654:: instead of a one-dimensional table where each entry corresponds to a pair of characters, there are two-dimensional tables where each entry corresponds to a pair of classes of glyphs. A class includes several characters whose right-hand outline (and right side-bearing) is identical for kerning purposes, or several characters whose left-hand outline (and left side-bearing) is identical. All pairs of characters where the first one is from the first class and the second one is from the second class will require the same kerning value, so this value needs to be specified only once in the table. The rows in the two-dimensional table correspond to first-character classes, and the columns correspond to second-character classes. The kerning value for a given pair of characters is found in the table at the intersection of the classes to which they belong.
714:. With metric kerning, the program directly uses the values found in the kerning tables included in the font file. Most systems with typographic features today provide this type of kerning. Optical kerning, on the other hand, is available only in the more advanced systems. With optical kerning, the program uses an algorithm to calculate, from their outlines, the optimal spacing for each pair of consecutive characters. With both types of automatic kerning, the system usually permits the user to specify a minimum font size for applying kerning, if the user feels that kerning is unnecessary for smaller font sizes.
880:(extensions that perform a variety of functions that the system itself lacks), and this capability has also been used for kerning. In general, these plug-ins permit the user to apply a kerning change automatically to a certain character pair throughout an entire document, instead of applying it by searching manually for those pairs. So far only basic kerning features have been implemented through plug-ins, and it is unclear whether the more advanced features can be effectively implemented in this manner.
2563:
100:
762:
884:
modified document is then imported back into the desktop publishing system. Many systems permit this operation, either by converting the document with import and export functions, or by making their internal document format an open standard. The benefit of this approach is that some complex typesetting functions that may be hard to implement through plug-ins (kerning in particular) may be relatively easy to implement through separate tools.
694:
35:
217:(one em is the type size currently used). Different fonts may use different units, but common values are 1000 and 2048 units/em. Thus, for 1000 units/em, a kerning value of 15 means an increase in character spacing by 0.015 of the current type size. (The kerning units for a given font are the same as the units used to express the character widths in that font.)
964:
797:, although without the period between them their spacing is adequate. The period, in other words, reduces their spacing instead of increasing it. The explanation is this: without the period, their kerning is a positive 121 (expressed as 1,000 units/em). The period's width is 228, but the kerning between
883:
Instead of adding functionality to a desktop publishing system, a different approach is to export the document and process it outside that system. Any kerning features can then be applied to the document using tools ranging from ordinary text editors to programs specially developed for this task. The
747:
When employed by a skilled person, manual kerning will usually give better results than optical kerning; for example, some characters that may appear to an algorithmic comparison to be spaced very closely together may appear to a human reader too far apart, especially when the only element of a glyph
669:
A category of letters that lend themselves well to class-based kerning is those with diacritical marks. These letters can be added to the class of the base letter, and can stay together whether they are the first or second character in a pair: (a à á â), (e è é ê), etc. A letter cannot be included in
657:
This system is very economical, but is necessarily limited. For example, many of the classes may be quite small. Also, a font with many types of glyphs may require several such tables. Finally, many pairs remain that cannot be represented through classes. For them, simpler, one-dimensional tables are
872:
Whether modifying the font file with a font editor or overriding it in a particular system, the user is limited to the existing kerning features. Thus, if one needs features like optical kerning, or contextual kerning, or kerning a pair of characters that belong to different fonts, and if the system
220:
Most kerning adjustments are negative, and negative adjustments are generally larger than positive ones. Adjustments for different pairs within a given font can range from a tiny 2 to over 100 (when expressed as 1000 units/em). The adjustments for a given pair vary greatly from one font to another.
777:
Contextual kerning refers to positional adjustment that depends on more than two consecutive glyphs. For example, the spacing of a certain glyph may depend not only on the preceding glyph (as in ordinary kerning) but also on the one following it. Although rarely implemented in ordinary documents,
649:
Since an OpenType font may include thousands of glyphs, and consequently a huge number of pairs of characters that need kerning, OpenType fonts may have an elaborate system of tables and subtables, designed to minimize the overall storage space. (Kerning is treated as part of a broad range of new
743:
Manual kerning, available in some systems, permits the user to override the automatic kerning and to apply any kerning value directly to a pair of characters in a particular place in the text. When not available, this feature can be simulated by using, for those two characters, the function that
66:(letter-spacing) adjusts spacing uniformly over a range of characters. In a well-kerned font, the two-dimensional blank spaces between each pair of characters all have a visually similar area. The term "keming" is sometimes used informally to refer to poor kerning (the letters
860:
allow the user to modify the properties of a font, including its kerning table (if the font license permits it). They accomplish this by modifying the table found in the actual font file. The user can change the kerning value in existing pairs, or add new pairs.
