual organ growth.
503:
523:
163:
analysis, stages and order of acquisition, structuralism (approach that looks at how the basic units of language relate to each other according to their common characteristics), 1st language acquisition studies, contrastive analysis (approach where languages are examined in terms of differences and similarities) and inter-language (which describes the L2 learner's language as a rule-governed, dynamic system).
345:
the emotions more when they perceive these emotions by their first language/native language/L1, but feel less emotional when by their second language even though they know the meaning of words clearly. The emotional distinction between L1 and L2 indicates that the "effective valence" of words is processed less immediate in L2 because of the delayed vocabulary/lexical access to these two languages.
549:, a distinction is made between second language and foreign language, the latter is being learned for use in an area where that language is originally from another country and not spoken in the native country of the speakers. And in other words, foreign language is used from the perspective of countries; the second language is used from the perspective of individuals.
53:. A speaker's dominant language, which is the language a speaker uses most or is most comfortable with, is not necessarily the speaker's first language. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as "the first language learned in childhood and still spoken", recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known as
333:. And second language learners can do this by applying the rules they learn to the sentence-construction, for example. So learners in both their native and second language have knowledge that goes beyond what they have received, so that people can make correct utterances (phrases, sentences, questions, etc) that they have never learned or heard before.
199:(highly influenced by Krashen's theories). Some of these approaches are more popular than others, and are viewed to be more effective. Most language teachers do not use one singular style, but will use a mix in their teaching. This provides a more balanced approach to teaching and helps students of a variety of learning styles succeed.
298:
end up having the capacity to figure out the grammatical rules. Error correction does not seem to have a direct influence on learning a second language. Instruction may affect the rate of learning, but the stages remain the same. Adolescents and adults who know the rule are faster than those who do not.
373:
For L2 pronunciation, there are two principles that have been put forth by Levis. The first is nativeness which means the speaker's ability to approximately reach the speaking pattern of the second language of speakers; and the second, understanding, refers to the speaker's ability to make themselves
301:
In the learning of a second language the correction of errors remains a controversial topic with many differing schools of thought. Throughout the last century much advancement has been made in research on the correction of students' errors. In the 1950s and 60s, the viewpoint of the day was that all
288:
structures, and the process is relatively very fast because language is a very complex skill. Moreover, if children start to learn a second language when they are seven years old or younger, they will also be fully fluent with their second language in a faster speed comparing to the speed of learning
250:
As far as the relationship between age and eventual attainment in SLA is concerned, Krashen, Long, and
Scarcella, say that people who encounter foreign language in early age, begin natural exposure to second languages and obtain better proficiency than those who learn the second language as an adult.
135:
Research in SLA "...focuses on the developing knowledge and use of a language by children and adults who already know at least one other language... a knowledge of second-language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programmes for both foreign language courses
123:
a language is a conscious one. In the former, the student needs to partake in natural communicative situations. In the latter, error correction is present, as is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in second language agree to this distinction; however, the
344:
has been an advantage to today's world and being bilingual gives the opportunity to understand and communicate with people with different cultural backgrounds. However, a study done by Optiz and Degner in 2012 shows that sequential bilinguals (i.e. learn their L2 after L1) often relate themselves to
316:
The 1990s brought back the familiar idea that explicit grammar instruction and error correction was indeed useful for the SLA process. At this time, more research started to be undertaken to determine exactly which kinds of corrections are the most useful for students. In 1998, Lyster concluded that
297:
In the first language, children do not respond to systematic correction. Furthermore, children who have limited input still acquire the first language, which is a significant difference between input and output. Children are exposed to a language environment of errors and lack of correction but they
262:
As for the fluency, it is better to do foreign language education at an early age, but being exposed to a foreign language since an early age causes a "weak identification". Such issue leads to a "double sense of national belonging," that makes one not sure of where they belong to because, according
312:
In the 1980s, the strict grammar and corrective approach of the 1950s became obsolete. Researchers asserted that correction was often unnecessary and that instead of furthering students' learning it was hindering them. The main concern at this time was relieving student stress and creating a warm
479:
Being successful in learning a second language is often found to be challenging for some individuals. Research has been done to look into why some students are more successful than others. Stern, Rubin and Reiss are just a few of the researchers who have dedicated time to this subject. They have
258:
Gauthier and
Genesee have done research which mainly focuses on the second language acquisition of internationally adopted children and results show that early experiences of one language of children can affect their ability to acquire a second language, and usually children learn their second
162:
Other dominant theories and points of research include 2nd language acquisition studies (which examine if L1 findings can be transferred to L2 learning), verbal behaviour (the view that constructed linguistic stimuli can create a desired speech response), morpheme studies, behaviourism, error
487:
and second language acquisition. They looked at four types of motivations—intrinsic (inner feelings of learner), extrinsic (reward from outside), integrative (attitude towards learning), and instrumental (practical needs). According to the test results, the intrinsic part has been the main
724:
George H. J. Weber, a Swiss businessman and independent scholar, founder of the
Andaman Association and creator of the encyclopedic andaman.org Web site, made a report in December 1997 about the number of secondary speakers of the world's leading languages. Weber used the
308:
In 1977, Terrell"s studies showing that there were more factors to be considered in the classroom than the cognitive processing of the students. He contested that the affective side of students and their self-esteem were equally important to the teaching process.
