758:, and blue indicates flooded areas or ocean. The top illustration depicts the geology about 510 million years ago, with the sediments which would eventually form the Cape Supergroup settling in the Agulhas Sea. The middle illustration depicts the Falkland Plateau drifting northwards once again to close the Agulhas Sea, causing the Cape Supergroup to be rucked into a series of folds, running predominantly east–west. The lowest illustration shows how subduction of the paleo-Pacific Oceanic plate under the Falkland Plateau, during the Early Permian period, raised a massive range of mountains. These eventually eroded into the Karoo Sea, forming, especially, the
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1234:
916:
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949:, which can be seen in the south west corner of the Karoo today (see photograph lower down on the right). Turbidites have for some time been recognized as petroleum producing rocks, because the underwater avalanches that cause these deposits often carry organic matter from close to the coastline, especially near river estuaries and deltas, into the anoxic depths of adjoining troughs. Here it is buried in the turbidite and turns into
998:
1315:
1075:
981:
770:, with the result that an ice sheet several kilometers thick covered much of Africa, and other parts of Gondwana. The glacial deposits from this ice sheet were the first of the sediments to be deposited to the north of the Cape Fold Mountains (and partially over these incipient mountains). The basin into which these sediments settled was deepest immediately north of the
1058:
sandstone-dominated strata are known as the
Katberg formation (within the Beaufort Group), which accumulated to a thickness of 1 km. With time the Beaufort deposits became more fine-grained once again, probably indicating a recovery of the vegetation in the Karoo, and with it the appearance of a wide range of new species, including the
1249:
The magma welled up through long crack-like fissures, with occasional spatter cones, but typical volcanoes were rare. Each surface lava flow was between 10 and 20 meters thick. These flows piled up in rapid succession over 2 million years, to form a single continuous 1 to 1.6 km thick
1211:
causing the crust under the Karoo
Supergroup to rupture, releasing huge volumes of basaltic lava over the Clarens desert, covering nearly the whole of Southern Africa and other portions of Gondwana.The pile of lava that accumulated over the course of several eruptions was more than 1600 m thick,
635:
Periods. Today's continents into which this
Supercontinent eventually broke up, are indicated in brown. A rift developed about 510 million years ago, separating Southern Africa from the Falkland Plateau. Flooding of the rift formed the Agulhas Sea. The sediments which accumulated in this shallow
906:
of mud and sand cascading down the steep slope of the edge of the shelf. When the avalanche settles in the deep water trough, the sand and other coarse material settles first, then the mud and eventually the finest particles. Organic matter that came down with the avalanche ends up in the turbidite
1362:
The continued erosion of
Southern Africa over the past 180 million years has meant that rocks younger than The Drakensberg Group are almost non-existent over most of the interior. Some of the eroded material from the interior was trapped between the Cape Fold Mountains to the south during the
1345:
in the north of the country, and in the
Lebombo mountains along the Mozambique border. Once the layer of hard lava was eroded away, the softer Karoo sediments over the rest of the basin eroded even faster. However, the dolerite sills resisted erosion, protecting the softer Beaufort and Ecca shales
1096:
As
Gondwana drifted north, conditions in the portion that was to become Southern Africa became increasingly hot and arid. Sandstones were the predominant rocks that formed. However, in some areas there was sufficient water to form swamps with consequent coal formation, but the quality is poor. The
1057:
were the only mammal-like reptiles that survived this event. The
Beaufort sediments that were laid down after this event tend to be coarser than the ones that preceded them, probably because of a massive die-off of vegetation, which had protected the surface against erosion. These early Triassic
1014:
With the formation of the
Falkland Plateau and Cape Fold Mountain ranges, rivers from the south began to dominate the sedimentation in the Karoo Sea, which began to silt up. (The highlands to the north of the Karoo Sea had, by this time, been leveled by erosion and begun to be buried under newer
931:
sills found further inland (illustrated and described lower down, on the right, in the article) . The turbidites can be recognized at close quarters by the fact that the lowermost portion of each layer tends to be made up of sandstone which gradually grades into fine siltstone at the top of the
717:
periods. After closure of the rift valley, and compression of the Cape
Supergroup into a series of parallel folds, running mainly east–west, the continued subduction of the paleo-Pacific Plate beneath the Falkland Plateau and the resulting collision of the latter with Southern Africa, raised a
965:
Karoo regions have thus, recently, come under scrutiny by the petroleum industry and geologists, who have found them to have rich and readily accessible deposits of oil and gas. Thus the north-eastern Ecca basin is rich in coal, while its south-western corner is becoming renowned for its oils
870:, and extend over the entire former Karoo Sea, but the southerly deposits do not contain coal, even though rivers from the Cape Fold Mountains formed small deltas. Although the vegetation in the south was not as dense as on the northern shores of the inland sea, several early reptiles such as
1015:
sediments.) Several
Mississippi-like rivers flowed over the silted up Karoo Basin from the south, creating rich new habitats for a variety of flora and fauna. The terrestrial (as opposed to lacunar or marine) deposits created by these rivers gave rise to the
2333:
The stratigraphy, sedimentology, and age of the Late Palaeozoic Mesosaurus Inland Sea, SW-Gondwana - New implications from studies on sediments and altered pyroclastic layers of the Dwyka and Ecca Group (lower Karoo Supergroup) in southern
640:
of rocks, which form the Cape Fold Belt today. This portion of Gondwana was probably located on the opposite side of the South Pole from Africa's present position, but compass bearings are nevertheless given as if Africa was in its present
2003:
Weishampel, David B; et al (2004). "Dinosaur distribution (Early Jurassic, Africa)." In: Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.): The Dinosauria, 2nd, Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 535–536.
1046:(terrible head) are so named because of their extraordinary thick boned skulls, which were probably used for head butting during territorial fights. With their 3-meter body length, they were the first large animals to live on land.
923:, with multiple turbidite fans, indicating that the south-western portion of Karoo Sea was very deep, with steep slopes leading up to the shore line. The underwater avalanches were probably triggered by frequent earthquakes as the
1031:. The Beaufort Group is rich in reptilian, and to a lesser extent, amphibian remains. There is a plethora of both herbivorous and carnivorous reptile fossils. The Beaufort rocks are internationally famous for its rich record of
828:
As Gondwana drifted away from the South Pole, the glaciers melted, leaving a vast inland sea, extending across South Africa, and neighboring regions of Gondwana. It might have had an opening to the ocean (similar to the
936:
During the Ecca period the Falklands Plateau collided and then fused with Southern Africa, forming a vast range of mountains to the south of the Cape Fold Belt. This new mountain range was comparable in size to the
725:
foreland system, which became flooded to form the Karoo Sea. Sedimentation, beginning with glacial deposits from the north, but later from the Falkland Mountains to the south, into this depression formed the
649:
A schematic geological map of the outcrops of the Karoo Supergroup rocks in Southern Africa. The location and approximate structure of the Cape Fold Mountains are also diagrammatically indicated for reference
1250:
lava layer. However, not all of the magma reached the surface, but extruded under high pressure between the horizontal strata of the Ecca and Beaufort rocks. When this magma solidified it formed multiple
901:
are deposited in deep water at the bottom of the edges of continental shelves or similar structures in deep lakes, such as the south-western Karoo Sea about 300 million years ago. They are the result of
508:
along the southern border of what eventually became Southern Africa, in southern Gondwana. Its sediments attain a maximum cumulative thickness of 12 km, with the overlying basaltic lavas (the
754:
A north-south cross-section through the Agulhas Sea (see above). The brown structures are continental plates, the thick black layer on the left is paleo-Pacific Oceanic plate, red indicates the
1140:
today, extending from the Cape Fold Mountains many thousands of kilometers northwards over large parts of Gondwana. Only a small remnant of this massive formation can be found in and around
4569:
1230:(although technically the "Drakensberg" refers to the entire 1000 km long eastern portion of the Great Escarpment, only about a third of which is capped by the Drakensberg lavas).
