140:. In 1967, Reber devised a replica of Miller's experiment with the adjustment that participants would NOT be told that the string to be memorized followed a set of complex rules and that they would be required to identify whether or not other strings followed the same rules. Reber was interested in studying whether or not systematic recording (an explicit process) was used when the participants made their decisions on whether or not the string followed the rule. The experiment did not show evidence to support this. Reber's initial assumption that artificial grammar learning is therefore implicit is the foundation for much of the more recent grammar learning researches.
124:. The study was conducted to understand rule-learning. In the experiment participants were given a string with an underlying finite-state grammar to memorize and then were asked to recognize other strings that followed the same grammar. The participants were unaware of the underlying grammar in the memorization stage. The experiment showed that the subjects were better able to memorize strings that followed the rules of the grammar than the strings that did not. Miller coined the term
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structure that the participant does not have previous knowledge of. In order to prevent participants from understanding the underlying structure, the rule in place must be complex. If the rule is too easy, participants will be able to mentally deconstruct the structure and the experiment will no longer test implicit learning. The stimulus should also have no meaning or attached emotion as to rid of any outside factors that may affect the participant's learning.
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correlation with their ratings of confidence they assigned to each of their judgements. In artificial grammar learning and sequence learning participants showed higher than chance performance. These participants were convinced that they were only making assumptions and had no real knowledge of the subject. Results usually showed that in reality, they had gained implicit knowledge throughout the experiment.
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context are read faster than those which are not. People are also able to fairly quickly predict an upcoming word that occurs in a sequence and are able to create sentences which follow sequence while following the rules of
English. This implies the use of sequence learning in language. Such implicit learning processes in language structure learning have also been simulated using connectionist models.
456:. This is due to the fact that testing is usually in the form of a yes or no answer which would give a 50% probability due to chance statistic. Subjects regularly score 55-70%. Measures that are able to collect all and only what is learned during the experimental process would provide more accuracy in the results.
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The speed and duration of the tests is also important in measuring implicit learning. When time duration is short, it is more likely that implicit learning will be tested as opposed to explicit learning. This is because the latter (explicit learning) requires time for the memories to set in and build
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This test among others has been used as an example which critics have used to argue that there is no proof of the existence of implicit knowledge. Others have counter-argued that this test cannot be used to dismiss the concept of implicit learning altogether because it assumes that the participant is
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through the control of the level of income variables. Participants have knowledge of outcome variables throughout the experiment and are free to change input variables accordingly. In these experiments, participants are usually able to bring the system to control but are unable to verbalize the rules
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is an example of daily sequential learning. Although individuals are unable to communicate how they have acquired such knowledge of rules, studies show people generally have knowledge of a number of factors that imply sequence learning. When reading, sentences that follow proper syntax and use proper
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Reber's early contributions to implicit learning opened up the topic as a field of study. Since then, research on implicit learning has been slowly on the rise and in the last 20 years, there has been a very significant increase in the number of published articles pertaining to implicit learning. The
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task where participants react to a series of visual events which may or may not be sequentially structured. In the task, visual stimuli appear in a specific place on a computer screen and participants are told to press a key. The stimuli may follow an underlying pattern or follow a set of transition
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The definition of the concept of implicit learning is still developing and subject to controversy. Despite a considerable number of studies on the topic, there is no agreement on a single definition. Due to such large differences in the understanding of implicit learning, some scientists even argue
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of implicit learning may actually be a measurement of explicit learning. Though the study may focus on implicit learning, if measurement is taken too long after the core of the experiment occurs one could argue that learning was explicit but explicit knowledge was momentarily lost. No rules have
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testing, implicit learning occurs when participants who show above chance performance have no knowledge of their judgements. Subjects who are theorized to have no knowledge of their judgements generally are convinced that their judgements are guesses and will have an accuracy rate that has little
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Implicit learning is a strong contributor to the development of stereotypes, and it can be adapted to change stereotypes as well. Implicit learning paradigms may be modified to change a variety of stereotypes one holds against others or oneself and thus can be used to reduce depression associated
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and his colleagues took
Humphreys' experiment and made some important changes. Estes saw that a single button was not enough to test learning and so had multiple buttons (usually two) corresponding to multiple outcomes that the participant had to predict. Results came to show that the individuals
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in 1939. In
Humphreys' experiment, a ready signal was flashed and the participant was then told to predict whether or not a reinforcing event would happen and then the result was recorded. Humphreys claimed this experiment was synonymous to a conditioning experiment as he felt that the experiment
