350:
Most salts form crystals with characteristic distances between the ions; in contrast to many other noncovalent interactions, salt bridges are not directional and show in the solid state usually contact determined only by the van der Waals radii of the ions. Inorganic as well as organic ions display in water at moderate ionic strength I similar salt bridge as association ÎG values around 5 to 6 kJ/mol for a 1:1 combination of anion and cation, almost independent of the nature (size, polarizability, etc.) of the ions. The ÎG values are additive and approximately a linear function of the charges, the interaction of e.g. a doubly charged phosphate anion with a single charged ammonium cation accounts for about 2x5 = 10 kJ/mol. The ÎG values depend on the ionic strength I of the solution, as described by the Debye-HĂŒckel equation, at zero ionic strength one observes ÎG = 8 kJ/mol.
986:
electron clouds in non-polar molecules. Thus, London interactions are caused by random fluctuations of electron density in an electron cloud. An atom with a large number of electrons will have a greater associated London force than an atom with fewer electrons. The dispersion (London) force is the most important component because all materials are polarizable, whereas Keesom and Debye forces require permanent dipoles. The London interaction is universal and is present in atom-atom interactions as well. For various reasons, London interactions (dispersion) have been considered relevant for interactions between macroscopic bodies in condensed systems.
295:
2505:
555:
power of the distance, unlike the interaction energy of two spatially fixed dipoles, which depends on the inverse third power of the distance. The Keesom interaction can only occur among molecules that possess permanent dipole moments, i.e., two polar molecules. Also Keesom interactions are very weak van der Waals interactions and do not occur in aqueous solutions that contain electrolytes. The angle averaged interaction is given by the following equation:
796:
molecule's electrons. A molecule with permanent dipole can induce a dipole in a similar neighboring molecule and cause mutual attraction. Debye forces cannot occur between atoms. The forces between induced and permanent dipoles are not as temperature dependent as Keesom interactions because the induced dipole is free to shift and rotate around the polar molecule. The Debye induction effects and Keesom orientation effects are termed polar interactions.
2499:
291:. The number of Hydrogen bonds formed between molecules is equal to the number of active pairs. The molecule which donates its hydrogen is termed the donor molecule, while the molecule containing lone pair participating in H bonding is termed the acceptor molecule. The number of active pairs is equal to the common number between number of hydrogens the donor has and the number of lone pairs the acceptor has.
2511:
474:
221:, but several such weak interactions with the required spatial configuration of the active center of the enzyme lead to significant restructuring changes the energy state of molecules or substrate, which ultimately leads to the breaking of some and the formation of other covalent chemical bonds. Strictly speaking, all
1162:
When a gas is compressed to increase its density, the influence of the attractive force increases. If the gas is made sufficiently dense, the attractions can become large enough to overcome the tendency of thermal motion to cause the molecules to disperse. Then the gas can condense to form a solid or
795:
The second contribution is the induction (also termed polarization) or Debye force, arising from interactions between rotating permanent dipoles and from the polarizability of atoms and molecules (induced dipoles). These induced dipoles occur when one molecule with a permanent dipole repels another
985:
The third and dominant contribution is the dispersion or London force (fluctuating dipoleâinduced dipole), which arises due to the non-zero instantaneous dipole moments of all atoms and molecules. Such polarization can be induced either by a polar molecule or by the repulsion of negatively charged
814:
One example of an induction interaction between permanent dipole and induced dipole is the interaction between HCl and Ar. In this system, Ar experiences a dipole as its electrons are attracted (to the H side of HCl) or repelled (from the Cl side) by HCl. The angle averaged interaction is given by
554:
averaged over different rotational orientations of the dipoles. It is assumed that the molecules are constantly rotating and never get locked into place. This is a good assumption, but at some point molecules do get locked into place. The energy of a Keesom interaction depends on the inverse sixth
358:
Dipoleâdipole interactions (or Keesom interactions) are electrostatic interactions between molecules which have permanent dipoles. This interaction is stronger than the London forces but is weaker than ion-ion interaction because only partial charges are involved. These interactions tend to align
502:
Ionâdipole and ionâinduced dipole forces are similar to dipoleâdipole and dipoleâinduced dipole interactions but involve ions, instead of only polar and non-polar molecules. Ionâdipole and ionâinduced dipole forces are stronger than dipoleâdipole interactions because the charge of any ion is much
349:
The attraction between cationic and anionic sites is a noncovalent, or intermolecular interaction which is usually referred to as ion pairing or salt bridge. It is essentially due to electrostatic forces, although in aqueous medium the association is driven by entropy and often even endothermic.