1878:"Geochemistry of sandstones and shales from the Ecca Group, Karoo Supergroup, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa: Implications for provenance, weathering and tectonic setting"
941:. The northern slopes of these mountains generally dipped steeply into the Karoo Sea which was at its deepest at this point. The earthquakes that accompanied the formation of the
1144:
today. This formation was formerly known as “Cave Sandstone” as wind-eroded shallow caves often developed in cliffs made up of these rocks. These caves were later used by the
1053:, 251 million years ago, extinguished about 96% of all species alive at that time. The global event can clearly be seen in the Beaufort rocks. A few members of the genus
1264:
along what were to become the sea borders of the subcontinent. As these rift valleys widened they became flooded to form the proto-Indian and Southern Atlantic Oceans, as
2308:
3081:
2408:
329:
324:
68:
1675:"Sedimentary development of the Upper Ecca and Lower Beaufort Groups (Karoo Supergroup) in the Laingsburg subbasin (SW Karoo Basin, Cape Province/South Africa)"
1307:. A layer of lava more than 4800 m thick was violently extruded at this time. While the Drakensberg lavas form nearly horizontal layers, the Lebombo lavas
718:
mountain range of immense proportions to the south of the former rift valley. The folded Cape Supergroup formed the northern foothills of this mountain range.
353:
348:
305:
300:
284:
277:
272:
2331:
2124:
Nyambe, Imasiku A.; Utting, John (1997). "Stratigraphy and palynostratigraphy, Karoo Supergroup (Permian and Triassic), mid-Zambezi Valley, southern Zambia".
259:
254:
268:
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are harder and more erosion resistant than the Beaufort shales into which they were intruded, giving these hills their tabletop summits and stepped sides.
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1257:
at various depths throughout the southern and south-western Karoo sediments. These sills vary in thickness from a few centimeters to hundreds of meters.
2377:
293:
288:
705:, accumulated on the floor of this rift valley. Closure of the rift valley, starting 330 million years ago, resulted from the development of a
794:
deposits whenever it partially melted, but, in addition, it scoured the bedrock, leaving behind striations (scratch marks) which can be seen near
4270:
3048:
1038:(mammal-like reptiles), which mark an intermediary stage in the evolution of the mammals from reptiles. The most abundant herbivores were the
3086:
1550:
1354:, or vertical fissures which brought the lava to the surface stand out today as linear ridges extending across large stretches of the Karoo.
1677:
4604:
4589:
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3053:
1815:
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Eon; the oldest rocks on Earth are therefore less than 4000 million years old. One of the first microcontinents to form was the
4619:
4609:
4564:
4549:
4594:
4579:
2159:
Bordy, Emese M.; Catuneanu, Octavian (2001). "Sedimentology of the upper Karoo fluvial strata in the Tuli Basin, South Africa".
1212:
especially in the east (in present-day Lesotho). This massive lava outpouring brought the Karoo sedimentation to an abrupt end.
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4554:
786:
and ice sheet to the north deposited vast quantities of mud and rocks of various sizes and origins. Such deposits are known as
2274:
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1937:
1007:
709:
zone along the southern margin of Gondwana, and the consequent drift of the Falkland Plateau back towards Africa, during the
670:
on the right. Diagrammatic and not to scale. The color code of the Karoo Supergroup is the same as in the illustration above.
1518:
Geological Atlas of Africa: With Notes on Stratigraphy, Tectonics, Economic Geology, Geohazards and Geosites of Each Country
4544:
4539:
2892:
1337:
The uplifting of Southern Africa heralded a phase of massive erosion, removing a layer several kilometers thick from the
1182:
1079:
1651:
Geological map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (1970). Council for Geoscience, Geological Survey of South Africa.
397:
In southern Africa, rocks of the Karoo Supergroup cover almost two thirds of the present land surface, including all of
4275:
721:
The weight of the Falkland-Cape Supergroup mountains caused the continental crust of Southern Africa to sag, forming a
1132:
The uppermost strata of the Stormberg group were probably laid down under true sand desert conditions, similar to the
2827:
2009:
1766:
Jackson, A.A., Stone, P. (2008). "Bedrock Geology UK South". p. 6-7. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey.
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1526:
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1220:
1050:
570:
A timeline of the Earth's geological history, with an emphasis on events in Southern Africa. The green block labeled
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4372:
2363:
2082:
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1341:. Nearly all of the Drakensberg lavas were eroded away, leaving a remnant in Lesotho, several small patches on the
1260:
This outpouring of lava coincided with uplifting of the Southern African portion of Gondwana, and the formation of
4559:
3657:
2194:
d'Engelbronner, E.R. (1996). "New palynological data from Karoo sediments, Mana Pools basin, northern Zimbabwe".
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beneath them. This created numerous and widespread flat topped hills, known as Karoo Koppies ("koppie" being the
207:
1113:, the oldest mammal in Africa. A remarkable array of insect and plant fossils are found in some of the strata.
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4265:
3662:
231:
3647:
3642:
3043:
2900:
179:
833:) but tidal effects were small. Rivers draining mountains to the north of the Karoo Sea formed large swampy
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3923:
3667:
1299:
In close association with this rifting, a second episode of basalt eruption occurred along the border with
198:
136:
4228:
3091:
2231:"Age of the Batoka basalts, northern Zimbabwe, and the duration of Karoo Large Igneous Province magmatism"
1109:
contains South Africa's earliest dinosaur fossils. It also contains the fossil remains of the shrew-sized
3918:
3652:
799:
240:
122:
1379:. Apart from that, only very minor patches of very recent, mainly sandy deposits occur in South Africa.
2946:
2936:
2910:
1413:
958:
2074:
654:
4529:
4347:
2872:
1431:
1405:
1185:, situated on the Clarens Formation rocks. Other fossils found in the park include those of advanced
469:, where the most extensive outcrops of the sequence are exposed. Its strata, which consist mostly of
160:
2341:
2293:
1713:
Compton, J.S. (2004).The Rocks and Mountains of Cape Town. p. 24-26. Double Storey Books, Cape Town.