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in 1984 participants were asked to take on the role of the manager of a sugar production factory. As such, participants had to produce a fixed amount of sugar output. In order to do this, participants were expected to manipulate the value for the number of factor workers (input) until the optimal
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of what has been learned. According to
Frensch and Rünger (2003) the general definition of implicit learning is still subject to some controversy, although the topic has had some significant developments since the 1960s. Implicit learning may require a certain minimal amount of attention and may
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by retrieval of things that have been previously learned. The research conducted showed that tasks that relied on conscious processes or direct recognition proved to be difficult for their patients, whereas tasks which only required the functioning of implicit processes were conducted with less
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In experiments of implicit learning, it is necessary to use a measure that is pure and sensitive. The tool must be able to filter out only what has been learned in the experiment process and to collect and display all of what has been learned throughout the process. These factors are especially
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paradigm, participants are asked if they recognized pieces of specific strings of letters. In a study conducted by Dulany and colleges, participants were asked to identify letters which would complete the string in a grammatically correct way. The study showed that the letters they chose had a
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Examples from daily life, like learning how to ride a bicycle or how to swim, are cited as demonstrations of the nature of implicit learning and its mechanism. It has been claimed that implicit learning differs from explicit learning by the absence of consciously accessible knowledge. Evidence
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is generally weak. Studies show that knowledge gained through implicit learning is only of limited transfer to structurally similar tasks. Whereas some research showed that participants were unable to use implicit learning to complete structurally similar tasks at all, others showed decreased
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experiment. Using the reports, the new participants were able to perform above chance. However, their performance of classification level was not as high as the performance of experimental participants, indicating that the reports did not incorporate all of the original participants' acquired
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Research in implicit learning must follow certain properties in order to be carried out validly and accurately. The stimuli used to carry out studies should be chosen at random with synthetic and difficult-to-crack rule-governed structures. It is important that the stimuli have an underlying
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of implicit learning. Currently, experiments of implicit learning is measured through the retrieval of implicit knowledge because measurements that can accurately test the direct process of implicit learning have not been developed. It is important to differentiate between measurement of
263:. The computer-person is set to communicate using a fixed level of intimacy. The task of the participant is to interact with the computer and make changes to the level of intimacy until the level is set to "very friendly". Participants were required to maintain the "very friendly" level.
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In most implicit learning experiments, participants show that they have gained relevant information but are unable to verbalize the knowledge that they have gained. In one of Arthur Reber's studies, participants were asked to write a report which would guide new participants through the
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research there are generally two phases. In the first stage participants absorb a string of letters, all of which follow the rules of an artificial grammar. In the second stage, the participants are told to separate new strings as either following the rules of the grammar or not. In
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rules which the participant is unaware of. Studies show that participants reacting to structured stimuli have a faster resulting reaction time than those exposed to random stimuli. The participants are unable to explain the acquisition of their knowledge.
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mechanisms. The result of implicit learning is implicit knowledge in the form of abstract (but possibly instantiated) representations rather than verbatim or aggregate representations, and scholars have drawn similarities between implicit learning and
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was used in some of the earliest studies conducted on implicit learning in the 1960s by Arthur Reber. A variety of artificial grammars have been used since then, all encompassing the
Markovian systems. These systems have basic foundations in
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mind developed earlier than the conscious mind on the evolutionary timeline. Furthermore, some studies show the robustness of implicit learning through the evidence that other factors that are unique to each individual (i.e.
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which made him forgetful of recently occurring events. His amnesia made it so that he had severe difficulties remembering events that happened as little as a half hour ago in his life. Although
Molaison was unable to learn
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to indicate the ability to generalize rules from one observation to another fairly consistent observation. Miller's work was the cornerstone for what is now the most widely studied paradigm of implicit learning:
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often shows intact implicit learning but impaired explicit learning. Another difference is that brain areas involved in working memory and attention are often more active during explicit than implicit learning.
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Reber argues that implicit learning is "characterized as a situation-neutral induction process whereby complex information about any stimulus environment may be acquired largely independently of the subjects'
308:: Unconscious processes should be robust when it comes to disorders due to the fact that unconscious processes evolved earlier on the evolutionary timeline relative to conscious processes.