330:
The table below contains a few exemplifying kerning pairs and their values. These values are based on 1000 units/em and the kerning pairs are ordered from the most negative to the most positive kerning value. The samples are taken from the kerning tables of the
739:
or to avoid kerning altogether. In this case, optical kerning is preferable. A common situation occurs when italic text ends with a roman symbol (right parenthesis or quotation mark, question mark, etc.) and the last letter's slant clashes with the symbol.
665:
font for the first character in a kerning pair: (d i l u), (h m n), (j q), (b o p), (v w y), (D O Q), (H I), (V W); and for the second character in a pair: (f i m n r), (h k l), (j p t u), (c d e o q), (v w y), (C G O Q), (B D E F H I K L N P R).
206:
In digital typography, kerning is usually applied to letter pairs as a number by which the default character spacing should be increased or decreased: a positive value for an increase, a negative value for a decrease. The number is expressed in
701:
typeface: The top version has no kerning, the middle version has some kerning. The bottom version has probably been overkerned for this character combination: the tightly spaced "WA" does not balance with the "AR" pair that cannot come
752:
mark. Manual kerning may even be better than the metric kerning built into the kerning table by the font's designer, since these tables often have errors or omissions, or the difference may simply be a matter of personal preference.
801:
and the period is −5, and between the period and the quotation mark −138. The total is a positive 85, as opposed to the original 121: a net loss of 36 units, which explains why the quotation mark is now closer to the
598:
Which letters need to be kerned depends on which languages the font is to be used with. Since some combinations of letters are not used in normal words in any language, kerning these is not necessary. Non-proportional
991:
of kerning can vary with the intraword and interword spacing during reading. Even without complete kerning control, the effect can be simulated by slight modifications to the space between letters. For instance, on
868:
systems allow the user to change or add kerning pairs without modifying the font file itself. The system merely applies to the user's document the new kerning values, in place of the values found in the font file.
658:
provided: each table is for a particular character that is the first in many pairs, and the entries contain the characters that are the second in these pairs, together with the corresponding kerning values.
706:
Automatic kerning refers to the kerning applied automatically by a program, as opposed to no kerning at all, or the kerning applied manually by the user. There are two types of automatic kerning:
619:
table where each entry consists of a pair of characters and their kerning value. TrueType fonts typically have several hundred pairs, but some have more than a thousand.
806:. Contextual kerning would recognize the sequence of three characters, and would increase one or both inter-character spaces. A similar problem exists with the letters
639:
849:
standard does not include support for kerning of subscripts or superscripts, Microsoft's implementation adds extensions to support this feature as of Office 2007.
315:
followed by right parenthesis or quotation mark). Depending on the font, some small positive kerning may also be required for accented letters and for pairs like
717:
With metric kerning, in a text that uses several fonts, the program must decide which kerning table to use when two consecutive characters belong to different
1229:
141:
only referred to manufacturing the sorts with kerns, while adjusting space between letters during compositing was called inter-spacing or letter spacing.
2148:
137:
that needed to overlap adjacent letters simply hung off the sort slug's edge. Those overhanging metal pieces were called kerns. At that time, the word
1444:
793:, period, quotation mark), as is often found at the end of a quotation. Using the font's kerning tables, the quotation mark is too close to the
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983:
adjusts the space based on character pairs. There is strong kerning between the "V" and the "A", and no kerning between the "S" and the "T".
1282:
1004:
property offers options for "lost" or "enhanced kerning perception" by simply making the space between letters non-uniform. The newer
638:) OpenType fonts do not have this option. OpenType introduced a new, uniform way of specifying, among other things, kerning, via the
1464:"Effects of intraword and interword spacing on eye movements during reading: Exploring the optimal use of space in a line of text"
773:
fit together well, but this makes the spaces on either side seem very large. Either wider or tighter letter spacing may help here.
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1254:
948:, which is supported in the major browsers. The CSS3 draft suggests that kerning should always be enabled for OpenType fonts.
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1592:
311:
Positive kerning is used mainly in conjunction with special characters and punctuation (for example, the lower case letter
190:
had to be physically modified. It was therefore only employed on letter combinations which needed it the most, such as
951:
Some critics have proposed to replace (at least some) OpenType-style GPOS kerning with spacer glyphs using OpenType's
833:
Contextual kerning is supported by the OpenType font format, but few font designers implement it, and probably no
1233:
1515:
2517:
2402:
2364:
837:
systems can currently use it. When important, the solution for a user is to employ manual kerning instead.