357:
be successful in both measurements. It is inevitable that all people will learn a first language and with few exceptions, they will be fully successful. For second language learners, success is not guaranteed. For one, learners may become fossilized or
729:
of 1986 as his primary and only source for the L2-speakers data, in preparing the data in the following table. These numbers are here compared with those referred to by
Ethnologue, a popular source in the linguistics field. See below Table 1.
488:
motivation for these student who learn
English as their second language. However, students report themselves being strongly instrumentally motivated. In conclusion, learning a second language and being successful depend on every individual.
240:(AO). Later, Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson modified their age cut-offs to argue that after childhood, in general, it becomes more and more difficult to acquire native-like-ness, but that there is no cut-off point in particular.
235:
but their language would, while consisting of few actual errors, have enough errors to set them apart from the L1 group. The inability of some subjects to achieve native-like proficiency must be seen in relation to the
219:
or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely associated with the
329:, children will bridge the gap between input and output by their innate grammar because the input (utterances they hear) is so poor but all children end up having complete knowledge of grammar. Chomsky calls it the
166:
These theories have all influenced second-language teaching and pedagogy. There are many different methods of second-language teaching, many of which stem directly from a particular theory. Common methods are the
305:
In the 1970s, Dulay and Burt's studies showed that learners acquire grammar forms and structures in a pre-determined, inalterable order, and that teaching or correcting styles would not change that.
1875:
Johnson, Jacqueline; Newport, Elissa (January 1989). "Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of
English as a second language".
651:
due to the lack of opportunities for use, such as historical links, media, conversation between people, and common vocabulary. Likewise, French would be considered a foreign language in
1534:
608:, although French is not an official language in any of them. In practice, French is widely used in a variety of contexts in these countries, and signs are normally printed in both
280:
in it, although with practice considerable fluency can be achieved. However, children by around the age of 5 have more or less mastered their first language with the exception of
2068:
366:
occurs when language errors become a permanent feature.) The difference between learners may be significant. As noted elsewhere, L2 learners rarely achieve complete
900:
Collecting the number of second language speakers of every language is extremely difficult and even the best estimates contain guess work. The data below are from
276:
Acquiring a second language can be a lifelong learning process for many. Despite persistent efforts, most learners of a second language will never become fully
1778:
Gauthier, Karine; Genesee, Fred (March 2011). "Language
Development in Internationally Adopted Children: A Special Case of Early Second Language Learning".
2186:
2013:
Mollica, A.; Neussel, F. (1997). "The good language learner and the good language teacher: A review of the literature and classroom applications".
1757:
207:
The defining difference between a first language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age the person learned the language. For example, linguist
243:
As we are learning more and more about the brain, there is a hypothesis that when a child is going through puberty, that is the time that accents
1542:
302:
errors must be corrected at all costs. Little thought went to students' feelings or self-esteem in regards to this constant correction.
1912:
Krashen, Stephen D.; Long, Michael A.; Scarcella, Robin C. (1979). "Age, Rate and
Eventual Attainment in Second Language Acquisition".