171:, and dynamic system control. Other paradigms include probability learning, conditioned response learning, acquisition of invariant characteristics and second language acquisition.
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would predict. However, when asked to clarify why they chose to classify particular strings in as grammatical, participants were typically unable to verbalize their reasoning.
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is less likely to affect implicit learning than explicit learning. Reber says that implicit learning should in all likelihood be more resilient when it comes to injury.
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relationship with the participant's performance. The high correlation indicates that participants were aware of at least some of the knowledge they had acquired.
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Cox, William T. L.; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Devine, Patricia G.; Hollon, Steven D. (2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and
Depression: The Integrated Perspective".
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responses came to match the probability of the outcomes. Probability learning shows the implicit learning of a random structure of a sequence of events.
144:
topic has been studied in relation to real world systems (dynamic control systems), artificial grammar learning and sequence learning most extensively.
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A critical examination of the evidence for unconscious (implicit) learning, in
Attention and Performance (Vol. 15) (Umiltà, C. and Moscovitch, M., eds)
336:
Some other characteristics of the implicit system have also been identified in relation to its cognitive representations, mechanisms and processes.
377:(inability to portray all acquired knowledge) and because it doesn't use the same knowledge of the performance in order to test implicit learning.
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connections after the learning process. However, the time pressure does not necessarily mean that implicit knowledge will purely be tested.
608:, he still had almost normal abilities when it came to his sensorimotor skills indicating that he may have held on to some remnants of his
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so gained is not verbalizable. Little research has been conducted on the requirements for the process of implicit learning to take place.
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of content. Some studies show that passive learning do just as well as individuals who learn explicitly through dissecting structure.
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Dulany, D.E.; Carlson, R.A.; Dewey, G.I. (1984). "A case of syntactical learning and judgment: how conscious and how abstract?".
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It has been shown that people are able to implicitly learn underlying sequential structure in a series using sequence learning.
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1970:
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Michas, Irene C.; Berry, Dianne C. (1 December 1994). "Implicit and explicit processes in a second-language learning task".
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320:: Compared to explicit learning, there is little variation in the ability to gain implicit knowledge from person to person.
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Implicit learning: Methodological issues and evidence of unique characteristics. (in the
Handbook of Implicit Learning)
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Bright, J. E. H.; Burton, A. M. (1 February 1994). "Past midnight: Semantic processing in an implicit learning task".
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Implicit and
Explicit Learning, in The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (eds C. J. Doughty and M. H. Long)
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allowed for reinforcement could be studied holding the result as reinforcement for the individuals predictions.
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studies, the results usually show that the participant is able to separate the strings more accurately than
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important in implicit learning experiments as the resulting in percentages that are only slightly above
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314:: Implicit learning is relatively unaffected by age and development as compared with explicit learning.
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Some psychologists argue that implicit learning is more stable than explicit learning because the
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326:: Contrary to explicit learning, IQ scores should have very little relation to implicit learning.
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learning for learning without awareness, regardless of what sort of knowledge is being acquired."
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There have been a good number of recent studies which test implicit processes in subjects with
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Dynamic system control experiments require participants to try to control the level of outcome
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supports a clear distinction between implicit and explicit learning; for instance, research on
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Cleeremans, A.; Destrebecqz, A.; Boyer, M. (1998). "Implicit learning: News from the front".
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which makes them easier to understand by investigators while remaining apparently arbitrary.
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The measurement must be conducted at the appropriate time otherwise what is assumed to be a
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2013:
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712:"Contingency learning and unlearning in the blink of an eye: A resource dependent process"
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583:, formerly known as patient H.M., was an amnesiac patient following the surgery of his
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effort to absorb the learning is required. In contrast, explicit learning requires the
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Principles of Implicit Learning. In D. Berry (Ed.), How implicit is implicit learning?
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1093:"Pattern perception and computational complexity: introduction to the special issue"
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Implicit learning occurs through passive, incidental and automatic acquisition. No
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431:. A large portion of the discussion of issues with methodology seem to be in the
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The following is a list of common characteristics found in the implicit system:
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of either the process of acquisition or the knowledge base ultimately acquired."