1177:
Intermolecular forces observed between atoms and molecules can be described phenomenologically as occurring between permanent and instantaneous dipoles, as outlined above. Alternatively, one may seek a fundamental, unifying theory that is able to explain the various types of interactions such as
1198:
methods, such a quantum mechanical explanation of intermolecular interactions provides an array of approximate methods that can be used to analyze intermolecular interactions. One of the most helpful methods to visualize this kind of intermolecular interactions, that we can find in quantum
302:
Though both not depicted in the diagram, water molecules have four active bonds. The oxygen atomâs two lone pairs interact with a hydrogen each, forming two additional hydrogen bonds, and the second hydrogen atom also interacts with a neighbouring oxygen. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is
1090:
This comparison is approximate. The actual relative strengths will vary depending on the molecules involved. For instance, the presence of water creates competing interactions that greatly weaken the strength of both ionic and hydrogen bonds. We may consider that for static systems,
385:
506:
An ionâdipole force consists of an ion and a polar molecule interacting. They align so that the positive and negative groups are next to one another, allowing maximum attraction. An important example of this interaction is hydration of ions in water which give rise to
529:
The van der Waals forces arise from interaction between uncharged atoms or molecules, leading not only to such phenomena as the cohesion of condensed phases and physical absorption of gases, but also to a universal force of attraction between macroscopic bodies.
689:
511:. The polar water molecules surround themselves around ions in water and the energy released during the process is known as hydration enthalpy. The interaction has its immense importance in justifying the stability of various ions (like Cu) in water.
1206:
Concerning electron density topology, recent methods based on electron density gradient methods have emerged recently, notably with the development of IBSI (Intrinsic Bond
Strength Index), relying on the IGM (Independent Gradient Model) methodology.
931:
1143:
at the same temperature and pressure. The attractive force draws molecules closer together and gives a real gas a tendency to occupy a smaller volume than an ideal gas. Which interaction is more important depends on temperature and pressure (see
538:
The first contribution to van der Waals forces is due to electrostatic interactions between rotating permanent dipoles, quadrupoles (all molecules with symmetry lower than cubic), and multipoles. It is termed the
367:(HCl): the positive end of a polar molecule will attract the negative end of the other molecule and influence its position. Polar molecules have a net attraction between them. Examples of polar molecules include
514:
An ionâinduced dipole force consists of an ion and a non-polar molecule interacting. Like a dipoleâinduced dipole force, the charge of the ion causes distortion of the electron cloud on the non-polar molecule.
966:
This kind of interaction can be expected between any polar molecule and non-polar/symmetrical molecule. The induction-interaction force is far weaker than dipoleâdipole interaction, but stronger than the
469:{\displaystyle {\overset {\color {Red}\delta +}{{\ce {H}}}}-{\overset {\color {Red}\delta -}{{\ce {Cl}}}}\cdots {\overset {\color {Red}\delta +}{{\ce {H}}}}-{\overset {\color {Red}\delta -}{{\ce {Cl}}}}}
1159:
is the measure of thermal energy, so increasing temperature reduces the influence of the attractive force. In contrast, the influence of the repulsive force is essentially unaffected by temperature.
1163:
liquid, i.e., a condensed phase. Lower temperature favors the formation of a condensed phase. In a condensed phase, there is very nearly a balance between the attractive and repulsive forces.
561:
1151:
In a gas, the distances between molecules are generally large, so intermolecular forces have only a small effect. The attractive force is not overcome by the repulsive force, but by the
279:. The hydrogen bond is often described as a strong electrostatic dipoleâdipole interaction. However, it also has some features of covalent bonding: it is directional, stronger than a
821:
803:), which is the attractive interaction between a permanent multipole on one molecule with an induced (by the former di/multi-pole) 31 on another. This interaction is called the
750:
723:
781:
961:
990:
developed the theory of van der Waals between macroscopic bodies in 1937 and showed that the additivity of these interactions renders them considerably more long-range.
62:, involving sharing electron pairs between atoms, is much stronger than the forces present between neighboring molecules. Both sets of forces are essential parts of
483:
on the molecule as a whole. This occurs if there is symmetry within the molecule that causes the dipoles to cancel each other out. This occurs in molecules such as
197:) in which the formation of chemical, that is, ionic, covalent or metallic bonds does not occur. In other words, these interactions are significantly weaker than
1267:
2264:
Ponce-Vargas M, Lefebvre C, Boisson JC, HĂ©non E (January 2020). "Atomic
Decomposition Scheme of Noncovalent Interactions Applied to Host-Guest Assemblies".