103:
The glyph on the right is kerned to overlap the character following it (glyphs are mirrored for printing).
2548:
1617:
1349:
2128:
1516:"The Rhetoric of Typography: Effects on Reading Time, Reading Comprehension, and Perceptions of Ethos"
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1450:
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2020:
1957:
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glyph positioning features which are stored in GPOS.) The system is based on the concept of glyph
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1977:
1700:
58:, usually to achieve a visually pleasing result. Kerning adjusts the space between individual
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1952:
1947:
1860:
1847:
1680:
1438:
1409:
Kumar, Vinod (2006). "Kerning or
Positioning Using Spacer Glyphs. Positioning with Spacers".
145:
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198:. With the arrival of digital fonts, it became much easier to kern many glyph combinations.
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117:, meaning "projecting angle, quill of a pen". The French term originated from the Latin
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the class if its kerning is different from the others in certain pairs (for example,
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modifies the space between characters in a block of text (usually called tracking).
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603:) fonts do not use kerning, since their characters always have the same spacing.
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24:
260:. It is also used to fit a period (full stop) or a comma closer to these and to
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In metal typesetting, kerning was labour-intensive and expensive because the
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adjusts the space between characters evenly, regardless of the characters,
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tables are still supported for TrueType fonts packed as OpenType; however,
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systems support OpenType features, and hence class-based kerning.
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Because this method was not well suited to some pairs of letters,
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http://www.cairn.info/revue-document-numerique-2006-3-page-69.htm
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An example of a situation that demands contextual kerning in the
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placed too closely together being easily mistaken for the letter
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Kerning brings A and V closer, with their serifs over each other.
20:
765:
Some words are particularly difficult to space. The name of the
240:
closer to some other capital letters on either side, especially
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1789:
224:
Negative kerning is widely used to fit capital letters such as
87:
denotes a part of a type letter that overhangs the edge of the
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the table from the font of the first character, or the second
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642:(GPOS). The more recent font releases by Adobe no longer have
2015:
1754:
1722:
1570:
1107:"kern | Definition of kern in English by Oxford Dictionaries"
149:
130:
34:
1269:"Method and system of character placement in opentype fonts"
1083:"Kerning, spacing, leading: the invisible art of typography"
876:
Some desktop publishing systems permit developers to create
2371:
2217:
2162:
1005:
997:
941:
975:): with spacing the "kerning perception" is lost. While
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font. In other fonts the kerning may be very different.
284:. Some other combinations that use negative kerning are
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contextual kerning is a concern in quality typography.
1566:
http://blog.typekit.com/2014/02/05/kerning-on-the-web/
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property, which allows a complete control of kerning.
129:, meaning "hinge". In the days when all type was cast
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in southwest Africa is difficult because the letters
1372:
The font-kerning property in the 2012's CSS3 Draft:
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lacks these features, other means must be employed.
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letters on the right side, such as the combinations
1561:http://www.printmag.com/featured/the-kerning-game/
1374:http://www.w3.org/TR/css3-fonts/#font-kerning-prop
1308:"Can I use Improved kerning pairs & ligatures"
646:tables at all, but only specify kerning via GPOS.
2579:
1232:. Partners.adobe.com. 2009-07-14. Archived from
661:Here are a few examples of glyph classes in the
50:is the process of adjusting the spacing between
688:
615:, the kerning values are specified in a simple
1507:
1461:
2523:Intellectual property protection of typefaces
1586:
1443:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 (
1283:"Cross-browser kerning-pairs & ligatures"
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1462:Slattery, Timothy J.; Rayner, Keith (2013).
153:
112:
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611:In older font formats, such as Microsoft's
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118:
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1579:
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1471:Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics
211:, one unit being a certain fraction of an
2549:Punctuation and other typographic symbols
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785:font is the sequence of three characters
1285:. Aestheticallyloyal.com. Archived from
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268:, as well as to the lower case letters
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1000:, a standard dating back to 1996, the
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841:Kerning of subscripts and superscripts
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1408:
1255:"Special Capabilities of a Math Font"
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756:
181:
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1061:"Fonts : Type topics: Glossary"
94:
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894:text-rendering: optimizeLegibility;
13:
1206:
14:
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201:
152:combinations, such as the French
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1186:"Adventures in Kerning, Part II"
852:
1530:
1402:
1378:
1342:
1321:
1300:
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1081:McGinnie, Louise (2013-11-28).
697:Three versions of "WAR" in the
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1247:
1222:
1200:
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1074:
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308:followed by a quotation mark.