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Sun, R. (2002). Duality of the Mind. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
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There has been much debate on the bare existence of implicit learning because
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The three paradigms of implicit learning that have been studied in depth are
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The definitions of implicit learning typically concentrate on the process of
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Chang, Franklin; Dell, Gary S.; Bock, Kathryn (2006). "Becoming syntactic".
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Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on the cognitive unconscious
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paradigm to show that the knowledge was gained unintentionally and without
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Stadler, M.A.; Frensch, P.A. (1994). "Whither learning, whither memory?".
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transfer. Implicit knowledge is characterized to be highly inaccessible.
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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The field of implicit learning has been subject to debate due to its
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been laid out guiding selection of an appropriate time for testing.
332:: Implicit learning should show commonality among different species.
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1542:. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc. pp. 261–94.
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Reed, J.M.; Johnson, P. (1998). Stadler, M.; Frensch, P. (eds.).
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Pioneer work in implicit learning started as early as 1885 with
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Stadler and Frensch say, "Essentially we argue that learning is
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Schmidt, James R.; Houwer, Jan De; Besner, Derek (2010-03-01).
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Forced-choice tests require participants to make a decision on
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The original probability learning experiment was developed by
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Fitch, W. T.; Friederici, A. D.; Hagoort, P. (11 June 2012).
1527:. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. Chapter 11.
259:. The person interaction tasks involves a participant and a
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Seger, Carol Augart (1 January 1994). "Implicit learning".
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Another experiment conducted by Berry and Broadbent is the
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of complex information in an unintentional manner, without
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The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A
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and abnormalities. Many of these studies have focused on
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Frensch, P. A.; Runger, D. (2003). "Implicit learning".
1416:"Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems"
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by the participant. Some measures of awareness include
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Distinguishing implicit learning and explicit learning
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when the learning process is unaffected by intention."
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This measurement has been criticized for its lack of
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Shanks and St. John claim, "We will reserve the term
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817:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 196–234.
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136:
Miller's work was seminal to Arthur Reber's work in
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1230:Shanks, D.R.; Green, R.E.A.; Kolodny, J.A. (1994).
1199:"Implicit learning: Below the subjective threshold"
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563:patients because the disorder deals primarily with
356:reports, forced-choice tests and subjective tests.
647:The Cambridge handbook of computational psychology
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1234:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. pp. 837–860.
154:
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775:Seger, C. A. (March 1994). "Implicit learning".
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1485:"Distinguishing implicit and explicit learning"
481:In implicit learning, transfer of the acquired
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1414:Shanks, David R.; St. John, Mark F. (1994).
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1458:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
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677:Current Directions in Psychological Science
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539:The human brain. Note the location of the
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649:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
599:. Due to his surgery, Molaison developed
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1292:European Journal of Cognitive Psychology
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595:in order to relieve the symptoms of his
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288:Adapting paradigms to change stereotypes
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567:and the ability to recognize familiar
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293:with prejudice (i.e., "deprejudice").
113:which touched on learning and memory.
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1363:Perspectives on Psychological Science
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1142:
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896:
774:
402:sensitive to all of his/her relevant
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901:. New York: Oxford University Press.
859:
803:
344:Implicit learning experiments use a
252:level of sugar output was attained.
206:
644:
409:
297:Characteristics of implicit systems
93:gained and/or the process used for
13:
530:
14:
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1489:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1203:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1197:Dienes, Z. N.; Berry, D. (1997).
841:Stadler, Michael A., ed. (1998).
612:(implicit) previous experiences.
576:Case study: Henry Gustav Molaison
444:processes in order to make valid
365:classification necessary for the
359:
240:they followed in order to do so.
55:that the concept does not exist.
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1476:
1398:
1310:
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912:Shanks, D.R.; St. John (1994).
502:observation, understanding and
58:Some definitions among dozens:
1578:
1070:(in German). Scientia Verlag.
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905:
768:
703:
638:
155:Paradigms of implicit learning
1:
1876:Industrial and organizational
1423:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
1034:10.1016/S1364-6613(98)01232-7
956:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
921:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
845:. Thousand Oaks : Sage Publ.
843:Handbook of implicit learning
632:
509:
49:
2117:Human factors and ergonomics
1483:Stadler, Michael A. (1997).