1534:
1364:"Biochemistry and Molecular Biology - Paperback - Despo Papachristodoulou, Alison Snape, William H. Elliott, Daphne C. Elliott - Oxford University Press"
1386:
2174:"Accurately extracting the signature of intermolecular interactions present in the NCI plot of the reduced density gradient versus electron density"
2598:
1623:"The second virial coefficient for rigid spherical molecules whose mutual attraction is equivalent to that of a quadruplet placed at its center"
2224:"The Independent Gradient Model: A New Approach for Probing Strong and Weak Interactions in Molecules from Wave Function Calculations"
2716:
2643:
2324:
1222:
344:
144:
2752:
1135:). In a gas, the repulsive force chiefly has the effect of keeping two molecules from occupying the same volume. This gives a
1852:
1817:
1767:
1517:
1457:
1433:
1347:
2115:
491:. The dipoleâdipole interaction between two individual atoms is usually zero, since atoms rarely carry a permanent dipole.
547:. These forces originate from the attraction between permanent dipoles (dipolar molecules) and are temperature dependent.
2638:
1257:
17:
1099:
will always be stronger than intermolecular forces in any given substance. But it is not so for big moving systems like
1363:
684:{\displaystyle {\frac {-d_{1}^{2}d_{2}^{2}}{24\pi ^{2}\varepsilon _{0}^{2}\varepsilon _{r}^{2}k_{\text{B}}Tr^{6}}}=V,}
81:
published in Paris in 1743. Other scientists who have contributed to the investigation of microscopic forces include:
2563:
2387:
1342:. International Series of Monographs in Natural Philosophy. Vol. 18 (1st ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
1200:
2578:
494:
The Keesom interaction is a van der Waals force. It is discussed further in the section "Van der Waals forces".
2742:
2414:
2375:
2365:
1878:"Conformational proofreading: the impact of conformational changes on the specificity of molecular recognition"
1542:
311:, which have little capability to hydrogen bond. Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is partly responsible for the
2370:
2173:
1203:, which is based on the electron density of the system. London dispersion forces play a big role with this.
1172:
2317:
926:{\displaystyle {\frac {-d_{1}^{2}\alpha _{2}}{16\pi ^{2}\varepsilon _{0}^{2}\varepsilon _{r}^{2}r^{6}}}=V,}
1783:
1572:"Theoretical models for surface forces and adhesion and their measurement using atomic force microscopy"
116:
287:, and usually involves a limited number of interaction partners, which can be interpreted as a kind of
218:
728:
701:
2747:
2633:
2623:
2613:
2588:
2558:
1272:
1227:
1156:
1688:
Roberts JK, Orr WJ (1938). "Induced dipoles and the heat of adsorption of argon on ionic crystals".
1473:
Biedermann F, Schneider HJ (May 2016). "Experimental
Binding Energies in Supramolecular Complexes".
2404:
759:
503:
greater than the charge of a dipole moment. Ionâdipole bonding is stronger than hydrogen bonding.
2665:
2568:
2540:
2310:
1936:
1298:
1232:
1132:
1131:
Intermolecular forces are repulsive at short distances and attractive at long distances (see the
980:
968:
939:
175:
134:
63:
150:
Information on intermolecular forces is obtained by macroscopic measurements of properties like
1145:
480:
139:
2073:
1650:
Blustin PH (1978). "A Floating
Gaussian Orbital calculation on argon hydrochloride (Ar·HCl)".
2709:
2670:
2223:
1977:
1104:
544:
308:
226:
2704:
2222:
Lefebvre C, Khartabil H, Boisson JC, Contreras-GarcĂa J, Piquemal JP, HĂ©non E (March 2018).
2015:
Arunan E, Desiraju GR, Klein RA, Sadlej J, Scheiner S, Alkorta I, et al. (2011-07-08).
2628:
2382:
2341:
2188:
2130:
1948:
1889:
1724:
1310:
1242:
1111:) bonds form an active intermediate state where the intermolecular bonds cause some of the
800:
320:
284:
202:
171:
86:
82:
55:
974:
8:
2530:
2394:
2360:
2114:
Klein J, Khartabil H, Boisson JC, Contreras-GarcĂa J, Piquemal JP, HĂ©non E (March 2020).
1844:
1715:
Sapse AM, Rayez-Meaume MT, Rayez JC, Massa LJ (1979). "Ion-induced dipole Hân clusters".