1:
2518:History of Western typography
1111:Oxford Dictionaries | English
1047:
958:
133:, the parts of a typecasting
2365:traditional point-size names
689:Automatic and manual kerning
7:
1618:Canons of page construction
1163:. Microsoft.com. 2010-05-28
1015:
940:. There is also a proposed
10:
2609:
1538:"CSS Fonts Module Level 3"
920:, also enables kerning in
626:is a superset of TrueType
18:
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2006:
1995:
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1775:Subscript and superscript
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1484:10.3758/s13414-013-0463-8
748:that is “too close” is a
2533:Vox-ATypI classification
1663:Intentionally blank page
1514:Brumberger, Eva (2004).
967:Kerning contrasted with
953:Glyph Substitution Table
916:. Another CSS property,
492:Fw −3
480:Ix −6
466:fe −9
148:were supplied for those
111:is from the French word
19:Not to be confused with
1520:Technical Communication
1425:(inactive 2024-03-18).
1350:"font-feature-settings"
681:Most modern office and
640:Glyph Positioning Table
497:us −3
489:he −4
486:st −5
483:e, −6
477:yo −8
474:xc −8
471:vo −8
463:am −9
107:The source of the word
2066:
1423:10.3166/dn.9.3-4.69-85
1008:standard includes the
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774:
703:
158:, or the combinations
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125:
119:
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104:
39:
1230:"Developer Resources"
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922:Internet Explorer 10+
918:font-feature-settings
764:
696:
102:
37:
16:Process in typography
2403:Typographic features
1329:"Kerning on the Web"
2528:Technical lettering
2427:Typography in other
2168:Hanging punctuation
1386:"CSS3 font-kerning"
1161:"The Kerning Table"
896:enables kerning in
888:Kerning in browsers
454:lp −12
440:bv −16
428:c” −25
414:OA −36
402:Xv −54
388:w. −73
376:m” −82
362:Te −98
296:, and letters like
2491:Handwriting script
2418:Desktop publishing
2388:Character encoding
2381:Digital typography
1895:Horizontal aspects
1848:Visual distinction
1706:Widows and orphans
1411:Document Numérique
1188:. Hoefler & Co
1032:Ligature (writing)
985:
866:desktop publishing
835:desktop publishing
775:
757:Contextual kerning
704:
683:desktop publishing
506:Oj +5
460:tt −10
457:ot −11
451:SR −12
448:ro −13
445:Sp −14
437:aj −19
434:Ru −21
431:my −23
425:DY −30
422:T: −32
419:Hv −33
411:D” −36
408:D, −40
405:Ku −46
399:r, −63
396:LT −64
393:Yt −72
385:UA −78
382:FA −78
379:a” −79
373:PA −85
370:Vr −86
367:AV −97
182:Digital typography
105:
40:
2575:
2574:
2322:Typographic units
2240:For position only
2139:
2138:
1991:
1990:
1211:. Softerviews.org
1207:Pesala, Bhikkhu.
1182:Hoefler, Jonathan
892:The CSS property
596:
595:
515:bc +9
512:CO +7
509:il +5
503:la +3
500:Ak +3
95:Metal typesetting
81:The related term
56:proportional font
2600:
2565:
2564:
2542:Related template
2474:Related articles
2275:Phototypesetting
2129:reverse-contrast
2114:Display typeface
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2048:Blackletter type
2004:
2003:
1941:Vertical aspects
1922:Sentence spacing
1732:Typeface anatomy
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1477:(6): 1275–1292.
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1138:. Dictionary.com
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1117:on July 13, 2018
1113:. Archived from
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1087:The Conversation
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1999:classifications
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1352:. mozilla.org
1351:
1345:
1331:. Typekit.com
1330:
1324:
1310:. Caniuse.com
1309:
1303:
1289:on 2012-11-06
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1236:on 2016-09-01
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1209:"FontCreator"
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359:YA −104
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356:F. −110
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353:VA −123
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347:P, −139
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344:W. −144
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2513:Type foundry
2350:Metric units
2280:Punchcutting
2265:Movable type
2235:Font catalog
2195:Vertical bar
1932:Word spacing
1906:
1902:Figure space
1785:Text figures
1628:Even working
1542:. Retrieved
1532:
1523:
1519:
1509:
1474:
1470:
1457:
1439:cite journal
1414:
1410:
1404:
1393:. Retrieved
1389:
1380:
1354:. Retrieved
1344:
1333:. Retrieved
1323:
1312:. Retrieved
1302:
1291:. Retrieved
1287:the original
1277:
1263:
1249:
1238:. Retrieved
1234:the original
1224:
1213:. Retrieved
1202:
1190:. Retrieved
1176:
1165:. Retrieved
1140:. Retrieved
1130:
1119:. Retrieved
1115:the original
1110:
1101:
1090:. Retrieved
1086:
1076:
1065:. Retrieved
1055:
1042:Word spacing
1010:font-kerning
986:
980:
976:
968:
950:
946:font-kerning
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882:
875:
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858:Font editors
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578:w; +31
575:ry +29
567:r: +24
564:gy +24
561:T” +22
555:Bc +20
552:OC +18
549:Dv +17
541:VT +16
538:Co +15
535:So +14
529:wb +12
526:F” +12
523:fr +10
329:
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29:Kerning City
2508:Type design
2503:Style guide
2496:Calligraphy
2486:Handwriting
2300:Type design
2250:Lorem ipsum
2245:Letterpress
2205:Typesetting
2145:Punctuation
2109:Record type
2080:Gaelic type
2068:Schwabacher
1958:Body height
1823:Letter case
1691:Line length
1526:(1): 13–24.