843:
flora flourished. This dense vegetation accumulated as peat, which eventually turned into coal. The
606:, which forms the foundation of the north-eastern part of the country. The assembly and break-up of
3968:
2837:
2488:
2424:
1387:
In Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique the Karoo Supergroup is divided into (from oldest to youngest):
1350:
term for hill), which are iconic of the Karoo, and, by extension, the South African landscape. The
962:
37:
945:
therefore initiated frequent underwater mud- and rock-slides, forming fan-shaped accumulations of
4317:
3797:
2905:
2620:
2574:
2498:
2386:
2024:"The crustal role of the Agulhas Plateau, southwest Indian Ocean: evidence for seismic profiling"
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1409:
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were being formed towards the south. The Ecca Turbidite deposits should not be confused with the
595:
482:
458:
387:
221:
216:
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is formed by the 1400 m thick Drakensberg Lavas, which rest on the Clarens Formation rocks.
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4223:
2915:
2796:
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was laid down, very much further in the past. The graph also indicates the period during which
418:
1549:
Catuneanu, O; Wopfner, H; Eriksson, P; Cairncross, B; Rubidge, B; Smith, R; Hancox, P (2005).
880:
providing important paleontological evidence of the existence of the Gondwana supercontinent.
689:
developed across Southern Gondwana just south of Southern Africa, but extending westward into
2842:
2319:
2279:
1516:
1451:
1319:
876:
are found in these Ecca deposits. This is a fossil reptile found only in Southern Africa and
610:
are, in terms of the Earth's and South Africa's geological history, relatively recent events.
591:
402:
117:
1178:
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landscape probably resembled the Kalahari desert of today, with rivers like the present-day
802:. This layer of tillite, traces of which can be found over a wide area of Southern Africa,
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4362:
4312:
3018:
3009:
2706:
2449:
2242:
2203:
2168:
2133:
2091:
2038:
1889:
1830:
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1394:, comprising the Dwyka, Hwange (Zimbabwe) / Siankondobo (Zambia) and Madumabisa formations.
1049:
During the course of the laying down of the 6 km thick Beaufort deposits, the massive
844:
755:
383:
32:
1452:"Re-uniting lost continents – Fossil reptiles from the ancient Karoo and their wanderlust"
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About 182 million years ago the southern African portion of Gondwana passed over the
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region, on the KwaZulu-Natal/Lesotho border. The uppermost layer of this portion of the
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sp. n. from the Lopingian of South Africa, and a redescription of the type species of
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Jones, D. L.; Duncan, R. A.; Briden, J. C.; Randall, D. E.; MacNiocaill, C. (2001).
1980:
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on the international border between Lesotho and KwaZulu-Natal, often referred to as
1193:(animals with teeth set firmly in the jaw), bird-like and crocodile-like dinosaurs.
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ever discovered were found in the Clarens Formation in 1978. The eggs were from the
814:. It is the earliest and lowermost of the Karoo Supergroup of sedimentary deposits.
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The northern shores contain mainly fossil plants, pollens and spores. Fossils of a
750:
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consists of a sequence of units, mostly of nonmarine origin, deposited between the
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27:
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453:. The basins in which it was deposited formed during the formation and breakup of
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Shone R.W. & Booth P.W.K. (2005). "The Cape Basin, South Africa: A review".
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is derived from the fact that this layer forms the uppermost 1400 m of the
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running through it, sustaining localized areas of Triassic flora and fauna. The
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An approximate SW-NE geological cross section through South Africa, with the
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to the east, so it is difficult to gauge how far the lava spread laterally.
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3290:
3275:
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3168:
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2756:
2724:
2647:
2508:
2468:
2275:"New beetles (Insecta: Coleoptera) from the Late Permian of South Africa"
2255:
2230:
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1227:
1190:
1042:, whose most primitive forms are also known from the Beaufort rocks. The
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811:
795:
739:
686:
509:
343:
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1930:
Geology off the beaten track; exploring South Africa's hidden treasures
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The role of fossils in interpreting the development of the Karoo basin,
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1167:(220 to 195 million years ago) and had fossilised foetal skeletons of
894:
806:, and South America provided crucial early evidence in support of the
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ranges. The ice sheet therefore floated on an inland lake, termed the
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indicates when the Karoo Supergroup was deposited, in relation to the
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has been used as the international standard for global correlation of
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2075:"Growth and dispersal of a southeast African Large Igenous Province"
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Baiyegunhi, Christopher; Liu, Kuiwu; Gwavava, Oswald (2017-08-16).
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1086:. The yellowish hue of the rock is typical of the Clarens rocks.
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in an anoxic (oxygen free) environment where it is converted to
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863:
766:
About 330 million years ago Gondwana had drifted over the
599:
524:
520:
454:
446:
438:
375:
980:
598:. The Earth's crust was wholly or partially molten during the
1778:
1408:(in the Mana Pools and Cabora Bassa Basins), overlain by the
1323:
1285:
1020:
803:
516:
497:
470:
462:
4570:
Geologic formations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
1382:
1102:
790:. Further north, the ice sheet was grounded also leaving
528:
2072:
1404:
formation (in the Mid-Zambezi and Limpopo basins) and the
3082:
List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in South Africa
2409:
List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in South Africa
1997:
2228:
22:
Stratigraphy of the Karoo Supergroup in the Karoo Basin
2307:
Sukatsheva I.D., Beattie R. & Mostovski M.B. 2007.
1858:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1686:
Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft
2273:
Ponomarenko, Alexandr G.; Mostovski, Mike B. (2005).
1923:
1921:
957:
and gas. The turbidites in the Ecca formation of the
701:. An 8 km thick layer of sediment, known as the
360:
References: Rubidge (2005), Selden and Nudds (2011).
2272:
2021:
1875:
2792:
Tectonic evolution of the Barberton greenstone belt
2073:Gohl, K.; Uenzelmann-Neben, G.; Grobys, N. (2011).
1849:
1816:"Retroarc foreland systems––evolution through time"
1489:(2 ed.). Manson Publishing. pp. 104–122.
1482:
928:
449:, as well as on other continents that were part of
2193:
1918:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1196:
862:of the Karoo Supergroup. They consist largely of
847:are confined to the northern shores of the early
798:in the Northern Cape, and in the grounds of the
674:
477:, record an almost continuous sequence of marine
4521:
4250:
1503:
1006:was the most common synapsid shortly after the
4271:Geological Commission of the Cape of Good Hope
3049:Department of Mineral Resources (South Africa)
2158:
1774:
1772:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1637:pp. 161, 187–241. Struik Publishers, Cape Town
1148:who frequently decorated the walls with their
3087:Archean life in the Barberton Greenstone Belt
2371:
1662:Outline of Geology for South African Students
1019:. It is composed of a monotonous sequence of
2123:
1866:. pp. 28, 122. Struik Publishers, Cape Town.
1813:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1136:in Namibia. It was probably as large as the
810:. In South Africa the layer is known as the
2385:
1769:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1697:Hancox, P. J. and Bruce S. Rubidge (1997).
1640:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1483:Selden, P.; and Nudds, J. (2011). "Karoo".
1152:. Today the Cave Sandstones are called the
1124:cave in the UKhahlamba Drakensberg Park of
1066:during the late Triassic – early Jurassic.