1012:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
728:10.1016/j.concog.2009.12.016
214:is usually tested through a
120:began Project Grammarama at
7:
1470:10.1037/0096-3445.113.4.541
1331:10.1037/0033-295x.113.2.234
1157:10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.163
789:10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.163
716:Consciousness and Cognition
615:
391:artificial grammar learning
367:artificial grammar learning
197:artificial grammar learning
192:artificial grammar learning
180:Artificial grammar learning
175:Artificial grammar learning
165:artificial grammar learning
138:artificial grammar learning
131:artificial grammar learning
10:
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28:depend on attentional and
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2440:
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1969:
1806:Applied behavior analysis
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1435:10.1017/S0140525X00035032
1304:10.1080/09541449408406520
1269:10.1080/14640749408401144
968:10.1017/S0140525X00035342
933:10.1017/s0140525x00035032
813:Cleeremans, Axel (1996).
340:Measurements of awareness
1376:10.1177/1745691612455204
490:Non-intentional learning
454:statistical significance
2082:Behavioral neuroscience
1646:Behavioral neuroscience
689:10.1111/1467-8721.01213
257:person interaction task
247:conducted by Berry and
2559:Psychology of learning
2132:Psychology of religion
2072:Behavioral engineering
2009:Human subject research
1665:Cognitive neuroscience
1631:Affective neuroscience
1145:Psychological Bulletin
1109:10.1098/rstb.2012.0099
552:
231:Dynamic system control
2508:Wiktionary definition
2044:Self-report inventory
2039:Quantitative research
1523:DeKeyser, R. (2008).
581:Henry Gustav Molaison
538:
521:intelligence quotient
423:Methodological issues
245:sugar production task
2034:Qualitative research
1989:Behavior epigenetics
1319:Psychological Review
897:Reber, A.S. (1993).
477:Transfer specificity
267:Probability learning
243:For example, in the
2513:Wiktionary category
2077:Behavioral genetics
2049:Statistical surveys
1906:Occupational health
1641:Behavioral genetics
1103:(1598): 1925–1932.
1068:Über das Gedächtnis
1064:Ebbinghaus, Hermann
601:anterograde amnesia
381:Forced-choice tests
111:Über das Gedächtnis
2485:Schools of thought
2388:Richard E. Nisbett
2268:Donald T. Campbell
1946:Sport and exercise
1502:10.3758/BF03210774
1216:10.3758/BF03210769
627:Implicit cognition
553:
126:pattern conception
122:Harvard University
2546:
2545:
2523:Wikimedia Commons
2450:Counseling topics
2413:Ronald C. Kessler
2403:Shelley E. Taylor
2328:Lawrence Kohlberg
2303:Stanley Schachter
2102:Consumer behavior
1984:Archival research
1752:Psycholinguistics
1636:Affective science
1241:978-0-262-21012-6
645:Sun, Ron (2008).
589:hippocampal gyrus
545:hippocampal gyrus
212:Sequence learning
207:Sequence learning
169:sequence learning
17:Implicit learning
2571:
2480:Research methods
2423:Richard Davidson
2418:Joseph E. LeDoux
2293:George A. Miller
2283:David McClelland
2278:Herbert A. Simon
2178:Edward Thorndike
1999:Content analysis
1784:
1757:Psychophysiology
1573:
1566:
1559:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1543:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1520:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1420:
1411:
1405:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1314:
1308:
1307:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1194:
1169:
1168:
1140:
1131:
1130:
1120:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1027:
1007:
980:
979:
951:
945:
944:
918:
909:
903:
902:
894:
857:
856:
838:
819:
818:
810:
801:
800:
772:
766:
765:
739:
707:
701:
700:
672:
661:
660:
642:
557:mental disorders
410:Subjective tests
312:Age independence
2579:
2578:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2499:
2475:Psychotherapies
2436:
2393:Martin Seligman
2358:Daniel Kahneman
2298:Richard Lazarus
2248:Raymond Cattell
2152:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2053:
1965:
1792:
1785:
1776:
1737:Neuropsychology
1617:
1610:
1582:
1577:
1547:
1536:
1532:
1521:
1510:
1481:
1477:
1454:
1450:
1418:
1412:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1358:
1354:
1315:
1311:
1288:
1284:
1253:
1249:
1242:
1228:
1224:
1195:
1172:
1141:
1134:
1089:
1085:
1078:
1061:
1057:
1018:(10): 406–416.