1262:
1191:
1183:
524:
312:
288:
280:
122:
90:
67:
2694:
2192:
2134:
1952:
1893:
1728:
1622:
1314:
181:
In the broadest sense, it can be understood as such interactions between any particles (
2449:
2289:
2172:
Lefebvre C, Rubez G, Khartabil H, Boisson JC, Contreras-GarcĂa J, HĂ©non E (July 2017).
2154:
2046:
1912:
1877:
1740:
1667:
1598:
1571:
1237:
551:
484:
316:
159:
229:
and the enzyme, therefore the importance of these interactions is especially great in
2680:
2469:
2429:
2419:
2293:
2281:
2246:
2204:
2158:
2146:
2066:
2038:
1997:
1917:
1858:
1848:
1813:
1763:
1603:
1513:
1490:
1453:
1429:
1343:
1195:
1187:
808:
368:
364:
264:
234:
2050:
1671:
1396:
2721:
2461:
2434:
2273:
2238:
2196:
2138:
2096:
2028:
1989:
1956:
1907:
1897:
1744:
1732:
1697:
1659:
1593:
1583:
1482:
1421:
1400:
1391:
1318:
1179:
1116:
1115:
to be broken, while the others are formed, in this way proceeding the thousands of
508:
360:
259:
is an extreme form of dipole-dipole bonding, referring to the attraction between a
222:
94:
43:
2699:
2573:
2444:
1902:
1840:
1247:
1186:
and dipoleâdipole interactions. Typically, this is done by applying the ideas of
74:
1961:
1486:
1425:
1323:
2608:
2409:
1152:
987:
488:
294:
163:
2736:
2657:
2617:
2550:
2504:
2479:
2352:
2333:
2277:
2142:
2042:
2033:
2016:
2001:
1862:
1395:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
1217:
1112:
1108:
1096:
1092:
1046:
250:
205:
of the interacting particles. (This is only partially true. For example, all
198:
194:
167:
155:
108:
98:
59:
1416:
Lindh U (2013), "Biological functions of the elements", in
Selinus O (ed.),
1404:
27:
Force of attraction or repulsion between molecules and neighboring particles
2603:
2285:
2250:
2242:
2208:
2150:
1993:
1921:
1607:
1494:
328:
230:
126:
104:
Attractive intermolecular forces are categorized into the following types:
1834:
1588:
283:
interaction, produces interatomic distances shorter than the sum of their
42:) is the force that mediates interaction between molecules, including the
2689:
2439:
1701:
130:
2221:
2100:
213:
begin with a weak intermolecular interaction between a substrate and an
46:
which act between atoms and other types of neighbouring particles, e.g.
2200:
1663:
1570:
Leite FL, Bueno CC, Da RĂłz AL, Ziemath EC, Oliveira ON (October 2012).
1194:
has been especially effective in this regard. When applied to existing
975:
London dispersion force (fluctuating dipoleâinduced dipole interaction)
372:
1762:(5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 30â33, 67.
2424:
2399:
2113:
1736:
1277:
1140:
533:
479:
Often molecules contain dipolar groups of atoms, but have no overall
210:
151:
73:
The first reference to the nature of microscopic forces is found in
2498:
1136:
1120:
332:
276:
268:
260:
182:
790:
2302:
1630:
Proceedings of the Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
1252:
799:
The induced dipole forces appear from the induction (also termed
550:
They consist of attractive interactions between dipoles that are
324:
2263:
1100:
272:
238:
214:
206:
2017:"Definition of the hydrogen bond (IUPAC Recommendations 2011)"
1084:
Estimated from the enthalpies of vaporization of hydrocarbons
58:â the forces which hold a molecule together. For example, the
2171:
304:
1976:
Lenhard, Johannes; Stephan, Simon; Hasse, Hans (June 2024).
363:). An example of a dipoleâdipole interaction can be seen in
1937:"On the history of key empirical intermolecular potentials"
1714:
1420:(Revised ed.), Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 129â177,
1299:"On the history of key empirical intermolecular potentials"
497:
201:
ones and do not lead to a significant restructuring of the
186:
47:
2510:
1801:
1450:
1107:
molecules. Here the numerous intramolecular (most often -
2014:
353:
190:
51:
1751:
158:(PVT) data. The link to microscopic aspects is given by
1569:
1268:
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling
331:. It also plays an important role in the structure of
1512:. United States: Pearson Education Inc. p. 466.
942:
824:
762:
731:
704:
564:
388:
1975:
1683:
1681:
1472:
1173:
Covalent bond § Quantum mechanical description
534:Keesom force (permanent dipole â permanent dipole)
225:begin with intermolecular interactions between the
2065:
1935:Fischer, Johann; Wendland, Martin (October 2023).