4500:
3911:
3635:
3054:Department of Mineral Resources and Energy
2378:
2364:
1709:
1707:
1673:Adelmann, D. and Kerstin Fiedler, (1996).
1660:Hamilton, G.N.G. and Finlay, J.G. (1928).
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1551:"The Karoo basins of south-central Africa"
1521:(2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 26–28.
1082:is composed of sandstone belonging to the
858:These sedimentary deposits are termed the
2746:
2398:
2292:
2254:
2050:
1955:"Early dinosaurs crawled before they ran"
1901:
1807:
1664:, Central News Agency Ltd., Johannesburg.
1318:Typical flat topped Karoo Koppies in the
1755:The Geological Evolution of South Africa
1716:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1514:
1383:The Karoo supergroup elsewhere in Africa
1313:
1232:
1115:
1073:
996:
979:
914:
893:
749:
653:
644:
618:
565:
21:
18:
2342:Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg
2022:Gohl, K.; Uenzelmann-Neben, G. (2001).
1946:
1704:
1586:
1449:
1371:and similar deposits near the coast of
1078:The Brandwag Rock (or Sentinel) in the
594:were formed on Earth, indicative of an
394:, a period of about 120 million years.
4522:
2329:
1972:
1952:
1927:
500:" Basin. This basin was formed by the
4421:
4394:
4393:
4249:
3070:
2983:
2745:
2397:
2359:
1978:
1535:
851:Karoo Sea, and is mined today in the
461:of the Karoo Supergroup is the Great
16:Mesozoic stratigraphic unit in Africa
2984:
2235:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
1701:Palaeontologica Africana, 33: 41–54.
1443:
1357:
1268:into today's separate continents of
614:
543:amphibians, and in the upper strata
4605:Geologic formations of South Africa
1633:McCarthy, T., Rubridge, B. (2005).
1183:Golden Gate Highlands National Park
1120:San rock painting of an eland in a
1080:Golden Gate Highlands National Park
1027:, with some interbedded lenticular
685:About 510 million years ago a
512:Group) at least 1.4 km thick.
481:to terrestrial deposition from the
13:
4276:Geological Society of South Africa
2266:
1862:Norman, N., Whitfield, G. (2006).
1757:. pp. 131–159. Purnell, Cape Town.
1476:
1069:
733:
14:
4631:
4590:Geologic formations of Mozambique
4585:Geologic formations of Madagascar
2828:List of volcanoes in South Africa
2196:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2161:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2126:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2031:Geophysical Journal International
1932:. Struik Nature. pp. 58–59.
1823:Journal of African Earth Sciences
1781:Journal of African Earth Sciences
1559:Journal of African Earth Sciences
1008:Permian–Triassic extinction event
969:
837:in which plants belonging to the
817:
4499:
4488:
4487:
4475:
4461:
4373:Eduard Meine van Zinderen-Bakker
3071:
2083:South African Journal of Geology
2052:10.1046/j.1365-246x.2001.01368.x
1843:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2004.01.004
1801:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.013
1580:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.007
1457:South African Journal of Geology
1189:(canine toothed animals), small
4620:Geologic formations of Zimbabwe
4610:Geologic formations of Tanzania
4565:Geologic formations of Botswana
4550:Paleontological sites of Africa
3658:Pristerognathus Assemblage Zone
2222:
2187:
2152:
2117:
2066:
2015:
1869:
1760:
1237:Panorama of the Drakensberg in
4595:Geologic formations of Namibia
4580:Geologic formations of Lesotho
4266:Evolutionary Studies Institute
3663:Tapinocephalus Assemblage Zone
1691:
1667:
1654:
1486:Evolution of Fossil Ecosystems
1197:Drakensberg and Lebombo groups
675:Origins of sediment deposition
1:
4615:Geologic formations of Zambia
4555:Geologic formations of Africa
3648:Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone
3643:Cistecephalus Assemblage Zone
3044:Minerals Council South Africa
2901:1620 Robben Island earthquake
2216:10.1016/S0899-5362(96)00049-8
2181:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00090-2
2146:10.1016/S0899-5362(97)00081-X
1953:Knight, Will (28 July 2005).
1437:
1181:have since been found in the
891:are also found in the north.
666:) on left, and north-eastern
636:sea consolidated to form the
582:, immediately before it. The
4575:Geologic formations of Kenya
4251:Research and administration‎
3924:Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone
3668:Tropidostoma Assemblage Zone
1635:The Story of Earth and Life.
1128:close to the Lesotho border.
693:, and eastward into Eastern
7:
4545:Paleozoic Erathem of Africa
3919:Cynognathus Assemblage Zone
3653:Eodicynodon Assemblage Zone
1420:
1416:, capped by Batoka basalts.
1179:More examples of these eggs
1051:end-Permian mass extinction
808:Theory of Continental Drift
800:University of KwaZulu-Natal
592:banded ironstone formations
10:
4636:
4540:Mesozoic Erathem of Africa
2947:Vredefort impact structure
2937:Morokweng impact structure
2911:2006 Mozambique earthquake
2104:10.2113/gssajg.114.3-4.379
1414:Forest Sandstone Formation
1200:
1089:
973:
821:
743:
737:
678:
154:
109:
4455:
4428:
4422:
4417:
4400:
4389:
4348:Daniel Rossouw Kannemeyer
4300:
4284:
4256:
4245:
4229:Waterloo Farm lagerstätte
4201:
4170:
4149:
4133:
4082:
3936:
3680:
3404:
3213:
3192:
3131:
3100:
3092:Waterloo Farm lagerstätte
3077:
3066:
2990:
2979:
2955:
2924:
2891:
2873:Barberton Greenstone Belt
2820:
2752:
2741:
2717:
2544:
2458:
2417:
2404:
2393:
1515:SchlĂĽter, Thomas (2008).
1432:Geography of South Africa
1406:Angwa Sandstone Formation
989:was a therapsid from the
782:which had calved off the
489:. These accumulated in a
405:, and large parts of the
359:
263:
248:
220:
215:
187:
168:
144:
88:
76:
72:
62:
52:
3969:Coelophysis rhodesiensis
2838:Pilanesberg Game Reserve
2489:Table Mountain Sandstone
2425:Bushveld Igneous Complex
919:An Ecca mountain in the
762:of the Karoo Supergroup.
588:Witwatersrand supergroup
519:(both macro-fossils and
4482:South Africa portal
4318:Charles Kimberlin Brain
2906:1969 Tulbagh earthquake
2621:Abrahamskraal Formation
2575:Sundays River Formation
2499:Abrahamskraal Formation
2387:Geology of South Africa
2316:(Insecta: Trichoptera).
1753:Truswell, J.F. (1977).
1427:Geology of South Africa
1410:Pebbly Arkose Formation
697:and possibly even into
419:KwaZulu-Natal Provinces
370:is the most widespread
43:Formation east of 24°E
4560:Stratigraphy of Africa
4333:Anusuya Chinsamy-Turan
4261:Council for Geoscience
4224:West Coast Fossil Park
2916:2014 Orkney earthquake
2797:Terra Australis Orogen
2747:‎Tectonics and orogeny
2560:Buffelskloof Formation
2330:Werner, Mario (2006).