1008:
983:
952:
948:
916:
910:
906:
895:
860:
853:
839:
822:
811:
804:
773:
769:
708:
704:
673:
664:
657:
643:
639:
635:
622:Implicit memory
618:
578:
533:
531:Amnesia studies
512:
492:
479:
474:
425:
412:
383:
362:
342:
324:IQ independence
318:Low variability
299:
290:
273:Lloyd Humphreys
269:
233:
209:
177:
157:
103:
52:
35:implicit memory
12:
11:
5:
2577:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2433:Roy Baumeister
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2368:Michael Posner
2365:
2360:
2355:
2353:Elliot Aronson
2350:
2348:Walter Mischel
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2313:Albert Bandura
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2288:Leon Festinger
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2258:Neal E. Miller
2255:
2253:Abraham Maslow
2250:
2245:
2240:
2238:Ernest Hilgard
2235:
2233:Donald O. Hebb
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2213:J. P. Guilford
2210:
2208:Gordon Allport
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2188:John B. Watson
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2153:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1979:Animal testing
1975:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1797:
1795:
1787:
1786:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1682:Cross-cultural
1679:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1662:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1622:
1620:
1612:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1575:
1568:
1561:
1553:
1546:
1545:
1530:
1508:
1475:
1464:(4): 541–555.
1448:
1429:(3): 367–395.
1406:
1397:
1370:(5): 427–449.
1352:
1325:(2): 234–272.
1309:
1298:(4): 357–381.
1282:
1247:
1240:
1222:
1170:
1151:(2): 163–196.
1132:
1083:
1077:978-9060310076
1076:
1055:
1025:10.1.1.29.7072
981:
962:(3): 423–424.
946:
927:(3): 367–395.
904:
858:
852:978-0761901976
851:
820:
802:
767:
722:(1): 235–250.
702:
662:
655:
636:
634:
631:
630:
629:
624:
617:
614:
577:
574:
532:
529:
511:
508:
491:
488:
478:
475:
473:
470:
424:
421:
411:
408:
382:
379:
361:
360:Verbal reports
358:
341:
338:
334:
333:
327:
321:
315:
309:
298:
295:
289:
286:
268:
265:
261:virtual person
232:
229:
208:
205:
176:
173:
156:
153:
102:
99:
83:
82:
75:
68:
51:
48:
30:working memory
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2576:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2470:Psychologists
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2460:Organizations
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2408:John Anderson
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2338:Ulric Neisser
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2323:Endel Tulving
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2308:Robert Zajonc
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2263:Jerome Bruner
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2228:B. F. Skinner
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2193:Clark L. Hull
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2173:Sigmund Freud
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2163:William James
2161:
2159:
2158:Wilhelm Wundt
2156:
2154:
2151:
2150:Psychologists
2146:
2138:
2137:Psychometrics
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2097:Consciousness
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2029:Psychophysics
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1971:Methodologies
1968:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1931:Psychotherapy
1929:
1927:
1926:Psychometrics
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1788:
1783:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1692:Developmental
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1613:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
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1588:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1569:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1541:
1534:
1526:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1452:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1417:
1410:
1401:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1364:
1356:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1313:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1286:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1243:
1237:
1233:
1226:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1139:
1137:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1087:
1079:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1059:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
986:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
950:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
915:
908:
900:
893:
891:
889:
887:
885:
883:
881:
879:
877:
875:
873:
871:
869:
867:
865:
863:
854:
848:
844:
837:
835:
833:
831:
829:
827:
825:
816:
809:
807:
798:
794:
790:
786:
783:(2): 163–96.