1526:
1297:Fischer, Johann; Wendland, Martin (October 2023).
1126:
955:
925:
775:
744:
717:
683:
468:
44:electromagnetic forces of attraction or repulsion
2734:
1708:
1678:
1057:About 5 kcal/mol (21 kJ/mol) in water
791:Debye force (permanent dipolesâinduced dipoles)
1978:"On the History of the Lennard-Jones Potential"
1934:
1810:Enthalpies of Vaporization of Organic Compounds
1645:
1643:
1337:
1296:
752:= dielectric constant of surrounding material,
359:the molecules to increase attraction (reducing
2087:King M (1976). "Theory of the Chemical Bond".
2063:
1776:
1380:
1166:
993:
113:Ionâdipole forces and ionâinduced dipole force
2318:
1447:
1139:a tendency to occupy a larger volume than an
54:. Intermolecular forces are weak relative to
2266:Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling
1807:
1640:
263:atom that is bonded to an element with high
1875:
1760:Organic Chemistry: Structure and Reactivity
1576:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
1452:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2325:
2311:
1687:
303:responsible for the high boiling point of
2032:
1960:
1911:
1901:
1597:
1587:
1322:
2717:Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory
2089:Journal of the American Chemical Society
498:Ionâdipole and ionâinduced dipole forces
345:Salt bridge (protein and supramolecular)
293:
145:Salt bridge (protein and supramolecular)
1832:
1649:
1190:to molecules, and RayleighâSchrödinger
518:
354:Dipoleâdipole and similar interactions
14:
2735:
1620:
1532:
2306:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1415:
456:
436:
416:
396:
2086:
1833:Alberts, Bruce; et al. (2015).
307:(100 °C) compared to the other
2181:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
2123:The Journal of Physical Chemistry A
2116:"New Way for Probing Bond Strength"
2068:Electrodynamics of Continuous Media
1757:
1690:Transactions of the Faraday Society
1507:
1258:Quantum chemistry computer programs
244:
24:
2332:
2057:
2008:
1556:
1448:Ciferri A, Perico A, eds. (2012).
1392:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
25:
2764:
79:Théorie de la figure de la Terre,
2509:
2503:
2497:
1812:. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
745:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{r}}
718:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}}
2257:
2215:
2165:
2107:
2080:
2064:Landau LD, Lifshitz EM (1960).
1969:
1928:
1869:
1826:
1614:
1510:Chemistry: A Molecular Approach
1340:Theory of Intermolecular Forces
1338:Margenau H, Kestner NR (1969).
1127:Effect on the behavior of gases
2753:Johannes Diderik van der Waals
1876:Savir Y, Tlusty T (May 2007).
1839:(6th ed.). New York, NY:
1788:Division of Chemical Education
1501:
1466:
1441:
1409:
1356:
1331:
1290:
1201:non-covalent interaction index
787:= distance between molecules.
725:= permittivity of free space,
338:
335:, both synthetic and natural.
13:
1:
2072:. Oxford: Pergamon. pp.
1836:Molecular biology of the cell
1418:Essentials of Medical Geology
1284:
156:pressure, volume, temperature
1903:10.1371/journal.pone.0000468
776:{\displaystyle k_{\text{B}}}
7:
1962:10.1016/j.fluid.2023.113876
1808:Majer V, Svoboda V (1985).
1487:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00583
1426:10.1007/978-94-007-4375-5_7
1324:10.1016/j.fluid.2023.113876
1210:
1167:Quantum mechanical theories
1103:molecules interacting with
994:Relative strength of forces
956:{\displaystyle \alpha _{2}}
10:
2769:
2415:Metalâligand multiple bond
2021:Pure and Applied Chemistry
1170:
978:
783:= Boltzmann constant, and
698:= electric dipole moment,
522:
342:
248:
2679:
2656:
2587:
2549:
2529:
2518:
2495:
2478:
2460:
2351:
2340:
1273:Non-covalent interactions
1075:London dispersion forces
298:Hydrogen bonding in water
2278:10.1021/acs.jcim.9b01016
2143:10.1021/acs.jpca.9b09845
2034:10.1351/PAC-REC-10-01-02
815:the following equation:
1652:Theoretica Chimica Acta
1535:"Intermolecular Forces"
1405:10.1351/goldbook.H02899
1233:Force field (chemistry)
1133:Lennard-Jones potential
981:London dispersion force
969:London dispersion force
176:Lennard-Jones potential
135:London dispersion force
2243:10.1002/cphc.201701325
1994:10.1002/andp.202400115
1941:Fluid Phase Equilibria
1303:Fluid Phase Equilibria
1228:Coomber's relationship
1146:compressibility factor
957:
927:
777:
746:
719:
685:
470:
299:
237:, and is the basis of
2743:Intermolecular forces
1589:10.3390/ijms131012773
958:
928:
778:
747:
720:
686:
545:Willem Hendrik Keesom
471:
321:quaternary structures
297:
217:or a molecule with a
140:Cationâcation bonding
119:, ÏâÏ and ÏâÏ bonding
56:intramolecular forces
2405:Coordinate (dipolar)
1845:Taylor & Francis
1702:10.1039/TF9383401346
1243:Intramolecular force
1009:Dissociation energy
940:
822:
760:
729:
702:
562:
519:Van der Waals forces
386:
203:electronic structure
172:Buckingham potential
123:Van der Waals forces
32:intermolecular force
2579:CâH···O interaction
2361:Electron deficiency
2193:2017PCCP...1917928L
2187:(27): 17928â17936.