2310:Permomerope natalensis
1450:Rubidge, B.S. (2005).
1334:
1246:
1129:
1087:
1011:
994:
933:
912:
763:
671:
651:
642:
611:
596:oxygen-free atmosphere
401:, almost the whole of
2843:Prince Edward Islands
2399:Geological formations
2320:African Invertebrates
2280:African Invertebrates
1981:"Rhebok Hiking Trail"
1928:Norman, Nick (2013).
1903:10.1515/geo-2017-0028
1814:Catuneanu O. (2004).
1317:
1236:
1119:
1077:
1000:
983:
918:
904:underwater avalanches
897:
753:
657:
648:
622:
569:
531:, common and diverse
4405:Geology of Cape Town
4363:John Talbot Robinson
4313:Lieuwe Dirk Boonstra
3019:Coal in South Africa
3010:Banket (mining term)
2707:Normandien Formation
2450:Transvaal Supergroup
2256:10.1029/2000GC000110
1322:region of the Great
1159:The oldest dinosaur
4600:Geology of Eswatini
4368:George William Stow
4209:Cradle of Humankind
2963:Bellsbank meteorite
2856:Finsch diamond mine
2812:Witwatersrand Basin
2787:Makhonjwa Mountains
2658:Whitehill Formation
2636:Middleton Formation
2524:Whitehill Formation
2514:Ganigobis Formation
2474:Ganigobis Formation
2247:2001GGG.....2.1022J
2208:1996JAfES..23...17D
2173:2001JAfES..33..605B
2138:1997JAfES..24..563N
2096:2011SAJG..114..379G
2043:2001GeoJI.144..632G
1894:2017OGeo....9...28B
1864:Geological Journeys
1835:2004JAfES..38..225C
1793:2005JAfES..43..196S
1572:2005JAfES..43..211C
1367:Period to form the
1266:Gondwana fragmented
925:Cape Fold Mountains
855:and KwaZulu-Natal.
586:indicates when the
563:nonmarine strata.
425:. Karoo supergroup
4468:Geology portal
4343:Alfred W. Crompton
4308:Andrew Geddes Bain
3592:Pristerognathoides
3032:Titanium in Africa
3027:Platinum in Africa
3023:Iron ore in Africa
2866:Koffiefontein mine
2861:Jagersfontein Mine
2772:Gondwanide orogeny
2670:Bushveld Sandstone
2641:Teekloof Formation
2570:Kirkwood Formation
2519:Teekloof Formation
2430:Fig Tree Formation
1680:2005-09-03 at the
1335:
1247:
1130:
1088:
1012:
995:
934:
913:
772:Cape Fold Mountain
764:
672:
652:
643:
612:
483:Late Carboniferous
429:are also found in
388:Late Carboniferous
4517:
4516:
4451:
4450:
4433:Pothole (geology)
4413:
4412:
4395:Regional articles
4385:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4338:H. Basil S. Cooke
4241:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4014:Heterodontosaurus
3932:
3931:
3676:
3675:
3607:Promoschorhynchus
3062:
3061:
3037:Uranium in Africa
2985:‎Mineral deposits
2975:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2737:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2702:Molteno Formation
2697:Katberg Formation
2675:Clarens Formation
2631:Katberg Formation
2626:Balfour Formation
2594:Drakensberg Group
2582:Kalahari Deposits
2504:Balfour Formation
2435:Komatii Formation
1939:978-1-43170-082-0
1688:, 1: 88–89, Bonn.
1470:10.2113/108.1.135
1400:, comprising the
1398:Upper Karoo Group
1392:Lower Karoo Group
1358:Post Karoo period
1305:Lebombo Mountains
1217:Drakensberg Group
1203:Drakensberg Group
1154:Clarens Formation
1122:Clarens Formation
1084:Clarens Formation
615:Geological origin
496:called the "main
364:
363:
4627:
4530:Karoo Supergroup
4503:
4502:
4491:
4490:
4480:
4479:
4478:
4466:
4465:
4419:
4418:
4391:
4390:
4282:
4281:
4247:
4246:
3909:
3908:
3633:
3632:
3562:Macroscelesaurus
3442:Cistecephaloides
3427:Blattoidealestes
3251:Cistecephaloides
3154:Deltacephalaspis
3098:
3097:
3068:
3067:
2981:
2980:
2818:
2817:
2743:
2742:
2692:Elliot Formation
2680:Elliot Formation
2611:Karoo Supergroup
2445:Onverwacht Group
2415:
2414:
2395:
2394:
2380:
2373:
2366:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2344:. pp. 1–428
2339:
2304:
2302:
2301:
2296:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2090:(3–4): 379–386.
2079:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2054:
2028:
2019:
2013:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1985:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1925:
1916:
1915:
1905:
1882:Open Geosciences
1873:
1867:
1860:
1847:
1846:
1820:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1787:(1–3): 196–210.
1776:
1767:
1764:
1758:
1751:
1714:
1711:
1702:
1695:
1689:
1671:
1665:
1658:
1652:
1649:
1638:
1631:
1584:
1583:
1555:
1546:
1533:
1532:
1512:
1501:
1500:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1447:
1243:Great Escarpment
1221:Great Escarpment
993:of South Africa.