1609:
1583:
895:
1705:
72:
1344:
484:
1564:
584:
is considered a second language by many of its speakers, because they learn it young and use it regularly; indeed in parts of
1492:
1428:
1255:
2027:
1121:
1964:
1720:
Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing".
2256:
1824:
1815:
Hyltenstam, K.; Abrahamsson, N. (2003). "Maturational
Constraints in SLA". In Doughty, C. J.; Long, M. H. (eds.).
155:
of sorts in the brain contains innate knowledge. Many psychological theories, on the other hand, hypothesize that
192:
49:(L1). A second language may be a neighbouring language, another language of the speaker's home country, or a
2226:
Selinker, Larry; Lamendella, John T. (1978). "Two perspectives on fossilization in interlanguage learning".
1116:
1111:
2171:
353:
Success in language learning can be measured in two ways: likelihood and quality. First language learners
313:
environment for them. Stephen
Krashen was a big proponent in this hands-off approach to error correction.
227:
In acquiring an L2, Hyltenstam found that around the age of six or seven seemed to be a cut-off point for
1635:
363:
252:
188:
66:
17:
2172:"Corrective feedback, over a decade of research since Lyster and Ranta (1997): Where do we stand today?"
2288:
1955:
Mitchell, Rosamond; Myles, Florence (2004). "The recent history of second language learning research".
221:
168:
1942:
172:
1988:
2247:
Spada, Nina; Lightbown, Patsy M. (2010) . "Second Language Acquisition". In Norbert Schmitt (ed.).
1601:
Fig 6. "number of secondary speakers" is based on a table given in Fischer Weltalamanach [
1974:
Levis, John (Autumn 2005). "Changing Contexts and Shifting Paradigms in Pronunciation Teaching".
483:Ă–zgĂĽr and Griffiths have designed an experiment in 2013 about the relationship between different
330:
156:
31:
1983:
196:
1751:
89:
2046:
1613:
1587:
726:
699:
216:
176:
1662:"National Identity and Attitude Toward Foreigners in a Multinational State: A Replication"
57:. This can happen when young children start school or move to a new language environment.
8:
1836:"Defining Culture in a Multicultural Environment: An Ethnography of Heritage High School"
846:
776:
100:
2235:
2158:
2122:
2058:
2001:
1929:
1900:
1863:
1855:
1803:
1701:
1681:
1131:
613:
531:
85:
54:
266:
2318:
2252:
2050:
1960:
1892:
1888:
1867:
1820:
1795:
1791:
874:
660:
589:
136:
and the learning of the majority language by minority language children and adults."
1904:
1348:
2275:
2214:
2150:
2099:
2063:
2042:
1993:
1921:
1884:
1847:
1807:
1787:
1737:
1729:
1673:
1568:
818:
790:
762:
748:
633:
577:
553:
546:
527:
515:
507:
497:
50:
179:(clearly influenced by audio-lingual research and the behaviourist approach), the
2302:
2218:
2104:
2087:
860:
832:
804:
664:
609:
593:
511:
228:
108:
2266:
Stern, H. H. (March 1975). "What Can We Learn from the Good Language Learner?".
208:
112:
46:
2312:
535:
184:
1677:
518:(30 million learners) are the three most commonly studied foreign languages.
2054:
1799:
1733:
341:
326:
93:
2279:
1896:
231:
to achieve native-like proficiency. After that age, L2 learners could get
581:
573:
2239:
2126:
2114:
2162:
2005:
1933:
1859:
1835:
1742:
1685:
1661:
637:
629:
625:
621:
585:
569:
281:
180:
144:
140:
81:
1279:
1277:
77:
2141:
Rubin, Joan (1975). "What the "Good Language Learner" Can Teach Us".
1126:
644:
565:
96:
2154:
1997:
1925:
1301:
289:
by adults who start to learn a second language later in their life.