2135:2020JPCA..124.1850K
2101:10.1021/ja00428a004
1953:2023FlPEq.57313876F
1894:2007PLoSO...2..468S
1790:. Purdue University
1729:1979Natur.278..332S
1582:(10): 12773â12856.
1315:2023FlPEq.57313876F
1263:van der Waals force
1192:perturbation theory
1184:van der Waals force
1119:, so important for
1117:enzymatic reactions
1004:Dissociation energy
900:
885:
845:
645:
630:
600:
585:
525:van der Waals force
285:van der Waals radii
281:van der Waals force
223:enzymatic reactions
211:catalytic reactions
162:and intermolecular
160:virial coefficients
68:molecular mechanics
66:frequently used in
18:Intermolecular bond
2564:Resonance-assisted
2201:10.1039/C7CP02110K
1982:Annalen der Physik
1784:"Lattice Energies"
1664:10.1007/BF00577166
1621:Keesom WH (1915).
1238:Hydrophobic effect
1199:chemistry, is the
1155:of the molecules.
963:= polarizability.
953:
923:
886:
871:
831:
773:
742:
715:
681:
631:
616:
586:
571:
541:Keesom interaction
509:hydration enthalpy
485:tetrachloromethane
466:
463:
443:
423:
403:
300:
2730:
2729:
2681:Electron counting
2652:
2651:
2541:London dispersion
2493:
2492:
2470:Metal aromaticity
2095:(12): 3415â3420.
1854:978-0-8153-4432-2
1819:978-0-632-01529-0
1769:978-0-618-31809-4
1723:(5702): 332â333.
1533:Blaber M (1996).
1519:978-0-321-65178-5
1459:978-0-470-52927-0
1435:978-94-007-4374-8
1349:978-0-08-016502-8
1196:quantum chemistry
1188:quantum mechanics
1088:
1087:
912:
809:Peter J. W. Debye
770:
670:
653:
464:
454:
444:
434:
424:
414:
404:
394:
369:hydrogen chloride
365:hydrogen chloride
309:group 16 hydrides
265:electronegativity
235:molecular biology
16:(Redirected from
2760:
2748:Chemical bonding
2722:Jemmis mno rules
2574:Dihydrogen bonds
2527:
2526:
2513:
2507:
2501:
2435:Hyperconjugation
2349:
2348:
2327:
2320:
2313:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2297:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2228:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2178:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2129:(9): 1850â1860.
2120:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2071:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2036:
2027:(8): 1637â1641.
2012:
2006:
2005:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1915:
1905:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1795:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1755:
1749:
1748:
1737:10.1038/278332a0
1712:
1706:
1705:
1685:
1676:
1675:
1647:
1638:
1637:
1627:
1618:
1612:
1611:
1601:
1591:
1567:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1541:. Archived from
1530:
1524:
1523:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1481:(9): 5216â5300.