776:Karoo inland sea
728:Karoo Supergroup
515:Fossils include
368:Karoo Supergroup
339:
92:
65:
19:
4635:
4634:
4630:
4629:
4628:
4626:
4625:
4624:
4520:
4519:
4518:
4513:
4476:
4474:
4460:
4447:
4438:Steep structure
4424:
4409:
4396:
4377:
4301:Paleontologists
4296:
4280:
4252:
4233:
4197:
4193:Vulpes skinneri
4166:
4145:
4129:
4125:Ptychoceratodus
4090:Acanthohoplites
4078:
4054:Ptychoceratodus
3928:
3907:
3858:Ptychoceratodus
3833:Platycraniellus
3758:Ictidosuchoides
3672:
3631:
3612:Scalopocephalus
3597:Pristerognathus
3512:Homodontosaurus
3400:
3326:Ictidosuchoides
3266:Dicynodontoides
3246:Charassognathus
3209:
3188:
3164:Gondwanascorpio
3127:
3096:
3073:
3058:
2986:
2967:
2951:
2920:
2887:
2816:
2802:Transvaal Basin
2782:Kalahari Craton
2777:Kaapvaal Craton
2748:
2729:
2713:
2665:Stormberg Group
2604:Uitenhage Group
2555:Uitenhage Group
2540:
2484:Bokkeveld Group
2454:
2413:
2400:
2389:
2384:
2347:
2345:
2337:
2299:
2297:
2294:10.1.1.530.7910
2269:
2267:Further reading
2264:
2227:
2223:
2192:
2188:
2157:
2153:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2106:
2077:
2071:
2067:
2057:
2055:
2026:
2020:
2016:
2002:
1998:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1973:
1963:
1961:
1951:
1947:
1940:
1926:
1919:
1874:
1870:
1861:
1850:
1818:
1812:
1808:
1777:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1752:
1717:
1712:
1705:
1696:
1692:
1682:Wayback Machine
1672:
1668:
1659:
1655:
1650:
1641:
1632:
1587:
1553:
1547:
1536:
1529:
1513:
1504:
1497:
1481:
1477:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1423:
1402:Escarpment Grit
1385:
1360:
1343:Springbok Flats
1339:African Surface
1205:
1199:
1165:Triassic Period
1107:Stormberg Group
1094:
1092:Stormberg Group
1072:
1070:Stormberg group
978:
972:
953:, particularly
826:
820:
748:
742:
736:
734:The Dwyka group
703:Cape Supergroup
683:
677:
638:Cape Supergroup
617:
604:Kaapvaal Craton
576:Cape supergroup
553:biostratigraphy
380:Kalahari Desert
337:
226:
209:Pristerognathus
193:
174:
150:
90:
63:
47:Assemblage Zone
17:
12:
11:
5:
4633:
4623:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4511:
4504:
4497:
4485:
4471:
4456:
4453:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4429:
4426:
4425:
4415:
4414:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4407:
4401:
4398:
4397:
4387:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4379:
4378:
4376:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4358:James Kitching
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4294:
4288:
4286:
4279:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4257:
4254:
4253:
4243:
4242:
4239:
4238:
4235:
4234:
4232:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4205:
4203:
4199:
4198:
4196:
4195:
4190:
4188:Panthera shawi
4185:
4180:
4174:
4172:
4168:
4167:
4165:
4164:
4159:
4153:
4151:
4147:
4146:
4144:
4143:
4137:
4135:
4131:
4130:
4128:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4110:Macroscaphites
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4086:
4084:
4080:
4079:
4077:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4064:Sefapanosaurus
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4039:Massospondylus
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3984:Erythrotherium
3981:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3940:
3938:
3934:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3926:
3921:
3915:
3913:
3906:
3905:
3903:Zorillodontops
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3828:Plateosauravus
3825:
3820:
3815:
3813:Olivierosuchus
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3793:Microgomphodon
3790:
3785:
3783:Melanorosaurus
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3733:Erythrotherium
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3688:Batrachosuchus
3684:
3682:
3678:
3677:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3639:
3637:
3630:
3629:
3627:Uranocentrodon
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3542:Lanthanostegus
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3472:Cynariognathus
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3432:Brachyprosopus
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3408:
3406:
3405:Beaufort Group
3402:
3401:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3226:Alopecognathus
3223:
3217:
3215:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3207:
3202:
3196:
3194:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3128:
3126:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3113:Onychopterella
3110:
3104:
3102:
3095:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3064:
3063:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3013:
3012:
3002:
2997:
2991:
2988:
2987:
2977:
2976:
2973:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2959:
2957:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2942:Tswaing crater
2939:
2934:
2932:Kalkkop crater
2928:
2926:
2925:Impact craters
2922:
2921:
2919:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2897:
2895:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2824:
2822:
2815:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2767:Ellisras Basin
2764:
2762:Cape Fold Belt
2759:
2753:
2750:
2749:
2739:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2727:
2721:
2719:
2715:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2710:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2650:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2616:Beaufort Group
2608:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2599:Enon Formation
2596:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2565:Enon Formation
2562:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2528:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2493:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2471:
2465:Carboniferous
2462:
2460:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2419:
2418:Palaeoarchaean
2412:
2411:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2391:
2390:
2383:
2382:
2375:
2368:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2340:(PhD thesis).
2327:
2305:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2221:
2186:
2151:
2116:
2065:
2037:(3): 632–646.
2014:
1996:
1971:
1945:
1938:
1917:
1888:(1): 340–360.
1868:
1848:
1829:(3): 225–242.
1806:
1768:
1759:
1715:
1703:
1690:
1666:
1653:
1639:
1585:
1534:
1527:
1502:
1495:
1475:
1464:(1): 135–172.
1441:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1429:
1422:
1419:
1418:
1417:
1395:
1384:
1381:
1369:Enon Formation
1359:
1356:
1239:Giant's Castle
1209:Bouvet hotspot
1201:Main article:
1198:
1195:
1170:Massospondylus
1090:Main article:
1071:
1068:
1044:dinocephalians
1017:Beaufort Group
991:Middle Permian
976:Beaufort Group
974:Main article:
971:
970:Beaufort Group
968:
943:Cape Mountains
911:(oil and gas).
822:Main article:
819:
818:The Ecca group
816:
760:Beaufort Group
744:Main article:
738:Main article:
735:
732:
681:Cape Fold Belt
679:Main article:
676:
673:
664:Table Mountain
660:Cape Peninsula
616:
613:
494:foreland basin
487:Early Jurassic
392:Early Jurassic
362:
361:
357:
356:
351:
346:
341:
333:
332:
327:
321:
320:
315:
309:
308:
303:
297:
296:
291:
281:
280:
275:
265:
264:
262:
257:
252:
246:
245:
237:
236:
233:Tapinocephalus
228:
227:
224:
222:Abrahams-Kraal
219:
217:Abrahams-Kraal
213:
212:
204:
203:
195:
194:
191:
185:
184:
176:
175:
172:
166:
165:
158:
152:
151:
148:
142:
141:
134:
128:
127:
120:
114:
113:
107:
106:
100:
99:
94:
86:
85:
80:
74:
73:
71:
66:
61:
56:
50:
49:
44:
41:
35:
30:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4632:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4510:
4509:
4505:
4498:
4496:
4495:
4486:
4484:
4483:
4472:
4470:
4469:
4464:
4458:
4457:
4454:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4427:
4420:
4416:
4406:
4403:
4402:
4399:
4392:
4388:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4305:
4303:
4299:
4293:
4292:Hans Merensky
4290:
4289:
4287:
4283:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4258:
4255:
4248:
4244:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4219:Scylacorhinus
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4200:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4169:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4157:Africanacetus
4155:
4154:
4152:
4148:
4142:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4132:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4087:
4085:
4081:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4029:Litargosuchus
4027:
4025:
4024:Lesothosaurus
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3999:Gigantoscelus
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3949:Abrictosaurus
3947:
3945:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3935:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3910:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3868:Scaloposaurus
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3853:Proterosuchus
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3843:Progalesaurus
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3768:Lepidodendron
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3743:Euskelosaurus
3741:
3739:
3738:Eucnemesaurus
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3728:Erythrosuchus
3726:
3724:
3723:Ericiolacerta
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3693:Blikanasaurus
3691:
3689:
3686:
3685:
3683:
3679:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3634:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3577:Pelictosuchus
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3552:Lepidodendron
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3522:Ictidochampsa
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3467:Cryptocynodon
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3417:Anomocephalus
3415:
3413:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3403:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3386:Thliptosaurus
3384:
3382:
3381:Theriognathus
3379:
3377:
3376:Stereosternum
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3361:Scylacosaurus
3359:
3357:
3356:Procynosuchus
3354:
3352:
3351:Odontocyclops
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3331:Lepidodendron
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3321:Ictidognathus
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3286:Dwykaselachus
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3256:Crapartinella
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3231:Anomocephalus
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3212:
3206:
3205:Lepidodendron
3203:
3201:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3193:Carboniferous
3191:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3144:Antarctilamna
3142:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3130:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3076:
3072:Paleontology‎
3069:
3065:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3041:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3005:Witwatersrand
3003:
3001:
3000:Merensky Reef
2998:
2996:
2993:
2992:
2989:
2982:
2978:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2890:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2751:
2744:
2740:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2716:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2663:
2659:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2609:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2440:Moodies Group
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2403:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2381:
2376:
2374:
2369:
2367:
2362:
2361:
2358:
2343:
2336:
2335:
2328:
2326:(2): 245–251.