2297:
1851:
1274:
561:
542:
267:
Similarities and differences between learned and native proficiency
470:
rarely fully successful (if learning starts after Critical Period)
1262:
663:, Romania's historical links to France, and all being members of
656:
652:
617:
605:
601:
597:
592:
of the courts, government and business. The same can be said for
502:
285:
1207:
522:
251:
However, when it comes to the relationship between age and rate
1231:
1627:
1504:
1502:
648:
557:
1765:
Doggett, G (1994). "Eight Approaches to Language Teaching".
1156:
901:
259:
language slower and weaker even during the critical period.
159:, responsible for much of human learning, process language.
1289:
107:
The distinction between acquiring and learning was made by
2028:"Emotionality in a second language: It's a matter of time"
1514:
1499:
1362:
1603:
526:
Spanish taught as a second language to a class of native
1168:
1660:
Beerten, Roeland; Billiet, Jaak; Maddens, Bart (2003).
1399:
1944:
Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
2286:
1814:
1659:
1307:
1268:
1243:
1213:
1911:
1313:
1283:
1237:
908:
The world's most spoken language by native speakers
1374:
1325:
1197:
1195:
1003:The world's most spoken language by total speakers
636:can be considered a second language, and there are
27:
Language spoken in addition to one's first language
2225:
2086:Ă–zgĂĽr, Burcu; Griffiths, Carol (25 January 2013).
1438:
1180:
1144:
1480:
1468:
1456:
1444:
1347:. globe1234.com. January 17, 2012. Archived from
2310:
1219:
1192:
2179:Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching
1777:
1295:
378:Similarities and differences between L2 and L1
139:SLA has been influenced by both linguistic and
2246:
2085:
2012:
1874:
1520:
1508:
1368:
1162:
647:, English is considered a foreign language in
60:
2026:Opitz, Bertram; Degner, Juliane (July 2012).
1954:
1666:International Society of Political Psychology
1535:"The world's languages, in 7 maps and charts"
1254:sfn error: no target: CITEREFHyltenstam1992 (
1174:
1756:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (
1533:Noack, Rick; Gamio, Lazaro (23 April 2015).
119:of a language is a natural process; whereas
45:) is a language spoken in addition to one's
2207:International Review of Applied Linguistics
2025:
1846:(4). University of Chicago Press: 339–376.
1817:The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition
1719:
1584:"The World's 10 most influential Languages"
1427:harv error: no target: CITEREFJohnson1992 (
1418:
1405:
659:, even though both French and Romanian are
612:and French. A similar phenomenon exists in
447:more emotional when perceiving words by L1
1565:"The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages"
1532:
1249:
444:less emotional when perceiving words by L2
2103:
2092:Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences
2062:
1987:
1741:
2204:
1491:sfn error: no target: CITEREFReiss1985 (
1434:
896:Lists of languages by number of speakers
680:
521:
501:
76:
2169:
1940:
1764:
1422:
1393:
1186:
1150:
1137:
88:shows students' efforts at placing the
73:Theories of second-language acquisition
14:
2311:
2249:An Introduction to Applied Linguistics
2205:Selinker, L. (1972). "Interlanguage".
2121:. Modern Language Association: 33–40.
2047:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.021
362:as it were with ungrammatical items. (
2265:
2140:
2112:
1973:
1833:
1486:
1474:
1462:
1450:
1331:
1319:
1225:
1201:
741:
738:
320:
1819:. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
674:
1612:. 1986. p. 910. Archived from
1308:Beerten, Billiet & Maddens 2003
1214:Beerten, Billiet & Maddens 2003
1122:Computer-assisted language learning
491:
24:
2192:from the original on 20 April 2017
1699:
1284:Krashen, Long & Scarcella 1979
1238:Krashen, Long & Scarcella 1979
742:L2 speakers (Ethnologue.com 2023)
506:A German student learning French.
124:study of how a second language is
25:
2330:
1957:Second Language Learning Theories
1269:Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson 2003
719:
410:systematic stages of development
2296:
1959:(2 ed.). Hodder Education.
1792:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01578.x
679:
407:systematic stages of development
370:control of the second language.