1475:Chemical Reviews
1470:
1464:
1463:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1413:
1407:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1294:
1180:hydrogen bonding
1121:living organisms
1097:covalent bonding
998:
997:
962:
960:
959:
954:
952:
951:
932:
930:
929:
924:
913:
911:
910:
909:
899:
894:
884:
879:
870:
869:
856:
855:
854:
844:
839:
826:
782:
780:
779:
774:
772:
771:
768:
751:
749:
748:
743:
741:
740:
724:
722:
721:
716:
714:
713:
690:
688:
687:
682:
671:
669:
668:
667:
655:
654:
651:
644:
639:
629:
624:
615:
614:
601:
599:
594:
584:
579:
566:
475:
473:
472:
467:
465:
455:
452:
450:
445:
435:
432:
430:
425:
415:
412:
410:
405:
395:
392:
390:
361:potential energy
245:Hydrogen bonding
109:Hydrogen bonding
21:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2758:
2757:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2675:
2648:
2591:
2583:
2545:
2532:
2522:
2514:
2508:
2502:
2489:
2474:
2456:
2344:
2336:
2331:
2301:
2262:
2258:
2226:
2220:
2216:
2176:
2170:
2166:
2118:
2112:
2108:
2085:
2081:
2062:
2058:
2013:
2009:
1974:
1970:
1933:
1929:
1874:
1870:
1855:
1841:Garland Science
1831:
1827:
1820:
1806:
1802:
1793:
1791:
1782:
1781:
1777:
1770:
1758:EÄe SN (2004).
1756:
1752:
1713:
1709:
1686:
1679:
1648:
1641:
1625:
1619:
1615:
1568:
1557:
1548:
1546:
1531:
1527:
1520:
1506:
1502:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1446:
1442:
1436:
1414:
1410:
1385:
1381:
1372:
1370:
1362:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1336:
1332:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1282:
1248:Molecular solid
1213:
1175:
1169:
1129:
1005:
996:
983:
977:
947:
943:
941:
938:
937:
905:
901:
895:
890:
880:
875:
865:
861:
857:
850:
846:
840:
835:
827:
825:
823:
820:
819:
793:
767:
763:
761:
758:
757:
756:= temperature,
736:
732:
730:
727:
726:
709:
705:
703:
700:
699:
663:
659:
650:
646:
640:
635:
625:
620:
610:
606:
602:
595:
590:
580:
575:
567:
565:
563:
560:
559:
536:
527:
521:
500:
451:
449:
431:
429:
411:
409:
391:
389:
387:
384:
383:
378:
356:
347:
341:
253:
247:
164:pair potentials
75:Alexis Clairaut
40:secondary force
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2766:
2756:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2686:
2684:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2662:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2647:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2595:
2593:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2555:
2553:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2537:
2535:
2524:
2520:Intermolecular
2516:
2515:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2472:
2466:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2447:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2357:
2355:
2346:
2342:Intramolecular
2338:
2337:
2334:Chemical bonds
2330:
2329:
2322:
2315:
2307:
2300:
2299:
2272:(1): 268â278.
2256:
2237:(6): 724â735.
2214:
2164:
2106:
2079:
2056:
2007:
1968:
1927:
1868:
1853:
1825:
1818:
1800:
1775:
1768:
1750:
1707:
1677:
1658:(3): 249â257.
1639:
1613:
1555:
1539:mikeblaber.org
1525:
1518:
1508:Tro N (2011).
1500:
1465:
1458:
1440:
1434:
1408:
1379:
1368:global.oup.com
1355:
1348:
1330:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1171:Main article:
1168:
1165:
1153:thermal energy
1128:
1125:
1109:hydrogen bonds
1086:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1062:Dipoleâdipole
1059:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1033:Covalent bond
1030:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1020:Ionic lattice
1017:
1016:
1013:
1007:
1002:
995:
992:
979:Main article:
976:
973:
950:
946:
934:
933:
922:
919:
916:
908:
904:
898:
893:
889:
883:
878:
874:
868:
864:
860:
853:
849:
843:
838:
834:
830:
807:, named after
792:
789:
766:
739:
735:
712:
708:
692:
691:
680:
677:
674:
666:
662:
658:
649:
643:
638:
634:
628:
623:
619:
613:
609:
605:
598:
593:
589:
583:
578:
574:
570:
543:, named after
535:
532:
523:Main article:
520:
517:
499:
496:
489:carbon dioxide
477:
476:
462:
459:
448:
442:
439:
428:
422:
419:
408:
402:
399:
376:
355:
352:
343:Main article:
340:
337:
249:Main article:
246:
243:
195:molecular ions
166:, such as the
148:
147:
142:
137:
120:
114:
111:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2765:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2695:HĂŒckel's rule
2693:
2692:
2691:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2658:Bond cleavage
2655:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2624:Intercalation
2622:
2619:
2615:
2614:Metallophilic
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2531:Van der Waals
2528:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2512:
2506:
2500:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2459:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2328:
2323:
2321:
2316:
2314:
2309:
2308:
2305:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2260:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2218:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2168:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2110:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2083:
2075:
2070:
2069:
2060:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2011:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1837:
1829:
1821:
1815:
1811:
1804:
1789:
1785:
1779:
1771:
1765:
1761:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1711:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1684:
1682:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1646:
1644:
1635:
1631:
1624:
1617:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1545:on 2020-08-01
1544:
1540:
1536:
1529:
1521:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1461:
1455:
1451:
1444:
1437:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1412:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1397:hydrogen bond
1394:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1369:
1365:
1359:
1351:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1289:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1218:Ionic bonding
1216:
1215:
1208:
1204:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1174:
1164:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1113:covalent bond
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1093:Ionic bonding
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1047:Hydrogen bond
1045:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1018:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1003:
1000:
999:
991:
989:
982:
972:
970:
964:
948:
944:
920:
917:
914:
906:
902:
896:
891:
887:
881:
876:
872:
866:
862:
858:
851:
847:
841:
836:
832:
828:
818:
817:
816:
812:
810:
806:
802:
797:
788:
786:
764:
755:
737:
733:
710:
706:
697:
678:
675:
672:
664:
660:
656:
647:
641:
636:
632:
626:
621:
617:
611:
607:
603:
596:
591:
587:
581:
576:
572:
568:
558:
557:
556:
553:
548:
546:
542:
531:
526:
516:
512:
510:
504:
495:
492:
490:
486:
482:
481:dipole moment
460:
457:
446:
440:
437:
426:
420:
417:
406:
400:
397:
382:
381:
380:
374:
370:
366:
362:
351:
346:
336:
334:
330:
329:nucleic acids
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
296:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
257:hydrogen bond
252:
251:Hydrogen bond
242:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
169:
168:Mie potential
165:
161:
157:
153:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
132:
128:
124:
121:
118:
115:
112:
110:
107:
106:
105:
102:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
71:
69:
65:
61:
60:covalent bond
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2700:Baird's rule
2519:
2420:Charge-shift
2383:Hypervalence
2269:
2265:
2259:
2234:
2231:ChemPhysChem
2230:
2217:
2184:
2180:
2167:
2126:
2122:
2109:
2092:
2088:
2082:
2067:
2059:
2024:
2020:
2010:
1985:
1981:
1971:
1944:
1940:
1930:
1885:
1881:
1871:
1835:
1828:
1809:
1803:
1792:. Retrieved
1787:
1778:
1759:
1753:
1720:
1716:
1710:
1693:
1689:
1655:
1651:
1633:
1629:
1616:
1579:
1575:
1547:. Retrieved
1543:the original
1538:
1528:
1509:
1503:
1478:
1474:
1468:
1449:
1443:
1417:
1411:
1390:
1382:
1371:. Retrieved
1367:
1358:
1339:
1333:
1306:
1302:
1292:
1223:Salt bridges
1205:
1176:
1161:
1150:
1130:
1089:
1081:<4 to 63
1078:<1 to 15
1010:
984:
965:
935:
813:
804:
801:polarization
798:
794:
784:
753:
695:
693:
549:
540:
537:
528:
513:
505:
501:
493:
478:
357:
348:
301:
256:
254:
231:biochemistry
180:
149:
127:Keesom force
103:
78:
72:
64:force fields
39:
35:
31:
29:
2690:Aromaticity
2666:Heterolysis
2644:Salt bridge
2589:Noncovalent
2559:Low-barrier
2440:Aromaticity
2430:Conjugation
2410:Pi backbond
1888:(5): e468.
1157:Temperature
1026:1100â20000
1006:(kcal/mol)
805:Debye force
339:Salt bridge
131:Debye force
2737:Categories
2618:aurophilic
2599:Mechanical
1947:: 113876.
1794:2014-01-21
1636:: 636â646.
1549:2011-11-17
1373:2024-01-04
1309:: 113876.
1285:References
1001:Bond type
373:chloroform
371:(HCl) and
267:, usually
239:enzymology
2710:spherical
2671:Homolysis
2634:Cationâpi
2609:Chalcogen
2569:Symmetric
2425:Hapticity
2294:209488458
2159:211070812
2043:1365-3075
2002:0003-3804
1863:887605755
1278:Solvation
1141:ideal gas
1105:substrate
1039:130â1100
1023:250â4000
1011:(kJ/mol)
945:α
888:ε
873:ε
863:π
848:α
829:−
734:ε
707:ε
633:ε
618:ε
608:π
569:−
461:−
458:δ
447:−
438:δ
427:⋯
421:−
418:δ
407:−
398:δ
313:secondary
227:substrate
207:enzymatic
183:molecules
152:viscosity
95:Boltzmann
2639:Anionâpi
2629:Stacking
2551:Hydrogen
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