2325:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2306:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2270:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2120:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2084:
2076:
2069:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2018:
2011:
2010:0-520-24209-2
2007:
2000:
1982:
1975:
1960:
1959:New Scientist
1956:
1949:
1941:
1935:
1931:
1924:
1922:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1865:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1817:
1810:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1773:
1763:
1756:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1728:
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1530:
1528:9783540763734
1524:
1520:
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1498:
1496:9781840761603
1492:
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1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
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1388:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1373:KwaZulu-Natal
1370:
1366:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1310:
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1302:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1270:South America
1267:
1263:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1222:
1218:
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1188:
1184:
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1176:
1172:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1138:Sahara Desert
1135:
1127:
1126:KwaZulu-Natal
1123:
1118:
1114:
1112:
1111:Megazostrodon
1108:
1104:
1100:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1009:
1005:
1004:
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992:
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982:
977:
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964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
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930:
926:
922:
917:
910:
905:
900:
896:
892:
890:
886:
881:
879:
875:
874:
869:
865:
861:
856:
854:
850:
846:
845:coal deposits
842:
841:
836:
832:
825:
815:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
778:, into which
777:
773:
769:
761:
757:
752:
747:
746:Karoo Ice Age
741:
731:
729:
724:
719:
716:
715:Early Permian
712:
711:Carboniferous
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
691:South America
688:
682:
669:
668:KwaZulu-Natal
665:
661:
656:
647:
639:
634:
630:
626:
621:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
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568:
564:
562:
558:
554:
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546:
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530:
526:
522:
518:
513:
511:
507:
503:
499:
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492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
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468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
411:Northern Cape
408:
404:
400:
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
378:south of the
377:
373:
372:stratigraphic
369:
358:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
338:Carboniferous
335:
334:
331:
330:Prince Albert
328:
326:
325:Prince Albert
323:
322:
319:
316:
314:
311:
310:
307:
304:
302:
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298:
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214:
211:
210:
206:
205:
202:
201:
197:
196:
192:
190:
186:
183:
182:
181:Cistecephalus
178:
177:
173:
171:
167:
164:
163:
159:
157:
153:
149:
147:
143:
140:
139:
135:
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101:
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93:
87:
84:
81:
79:
75:
70:
67:
60:
57:
55:
51:
48:
45:
42:
40:west of 24°E
39:
36:
34:
31:
29:
26:
25:
20:
4506:
4492:
4473:
4459:
4353:Andre Keyser
4328:Alfred Brown
4323:Robert Broom
4115:Nqwebasaurus
4105:Kangnasaurus
4069:Sphenosuchus
3994:Geranosaurus
3974:Dracovenator
3954:Antetonitrus
3898:Ufudocyclops
3883:Tetracynodon
3873:Scymnosaurus
3778:Lystrosaurus
3763:Kannemeyeria
3718:Elliotherium
3617:Silpholestes
3567:Moschorhinus
3547:Leontosaurus
3517:Icticephalus
3507:Euchambersia
3457:Colobodectes
3447:Choerosaurus
3412:Aelurosaurus
3391:Trochosaurus
3371:Simorhinella
3366:Scymnosaurus
3311:Glossopteris
3296:Eunotosaurus
3174:Serenichthys
3159:Diplacanthus
3139:Africanaspis
2883:Karoo-Ferrar
2610:
2346:. Retrieved
2332:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2309:
2298:. Retrieved
2284:
2278:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2202:(1): 17–30.
2199:
2195:
2189:
2167:(3–4): 605.
2164:
2160:
2154:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2107:. Retrieved
2087:
2081:
2068:
2056:. Retrieved
2034:
2030:
2017:
1999:
1987:. Retrieved
1974:
1962:. Retrieved
1958:
1948:
1929:
1885:
1881:
1871:
1863:
1826:
1822:
1809:
1784:
1780:
1762:
1754:
1698:
1693:
1685:
1669:
1661:
1656:
1634:
1566:(1–3): 211.
1563:
1557:
1517:
1485:
1478:
1461:
1455:
1445:
1386:
1377:Richards Bay
1361:
1336:
1303:to form the
1298:
1262:rift valleys
1259:
1248:
1224:
1216:
1214:
1206:
1168:
1158:
1134:Namib Desert
1131:
1099:Orange River
1095:
1055:Lystrosaurus
1048:
1013:
1003:Lystrosaurus
1001:
984:
951:hydrocarbons
935:
921:Tanqua Karoo
882:
871:
857:
840:Glossopteris
838:
827:
765:
756:upper mantle
727:
720:
684:
583:
579:
571:
549:ichnofossils
541:temnospondyl
514:
467:South Africa
423:South Africa
407:Eastern Cape
396:
367:
365:
241:
232:
208:
200:Tropidostoma
199:
180:
161:
138:Lystrosaurus
137:
123:
4183:Homo naledi
4171:Pleistocene
4120:Paranthodon
4095:Algoasaurus
4074:Tritheledon
4059:Pulanesaura
3989:Fabrosaurus
3964:Coelophysis
3912:Assemblages
3893:Trirachodon
3888:Thrinaxodon
3838:Procolophon
3823:Pentasaurus
3808:Noteosuchus
3798:Micropholis
3773:Lydekkerina
3713:Dinanomodon
3703:Cynognathus
3636:Assemblages
3602:Procolophon
3587:Pristerodon
3582:Polycynodon
3537:Ictidostoma
3532:Ictidodraco
3497:Eohyosaurus
3492:Eodicynodon
3487:Dinanomodon
3437:Broomistega
3306:Glanosuchus
3291:Endothiodon
3276:Dinanomodon
3241:Bulbasaurus
3169:Priscomyzon
2893:Earthquakes
2878:Drakensberg
2833:Pilanesberg
2757:Algoa Basin
2725:Algoa Group
2648:Dwyka Group
2551:Cretaceous
2530:Ordovician
2509:Dwyka Group
2469:Dwyka Group
2314:Permomerope
2287:: 253–260.
2109:13 November
2058:13 November
1979:Footprint.