782:
778:
771:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
738:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
706:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
671:
669:
667:
658:
656:9780521857413
652:
648:
641:
637:
628:
625:
623:
620:
619:
613:
611:
607:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
573:
570:
566:
565:consciousness
562:
558:
550:
546:
542:
537:
528:
526:
523:) as well as
522:
517:
507:
505:
501:
497:
487:
484:
469:
465:
462:
457:
455:
449:
447:
443:
439:
434:
430:
420:
417:
407:
405:
401:
395:
392:
388:
378:
376:
371:
368:
357:
355:
351:
347:
337:
331:
328:
325:
322:
319:
316:
313:
310:
307:
304:
303:
302:
294:
285:
282:
281:William Estes
277:
274:
264:
262:
258:
253:
250:
246:
241:
238:
228:
225:
220:
217:
213:
204:
202:
198:
193:
188:
186:
181:
172:
170:
166:
161:
152:
150:
145:
141:
139:
134:
132:
127:
123:
119:
118:George Miller
114:
112:
108:
98:
96:
92:
88:
80:
76:
73:
69:
66:
61:
60:
59:
56:
47:
44:
38:
36:
31:
26:
22:
18:
2383:Larry Squire
2378:Bruce McEwen
2373:Amos Tversky
2343:Jerome Kagan
2333:Noam Chomsky
2273:Hans Eysenck
2243:Harry Harlow
2223:Erik Erikson
2122:Intelligence
2019:Neuroimaging
1762:Quantitative
1727:Mathematical
1722:Intelligence
1712:Experimental
1707:Evolutionary
1697:Differential
1606:Psychologist
1539:
1533:
1524:
1495:(1): 56–62.
1492:
1488:
1478:
1461:
1457:
1451:
1426:
1422:
1409:
1400:
1367:
1361:
1355:
1322:
1318:
1312:
1295:
1291:
1285:
1263:(1): 71–89.
1260:
1256:
1250:
1231:
1225:
1206:
1202:
1148:
1144:
1100:
1096:
1086:
1067:
1058:
1015:
1011:
959:
955:
949:
924:
920:
907:
898:
842:
814:
780:
777:Psychol Bull
776:
770:
719:
715:
705:
680:
676:
646:
640:
579:
572:impediment.
554:
525:multitasking
513:
504:memorization
493:
480:
466:
458:
450:
426:
413:
396:
384:
372:
363:
346:dissociation
343:
335:
329:
323:
317:
311:
305:
300:
291:
278:
270:
256:
254:
244:
242:
234:
221:
210:
189:
178:
162:
158:
146:
142:
135:
125:
115:
110:
104:
94:
90:
86:
84:
57:
53:
39:
16:
15:
2455:Disciplines
2428:Susan Fiske
2318:Roger Brown
2218:Carl Rogers
2203:Jean Piaget
2168:Ivan Pavlov
2024:Observation
2004:Experiments
1951:Suicidology
1846:Educational
1801:Anomalistic
1772:Theoretical
1747:Personality
1677:Comparative
1660:Cognitivism
1651:Behaviorism
610:unconscious
606:consciously
585:hippocampus
541:hippocampus
516:unconscious
461:measurement
446:assessments
442:unconscious
433:measurement
429:methodology
400:consciously
387:recognition
375:sensitivity
370:knowledge.
330:Commonality
201:probability
185:mathematics
87:acquisition
72:unconscious
2553:Categories
2518:Wikisource
2363:Paul Ekman
2198:Kurt Lewin
2092:Competence
2014:Interviews
1994:Case study
1871:Humanistic
1851:Ergonomics
1836:Counseling
1811:Assessment
1793:psychology
1742:Perception
1702:Ecological
1618:psychology
1596:Philosophy
1580:Psychology
737:10012/4611
633:References
510:Robustness
416:subjective
306:Robustness
107:Ebbinghaus
50:Definition
2538:Wikibooks
2528:Wikiquote
2398:Ed Diener
2183:Carl Jung
2087:Cognition
1916:Political
1826:Community
1656:Cognitive
1339:1939-1471
1277:145372322
1066:(1966) .
1020:CiteSeerX
976:147122796
746:1053-8100
697:220590080
683:: 13–18.
500:conscious
496:conscious
483:knowledge
438:conscious
404:knowledge
389:. In the
350:awareness
249:Broadbent
237:variables
149:knowledge
116:In 1967,
95:retrieval
91:knowledge
65:awareness
25:awareness
2564:Learning
2533:Wikinews
2490:Timeline
2112:Feelings
2107:Emotions
2067:Behavior
2058:Concepts
1936:Religion
1921:Positive
1911:Pastoral
1896:Military
1861:Forensic
1856:Feminist
1841:Critical
1831:Consumer
1821:Coaching
1816:Clinical
1791:Applied
1687:Cultural
1626:Abnormal
1443:14849936
1384:26168502
1347:16637761
1209:: 3–23.
1127:22688630
1050:16362807
1042:21227256
941:14849936
762:44789881
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