202:
2268:Canadian Modern Language Review
2074:from the original on 2020-08-06
1708:from the original on 2022-01-20
1653:
1638:from the original on 2019-03-24
1620:
1595:
1576:
1557:
1526:
1411:
1337:
739:L2 speakers (Weltalmanach 1986)
336:
217:a language consciously acquired
2228:Interlanguage Studies Bulletin
1439:Selinker & Lamendella 1978
193:Total Physical Response method
143:theories. One of the dominant
13:
1:
1840:American Journal of Education
889:
396:slower than acquisition of L1
292:
147:theories hypothesizes that a
2219:10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209
2105:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.165
2088:"Second Language Motivation"
1889:10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0
1592:(reference for entire table)
1573:(reference for entire table)
1117:Foreign language reading aid
1112:Foreign language writing aid
690:appears to contradict itself
638:large Russophone communities
115:. According to Krashen, the
7:
1628:"The most spoken languages"
1296:Gauthier & Genesee 2011
1105:
189:community language learning
130:second-language acquisition
67:Second-language acquisition
61:Second-language acquisition
10:
2335:
2170:Russell, Victoria (2009).
2115:"Arts of the Contact Zone"
1521:Ă–zgĂĽr & Griffiths 2013
1509:Mollica & Neussel 1997
1369:Johnson & Newport 1989
1163:Spada & Lightbown 2010
893:
514:(82 million learners) and
495:
436:beyond the level of input
348:
222:critical period hypothesis
169:grammar-translation method
70:
64:
30:For the album by XXX, see
29:
1834:Jacob, Brian (Aug 1995).
1175:Mitchell & Myles 2004
694:on the number of speakers
455:not inevitable (possible
433:beyond the level of input
530:speakers at an American
510:(1.5 billion learners),
271:
1736:(inactive 2024-06-10).
1678:10.1111/0162-895X.00327
1610:"Fischer Weltalamanach"
1419:Canale & Swain 1980
1406:Opitz & Degner 2012
670:
32:Second Language (album)
1941:Krashen, S.D. (1982).
538:
519:
197:communicative approach
104:
2280:10.3138/cmlr.31.4.304
702:for more information.
556:in countries such as
525:
505:
399:acquisition is rapid
233:near-native-like-ness
80:
71:Further information:
2251:. Hodder Education.
2113:Pratt, Mary (1991).
1877:Cognitive Psychology
1734:10.1093/applin/1.1.1
1138:Notes and references
727:Fischer Weltalmanach
177:audio-lingual method
157:cognitive mechanisms
1950:. Oxford: Pergamon.
1722:Applied Linguistics
1539:The Washington Post
1011:speakers (million)
1004:
916:Speakers (million)
909:
643:However, unlike in
430:Depth of knowledge
379:
331:Poverty of Stimulus
101:Spanish orthography
1132:Language education
1002:
907:
614:post-Soviet states
539:
520:
377:
321:Depth of knowledge
128:is referred to as
105:
55:language attrition
1780:Child Development
1103:
1102:
1000:
999:
904:as of June 2013.
887:
886:
717:
716:
661:Romance languages
590:official language
477:
476:
415:Error correction
84:used in class at
16:(Redirected from
2326:
2301:
2300:
2292:
2283:
2262:
2243:
2222:
2213:(1–4): 209–241.
2201:
2199:
2197:
2191:
2176:
2166:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2109:
2107:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2073:
2066:
2041:(8): 1961–1967.