1375:, north of
1228:Drakensberg
1191:thecodontia
1175:prosauropod
1062:, and true
812:Dwyka Group
796:Barkly West
740:Dwyka Group
687:rift valley
627:during the
510:Drakensberg
242:Eodicynodon
124:Cynognathus
118:Burgersdorp
69:Drakensberg
59:Drakensberg
4524:Categories
4285:Geologists
4214:Planolites
4178:Boskop Man
4083:Cretaceous
4049:Pegomastax
4034:Lycorhinus
4019:Ledumahadi
4009:Gyposaurus
3959:Arcusaurus
3878:Shansiodon
3863:Regisaurus
3848:Prolacerta
3788:Mesosuchus
3748:Galesaurus
3708:Diademodon
3698:Bolotridon
3502:Emyduranus
3477:Cynosaurus
3452:Clelandina
3341:Mesosaurus
3336:Lycosuchus
3301:Galechirus
3281:Dinogorgon
3261:Cynosaurus
3108:Notiodella
3101:Ordovician
2995:Kimberlite
2956:Meteorites
2847:Diatremes
2653:Ecca Group
2534:Soom Shale
2348:2018-08-26
2300:2018-08-26
2241:(2): n/a.
2132:(4): 563.
1438:References
1365:Cretaceous
1301:Mozambique
1290:Madagascar
1278:Antarctica
1187:cynodontia
1177:dinosaur.
1146:San people
1040:anomodonts
1029:sandstones
966:reserves.
963:Laingsburg
947:turbidites
899:Turbidites
885:cephalopod
873:Mesosaurus
868:sandstones
860:Ecca Group
824:Ecca Group
792:diamictite
768:South Pole
707:subduction
695:Antarctica
633:Ordovician
539:reptiles,
506:orogenesis
502:subduction
475:sandstones
415:Mpumalanga
403:Free State
384:supergroup
354:Elandsvlei
349:Elandsvlei
306:Collingham
301:Collingham
285:Laingsburg
278:Fort Brown
273:Fort Brown
4162:Nummulite
4141:Nummulite
4134:Paleogene
4100:Baculites
3818:Orosaurus
3803:Myosaurus
3622:Tamboeria
3572:Paliguana
3557:Lycideops
3527:Ictidodon
3482:Diictodon
3462:Compsodon
3422:Basilodon
3316:Hofmeyria
3271:Diictodon
3236:Basilodon
3221:Abdalodon
3200:Dadoxylon
3184:Umzantsia
3123:Soomaspis
3118:Promissum
2821:Volcanism
2807:Witteberg
2688:Triassic
2590:Jurassic
2480:Devonian
2459:Paleozoic
2289:CiteSeerX
1989:13 August
1912:2391-5447
1348:Afrikaans
1282:Australia
1215:The name
1150:paintings
1060:dinosaurs
1036:synapsids
1033:therapsid
1025:mudstones
955:petroleum
939:Himalayas
909:petroleum
889:echinoids
887:and some
831:Black Sea
699:Australia
641:position.
623:Southern
551:. Their
545:dinosaurs
537:therapsid
533:tetrapods
459:type area
318:Whitehill
313:Whitehill
260:Waterford
255:Waterford
189:Middleton
162:Dicynodon
78:Stormberg
38:Formation
4508:Glossary
4494:Category
4004:Gryponyx
3979:Eocursor
3944:Aardonyx
3937:Jurassic
3681:Triassic
3396:Youngina
3346:Moschops
3179:Tutusius
3149:Bainella
3132:Devonian
2851:Big Hole
2718:Cenozoic
2545:Mesozoic
2495:Permian
1678:Archived
1421:See also
1412:and the
1328:dolerite
1252:dolerite
986:Moschops
929:dolerite
853:Highveld
784:glaciers
780:icebergs
723:retroarc
650:purposes
629:Cambrian
625:Gondwana
608:Gondwana
561:Jurassic
535:(mostly
523:), rare
491:retroarc
451:Gondwana
443:Zimbabwe
435:Eswatini
427:outcrops
374:unit in
269:Tierberg
170:Teekloof
111:Beaufort
91:Triassic
54:Jurassic
4443:Swazian
4150:Neogene
3753:Howesia
3214:Permian
2334:Namibia
2243:Bibcode
2204:Bibcode
2169:Bibcode
2134:Bibcode
2092:Bibcode
2039:Bibcode
1964:23 June
1890:Bibcode
1831:Bibcode
1789:Bibcode
1568:Bibcode
1320:Cradock
1161:embryos
1142:Lesotho
1101:or the
1064:mammals
849:Permian
788:tillite
557:Permian
547:), and
525:insects
485:to the
479:glacial
431:Namibia
399:Lesotho
156:Permian
146:Balfour
132:Katberg
104:Molteno
83:Clarens
4044:Ngwevu
2291:
2008:
1936:
1910:
1525:
1493:
1326:. The
1294:Arabia
1274:Africa
1021:shales
959:Tanqua
932:layer.
878:Brazil
864:shales
835:deltas
662:(with
600:Hadean
521:pollen
517:plants
471:shales
457:. The
455:Pangea
447:Malawi
439:Zambia
382:. The
376:Africa
97:Elliot
64:Hiatus
28:Period
4535:Karoo
4423:Other
4202:Other
2338:(PDF)
2078:(PDF)
2027:(PDF)
1984:(PDF)
1819:(PDF)
1554:(PDF)
1352:dykes
1331:sills
1324:Karoo
1286:India
1255:sills
804:India
498:Karoo
463:Karoo
344:Dwyka
294:Ripon
289:Ripon
33:Group
2111:2016
2060:2016
2006:ISBN
1991:2006
1966:2009
1934:ISBN
1908:ISSN
1523:ISBN
1491:ISBN
1292:and
1173:, a
1103:Nile
1023:and
961:and
866:and
713:and
529:fish
527:and
504:and
473:and
445:and
417:and
390:and
366:The
250:Ecca
2251:doi
2212:doi
2177:doi
2142:doi
2100:doi
2088:114
2047:doi
2035:144
1898:doi
1839:doi
1797:doi
1576:doi
1466:doi
1462:108
1309:dip
1225:the
559:to
465:in
421:of
4526::
2324:48
2285:46
2283:.
2277:.
2249:.
2237:.
2233:.
2210:.
2200:23
2198:.
2175:.
2165:33
2163:.
2140:.
2130:24
2128:.
2098:.
2086:.
2080:.
2045:.
2033:.
2029:.
1957:.
1920:^
1906:.
1896:.
1884:.
1880:.
1851:^
1837:.
1827:38
1825:.
1821:.
1795:.
1785:43
1783:.
1771:^
1718:^
1706:^
1684:,
1642:^
1588:^
1574:.
1564:43
1562:.
1556:.
1537:^
1505:^
1460:.
1454:.
1296:.
1288:,
1284:,
1280:,
1276:,
1272:,
1156:.
730:.
578:,
441:,
437:,
433:,
413:,
409:,
287:/
271:/
2379:e
2372:t
2365:v
2351:.
2303:.
2259:.
2253::
2245::
2239:2
2218:.
2214::
2206::
2183:.
2179::
2171::
2148:.
2144::
2136::
2113:.
2102::
2094::
2062:.
2049::
2041::
2012:.
1993:.
1968:.
1942:.
1914:.
1900::
1892::
1886:9
1845:.
1841::
1833::
1803:.
1799::
1791::
1582:.
1578::
1570::
1531:.
1499:.
1472:.
1468::
1010:.
631:-
584:W
580:C
572:K
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