1390:Caniuse.com
1142:13 November
60:letterforms
2593:Whitespace
2588:Typography
2582:Categories
2481:Penmanship
2453:East Asian
2295:Type color
2228:monospaced
2185:Interpunct
2178:minus sign
2102:Specialist
2038:Sans-serif
2031:slab serif
2008:Roman type
1963:Cap height
1927:Thin space
1886:Whitespace
1838:Title case
1833:Snake case
1828:Small caps
1813:Camel case
1745:Diacritics
1653:Pull quote
1648:Pagination
1643:Paper size
1602:Typography
1544:2014-08-07
1395:2023-07-03
1356:2019-02-08
1335:2019-02-08
1314:2014-08-07
1293:2014-08-07
1240:2014-08-07
1215:2014-08-07
1167:2014-08-07
1121:2018-07-13
1092:2023-12-16
1067:2011-09-16
1048:References
1022:Hz-program
959:Perception
936:, and the
912:, and the
845:While the
783:Minion Pro
663:Minion Pro
632:PostScript
601:monospaced
333:Minion Pro
246:lower case
209:font units
89:type block
52:characters
44:typography
1978:Overshoot
1973:Mean line
1968:Descender
1881:Underline
1723:Character
1701:Runaround
1681:Alignment
1673:Paragraph
944:property
750:diacritic
699:Clarendon
146:ligatures
2567:Category
2446:PT Fonts
2441:Cyrillic
2305:Typeface
2223:computer
2124:fat face
1997:Typeface
1983:x-height
1953:Baseline
1948:Ascender
1808:All caps
1770:Rotation
1765:Ligature
1760:Ink trap
1540:. W3.org
1501:30122450
1493:23709061
1449:also at
1431:13609756
1016:See also
994:webpages
977:tracking
969:tracking
955:(GSUB).
878:plug-ins
634:-based (
624:OpenType
613:TrueType
188:matrices
126:cardinis
64:tracking
2393:Hinting
2270:Pangram
2088:Insular
2061:Rotunda
2056:Fraktur
2021:Antiqua
1907:Kerning
1876:Oblique
1871:Italics
1818:Initial
1750:Dingbat
1740:Counter
1686:Leading
1192:24 June
1063:. Adobe
981:kerning
934:Firefox
898:Firefox
737:
732:
726:
721:
712:optical
702:closer.
652:classes
584:f” +121
139:kerning
48:kerning
21:kenning
2436:Arabic
2335:Cicero
2173:Hyphen
2158:Bullet
2119:script
2093:Uncial
2026:Didone
1790:Tittle
1633:Margin
1623:Column
1499:
1491:
1429:
1136:"kern"
926:Chrome
906:Safari
902:Chrome
864:A few
826:, and
708:metric
622:Since
323:, and
304:, and
292:, and
280:, and
256:, and
236:, and
62:while
2360:Point
2330:Agate
2190:Space
2016:Serif
1917:Pitch
1780:Swash
1755:Glyph
1696:River
1497:S2CID
1467:(PDF)
1427:S2CID
996:with
910:Opera
719:fonts
150:glyph
131:metal
120:cardo
114:carne
54:in a
27:, or
2458:Thai
2372:Twip
2355:Pica
2310:list
2290:Sort
2218:Font
2163:Dash
2149:List
1861:Bold
1711:runt
1610:Page
1489:PMID
1445:link
1194:2023
1144:2012
1006:CSS3
998:CSS1
987:The
942:CSS3
930:Edge
710:and
674:vs.
644:kern
628:kern
617:kern
264:and
135:sort
109:kern
84:kern
70:and
1479:doi
1419:doi
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771:AVA
730:one
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194:or
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1522:.
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1495:.
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