2035:Neuropsychologia
2032:
2022:
2009:
1991:
1970:
1951:
1949:
1937:
1908:
1871:
1830:
1811:
1774:
1761:
1755:
1747:
1745:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1643:
1624:
1618:
1617:
1599:
1593:
1591:
1586:. Archived from
1580:
1574:
1572:
1567:. Archived from
1561:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1541:. Archived from
1530:
1524:
1518:
1512:
1506:
1497:
1496:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1432:
1415:
1409:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1372:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1356:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1281:
1272:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1199:
1190:
1184:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1148:
1080:Malay/Indonesian
1072:Bengali/Sylhetti
1005:
1001:
910:
906:
733:
732:
712:
709:
703:
683:
682:
675:
578:Nordic countries
547:sociolinguistics
498:Foreign language
492:Foreign language
380:
376:
126:learned/acquired
51:foreign language
21:
2334:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2309:
2308:
2307:
2295:
2287:
2259:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2174:
2155:10.2307/3586011
2143:TESOL Quarterly
2131:
2129:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2030:
1998:10.2307/3588485
1989:10.1.1.466.9352
1976:TESOL Quarterly
1967:
1947:
1926:10.2307/3586451
1914:TESOL Quarterly
1827:
1749:
1748:
1711:
1709:
1690:
1688:
1656:
1651:
1650:
1641:
1639:
1626:
1625:
1621:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1563:
1562:
1558:
1548:
1546:
1545:on 12 July 2015
1531:
1527:
1519:
1515:
1507:
1500:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1473:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1445:
1426:
1416:
1412:
1404:
1400:
1392:
1375:
1367:
1363:
1354:
1352:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1330:
1326:
1318:
1314:
1306:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1282:
1275:
1267:
1263:
1253:
1250:Hyltenstam 1992
1248:
1244:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1220:
1212:
1208:
1200:
1193:
1185:
1181:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1108:
898:
892:
877:
722:
713:
707:
704:
698:Please see the
697:
684:
673:
665:la Francophonie
500:
494:
351:
339:
323:
295:
274:
269:
213:second language
205:
111:as part of his
109:Stephen Krashen
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69:
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39:second language
35:
28:
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22:
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2332:
2322:
2321:
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2285:
2284:
2274:(4): 304–318.
2263:
2257:
2244:
2234:(2): 143–191.
2223:
2202:
2167:
2138:
2110:
2083:
2023:
2010:
1982:(3): 369–377.
1971:
1966:978-0340807668
1965:
1952:
1938:
1920:(4): 573–582.
1909:
1872:
1852:10.1086/444107
1831:
1825:
1812:
1786:(3): 887–901.
1775:
1762:
1717:
1697:
1672:(2): 241–257.
1655:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1619:
1616:on 2013-05-07.
1594:
1590:on 2013-05-07.
1575:
1571:on 2013-12-31.
1556:
1525:
1513:
1498:
1479:
1467:
1455:
1443:
1410:
1398:
1373:
1361:
1345:"Good Accents"
1336:
1324:
1322:, p. 364.
1312:
1310:, p. 241.
1300:
1288:
1286:, p. 573.
1273:
1261:
1242:
1230:
1218:
1206:
1191:
1179:
1167:
1165:, p. 108.
1155:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1089:
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1084:
1081:
1077:
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1073:
1069:
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1061:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1052:
1049:
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1041:
1037:
1036:
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1028:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1017:
1013:
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1009:
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986:
982:
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978:
974:
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970:
966:
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957:
954:
950:
949:
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942:
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938:
934:
933:
930:
926:
925:
922:
918:
917:
914:
902:ethnologue.com
891:
888:
885:
884:
881:
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870:
869:
866:
863:
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855:
852:
849:
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841:
838:
835:
828:
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824:
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814:
813:
810:
807:
800:
799:
796:
793:
786:
785:
782:
779:
772:
771:
768:
765:
758:
757:
756:1.077 billion
754:
751:
744:
743:
740:
737:
721:
720:Weber's report
718:
715:
714:
687:
685:
678:
672:
669:
532:private school
496:Main article:
493:
490:
475:
474:
471:
468:
464:
463:
460:
453:
449:
448:
445:
442:
438:
437:
434:
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427:
426:
423:
416:
412:
411:
408:
405:
401:
400:
397:
394:
390:
389:
386:
383:
350:
347:
338:
335:
322:
319:
294:
291:
273:
270:
268:
265:
209:Eric Lenneberg
204:
201:
113:Monitor Theory
65:Main article:
62:
59:
47:first language
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2331:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2290:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2258:9780340984475
2254:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2203:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2139:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2098:: 1109–1114.
2097:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1946:
1945:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1826:1-4051-3281-7
1822:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1753:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1718:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1687:
1683:
1679:
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1667:
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1658:
1657:
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1589:
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1579:
1570:
1566:
1560:
1544:
1540:
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1529:
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1503:
1494:
1488:
1483:
1476:
1471:
1464:
1459:
1452:
1447:
1440:
1436:
1435:Selinker 1972
1430:
1424:
1420:
1414:
1407:
1402:
1395:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1370:
1365:
1351:on 2013-10-05
1350:
1346:
1340:
1334:, p. 35.
1333:
1328:
1321:
1316:
1309:
1304:
1297:
1292:
1285:
1280:
1278:
1270:
1265:
1257:
1251:
1246:
1239:
1234:
1227:
1222:
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1196:
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1183:
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1164:
1159:
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1133:
1130:
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1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
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1110:
1109:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1090:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1050:
1047:
1046:
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1039:
1038:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1018:
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1006:
995:
992:
991:
987:
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983:
979:
976:
975:
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968:
967:
963:
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952:
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943:
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927:
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920:
919:
915:
912:
911:
905:
903:
897:
882:
879:
876:
872:
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867:
864:
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858:
857:
853:
850:
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830:
829:
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801:
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794:
792:
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773:
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752:
750:
746:
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735:
734:
731:
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711:
708:December 2021
701:
695:
691:
688:This section
686:
677:
676:
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
641:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
552:For example,
550:
548:
544:
537:
536:Massachusetts
533:
529:
524:
517:
513:
509:
504:
499:
489:
486:
481:
472:
469:
466:
465:
461:
458:
457:fossilization
454:
451:
450:
446:
443:
441:Emotionality
440:
439:
435:
432:
429:
428:
425:not involved
424:
421:
417:
414:
413:
409:
406:
403:
402:
398:
395:
392:
391:
387:
384:
382:
381:
375:
371:
369:
365:
364:Fossilization
361:
356:
346:
343:
334:
332:
328:
325:According to
318:
314:
310:
306:
303:
299:
290:
287:
283:
279:
264:
260:
256:
254:
248:
246:
241:
239:
234:
230:
225:
223:
218:
214:
210:
203:Effect of age
200:
198:
194:
190:
186:
185:Suggestopedia
182:
178:
174:
173:direct method
170:
164:
160:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
141:psychological
137:
133:
131:
127:
122:
118:
114:
110:
102:
98:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
74:
68:
58:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
2271:
2267:
2248:
2231:
2227:
2210:
2206:
2194:. Retrieved
2185:(1): 21–31.
2182:
2178:
2149:(1): 41–51.
2146:
2142:
2130:. Retrieved
2118:
2095:
2091:
2076:. Retrieved
2038:
2034:
2018:
2014:
1979:
1975:
1956:
1943:
1917:
1913:
1883:(1): 60–99.
1880:
1876:
1843:
1839:
1816:
1783:
1779:
1770:
1766:
1752:cite journal
1725:
1721:
1710:. Retrieved
1689:. Retrieved
1669:
1665:
1654:Bibliography
1640:. Retrieved
1631:
1622:
1614:the original
1602:
1597:
1588:the original
1578:
1569:the original
1559:
1547:. Retrieved
1543:the original
1538:
1528:
1516:
1482:
1470:
1458:
1446:
1423:Johnson 1992
1413:
1401:
1394:Russell 2009
1364:
1353:. Retrieved
1349:the original
1339:
1327:
1315:
1303:
1291:
1264:
1245:
1233:
1221:
1209:
1187:Doggett 1994
1182:
1170:
1158:
1151:Krashen 1982
1146:
899:
883:0.2 million
840:274 million
826:108 million
812:229 million
784:266 million
770:199 million
723:
705:
693:
689:
642:
551:
540:
482:
478:
467:Success (2)
456:
452:Success (1)
419:
374:understood.
372:
367:
359:
354:
352:
342:Bilingualism
340:
337:Emotionality
327:Noam Chomsky
324:
315:
311:
307:
304:
300:
296:
277:
275:
261:
257:
249:
244:
242:
238:age of onset
237:
232:
226:
212:
206:
165:
161:
152:
148:
138:
134:
129:
125:
120:
116:
106:
94:acute accent
42:
38:
36:
1743:11059/14798
1728:(1): 1–47.
1700:Canale, M.
868:58 million
854:27 million
823:125 million
809:270 million
798:74 million
781:150 million
753:190 million
582:Netherlands
574:Philippines
485:motivations
473:successful
462:inevitable
422:influential
368:native-like
286:grammatical
278:native-like
117:acquisition
18:L2 speakers
2119:Profession
2078:2019-09-24
2021:(3): 1–16.
1773:(2): 8–12.
1712:2019-05-16
1702:"Canale M"
1691:4 February
1642:2013-06-30
1632:Ethnologue
1487:Reiss 1985
1475:Rubin 1975
1463:Stern 1975
1451:Levis 2005
1355:2013-08-23
1332:Pratt 1991
1320:Jacob 1995
1226:Jacob 1995
1202:Pratt 1991
1088:Portuguese
1032:Hindi-Urdu
969:Portuguese
945:Hindi-Urdu
894:See also:
890:Later data
865:80 million
851:28 million
847:Portuguese
837:21 million
795:20 million
777:Hindi-Urdu
767:20 million
630:Kazakhstan
626:Kyrgyzstan
622:Uzbekistan
588:it is the
586:South Asia
570:Bangladesh
293:Correction
284:and a few
282:vocabulary
229:bilinguals
195:, and the
181:Silent Way
145:linguistic
97:diacritics
82:Blackboard
2132:11 August
1984:CiteSeerX
1868:143732020
1127:Diglossia
880:8 million
700:talk page
645:Hong Kong
566:Sri Lanka
90:diaeresis
2319:Language
2313:Category
2303:Language
2240:43136004
2187:Archived
2127:25595469
2069:Archived
2055:22569217
1905:15842890
1800:21413938
1706:Archived
1636:Archived
1437:), and (
1106:See also
1096:Japanese
1024:Mandarin
1008:Language
993:Javanese
985:Japanese
921:Mandarin
913:Language
875:Japanese
763:Mandarin
736:Language
632:, where
616:such as
580:and the
562:Pakistan
543:pedagogy
420:directly
215:to mean
121:learning
99:used in
2163:3586011
2064:1625668
2006:3588485
1934:3586451
1897:2920538
1860:1085750
1808:8903620
1686:3792350
1607:].
1048:Russian
1040:Spanish
1016:English
977:Russian
953:Bengali
937:English
929:Spanish
819:Russian
791:Spanish
749:English
657:Moldova
653:Romania
634:Russian
618:Ukraine
606:Tunisia
602:Morocco
598:Algeria
554:English
528:English
516:Chinese
508:English
404:Stages
349:Success
132:(SLA).
86:Harvard
2289:Portal
2255:
2238:
2196:23 May
2161:
2125:
2061:
2053:
2015:Mosaic
2004:
1986:
1963:
1932:
1903:
1895:
1866:
1858:
1823:
1806:
1798:
1767:Mosaic
1684:
1549:9 June
1064:Arabic
1056:French
961:Arabic
861:German
833:Arabic
805:French
692:
610:Arabic
594:French
576:, the
572:, the
512:French
393:Speed
191:, the
175:, the
171:, the
153:module
149:device
2236:JSTOR
2190:(PDF)
2175:(PDF)
2159:JSTOR
2123:JSTOR
2072:(PDF)
2059:S2CID
2031:(PDF)
2002:JSTOR
1948:(PDF)
1930:JSTOR
1901:S2CID
1864:S2CID
1856:JSTOR
1842:. 4.
1804:S2CID
1682:JSTOR
1668:. 2.
1417:See (
1027:1116
1019:1132
996:84.3
649:China
558:India
360:stuck
272:Speed
245:start
211:used
2253:ISBN
2198:2017
2134:2018
2051:PMID
1961:ISBN
1893:PMID
1821:ISBN
1796:PMID
1758:link
1693:2023
1551:2015
1493:help
1429:help
1421:), (
1256:help
1099:130
1091:200
1083:200
1075:250
1067:250
1059:300
1051:320
1043:550
1035:600
988:122
980:162
972:202
964:223
956:230
948:330
940:335
932:476
924:918
873:10.
671:Data
655:and
628:and
604:and
545:and
418:not
355:will
92:and
2276:doi
2215:doi
2151:doi
2100:doi
2043:doi
1994:doi
1922:doi
1885:doi
1848:doi
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1788:doi
1738:hdl
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
