295:
value to a third file. In the HLS approach, one would simply open the files and call add. The underlying operating system would map these into memory, create descriptors showing them both to be arrays and then the add instruction would see they were arrays and add all the values together. Assigning that value into a newly created array would have the effect of writing it back to storage. A program that might take a page or so of code was now reduced to a few lines. Moreover, as this was the natural language of the machine, the
2247:
367:, then a vice-president of IBM. Its assignment was to investigate the feasibility of a new line of computers which would take advantage of IBM's technological advantages in order to render obsolete all previous computers - compatible offerings but also IBM's own products. The task force concluded that the project was worth pursuing, but that the key to acceptance in the marketplace was an order-of-magnitude reduction in the costs of developing, operating and maintaining application software.
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current pricing, if they tried, another company would introduce far less expensive systems. They could instead produce much more powerful machines at the same price points, but their customers were already underutilizing their existing systems. To provide a reasonable argument to buy a new high-end machine, IBM had to come up with reasons for their customers to need this extra power.
227:, instead everything would be stored in a large amount of bubble memory. Physically, systems would be single-level stores, so the idea of having another layer for "files" which represented separate storage made no sense, and having pointers into a single large memory would not only mean one could simply refer to any data as it if were local, but also eliminate the need for separate
427:
much more than the physical memory in the machine. In the case that a program asks to allocate memory that is not physically available, a block of main memory is written out to disk, and that space is used for the new allocation. If the program requests data from that offloaded ("paged" or "spooled") memory area, it is invisibly loaded back into main memory again.
650:
it was considered "incomprehensible" by IBM's own engineers and there were strong indications that the system wide single-level store could not be backed up in part, foretelling the IBM AS/400's partitioning of the System/38's single-level store. Moreover, simulations showed that the execution of native FS instructions on the high-end machine was slower than the
343:
indeed viable and that the basis for charging for software and services as part of the hardware price would quickly vanish. These events created a desire within the company to find some solution that would once again force the customers to purchase everything from IBM but in a way that would not violate antitrust laws.
208:, the VM system automatically loads it into memory when a program calls for it. Instead of writing code to read and write data in files, the programmer simply told the operating system they would be using certain data, which then appeared as objects in the program's memory and could be manipulated like any other
542:. Depending on the people one was talking to, the very notion of a "machine" therefore ranged between those functions which were implemented as circuitry (for the hardware specialists) to the complete set of functions offered to users, irrespective of their implementation (for the systems architects).
264:. This meant any machine in the 360 family could run programs from any other, just faster or slower depending on the task. This proved enormously successful, as a customer could buy a low-end machine and always upgrade to a faster one in the future, knowing all their applications would continue to run.
426:
in the system, which might vary based on such factors as it is moved from one machine to another, or if other programs were allocating memory of their own. Virtual memory systems addressed this problem by defining a maximum amount of memory available to all programs, typically some very large number,
342:
At first, IBM was unconcerned. They made most of their money on software and support, and that money would still be going to them. But to be sure, in early 1971 an internal IBM task force, Project
Counterpoint, was formed to study the concept. They concluded that the compatible mainframe business was
152:
In terms of the computer itself, if one followed the progression from the 360 to the 370 and onto some hypothetical System/380, the new machines would be based on large-scale integration and would be dramatically reduced in complexity and cost. There was no way they could sell such a machine at their
649:
One symptom was the poor performance of its largest implementation, but the project was also marred by protracted internal arguments about various technical aspects, including internal IBM debates about the merits of RISC vs. CISC designs. The complexity of the instruction set was another obstacle;
645:
The FS project was killed in 1975. The reasons given for killing the project depend on the person asked, each of whom puts forward the issues related to the domain with which they were familiar. In reality, the success of the project was dependent on a large number of breakthroughs in all areas from
545:
The overall design also called for a "universal controller" to handle primarily input-output operations outside of the main processor. That universal controller would have a very limited instruction set, restricted to those operations required for I/O, pioneering the concept of a reduced instruction
439:
memory is immediately allocated by the VM. This means there is no need to save and load data, simply allocating it in memory will have that effect as the VM system writes it out. When the user logs back in, that data, and the programs that were running it as they are also in the same unified memory,
430:
A single-level store is essentially an expansion of virtual memory to all memory, internal or external. VM systems invisibly write memory to a disk, which is the same task as the file system, so there is no reason it cannot be used as the file system. Instead of programs allocating memory from "main
120:
led to slowing sales in the 1970-71 time period and much smaller orders for the 370 compared to the rapid uptake of the 360 five years earlier. For the first time in decades, IBM's growth stalled. While some in the company began efforts to introduce useful improvements to the 370 as soon as possible
682:
inherited the same architecture, but with performance improvements. In both machines, the high-level instruction set generated by compilers is not interpreted, but translated into a lower-level machine instruction set and executed; the original lower-level instruction set was a CISC instruction set
660:
The FS project was finally terminated when IBM realized that customer acceptance would be much more limited than originally predicted because there was no reasonable application migration path for 360 architecture customers. In order to leave maximum freedom to design a truly revolutionary system,
247:
headquarters to chair another group to consider how IBM would offer these new designs across their many divisions. A group of twelve participants spread across three divisions produced the "Higher Level System Report", or HLS, which was delivered on 25 February 1970. A key component of HLS was the
156:
Another strategic issue was that while the cost of computing was steadily going down, the costs of programming and operations, being made of personnel costs, were steadily going up. Therefore, the part of the customer's IT budget available for hardware vendors would be significantly reduced in the
605:
As a consequence, most people working on the project had an extremely limited view of it, restricted to what they needed to know in order to produce their expected contribution. Some teams were even working on FS without knowing. This explains why, when asked to define FS, most people give a very
294:
By representing these much higher-level objects directly in the system, user programs would be much smaller and simpler. For instance, to add two arrays of numbers held in files in traditional languages, one would generally open the two files, read one item from each, add them, and then store the
259:
programmer might desire. Whereas previous systems might be dedicated to scientific programming or currency calculations and had instructions for that sort of data, the 360 offered instructions for both of these and practically every other task. Individual machines were then designed that targeted
338:
and other software from IBM. If IBM refused to sell it to them, they would be breaching their legal obligations. In early 1970, Amdahl quit IBM and announced his intention to introduce System/370 compatible machines that would be faster than IBM's high-end offerings but cost less to purchase and
148:
An internal
Corporate Technology Committee (CTC) study concluded a 30-fold reduction in the price of memory would take place in the next five years, and another 30 in the five after that. If IBM was going to maintain its sales figures, it was going to have to sell 30 times as much memory in five
286:
For HLS, the instructions would instead represent those higher-level tasks directly. That is, there would be instructions in the machine code for "open file". If a program called this instruction, there was no need to convert this into lower-level code, the machine would do this internally in
78:
Combining the two concepts in a single system in a single step proved to be an impossible task. This concern was pointed out from the start by the engineers, but it was ignored by management and project leaders for many reasons. Officially started in the fall of 1971, by 1974 the project was
595:
During its entire life, the FS project was conducted under tight security provisions. The project was broken down into many subprojects assigned to different teams. The documentation was similarly broken down into many pieces, and access to each document was subject to verification of the
586:
The FS project was officially started in
September 1971, following the recommendations of a special task force assembled in the second quarter of 1971. In the course of time, several other research projects in various IBM locations merged into the FS project or became associated with it.
149:
years, and 900 times as much five years later. Similarly, hard disk cost was expected to fall ten times in the next ten years. To maintain their traditional 15% year-over-year growth, by 1980 they would have to be selling 40 times as much disk space and 3600 times as much memory.
157:
coming years, and with it the base for IBM revenue. It was imperative that IBM, by addressing the cost of application development and operations in its future products, would at the same time reduce the total cost of IT to the customers and capture a larger portion of that cost.
661:
ease of application migration was not one of the primary design goals for the FS project, but was to be addressed by software migration aids taking the new architecture as a given. In the end, it appeared that the cost of migrating the mass of user investments in COBOL and
316:
Until the end of the 1960s, IBM had been making most of its profit on hardware, bundling support software and services along with its systems to make them more attractive. Only hardware carried a price tag, but those prices included an allocation for software and services.
100:
was announced in April 1964. Only six months later, IBM began a study project on what trends were taking place in the market and how these should be used in a series of machines that would replace the 360 in the future. One significant change was the introduction of useful
113:, they were essentially 360s using small-scale ICs for logic, much larger amounts of internal memory and other relatively minor changes. A few new instructions were added and others cleaned up, but the system was largely identical from the programmer's point of view.
108:
By the mid-1960s, the 360 had become a massive best-seller. This influenced the design of the new machines, as it led to demands that the machines have complete backward compatibility with the 360 series. When the machines were announced in 1970, now known as the
636:
Early 1973, overall project management and the teams responsible for the more "outside" layers common to all implementations were consolidated in the
Mohansic ASDD laboratory (halfway between the Armonk/White Plains headquarters and Poughkeepsie).
306:
The user and IBM should both gain substantially from the easier coding and debugging of concise programs. We expect to sharply reduce the cost of programming and the size of complex programs, as both program quality and programmer productivity are
646:
circuit design and manufacturing to marketing and maintenance. Although each single issue, taken in isolation, might have been resolved, the probability that they could all be resolved in time and in mutually compatible ways was practically zero.
324:, at a price significantly lower than IBM, thus shrinking the possible base for recovering the cost of software and services. IBM responded by refusing to service machines with these third-party add-ons, which led almost immediately to sweeping
410:
to hold values that represent data. This data would normally disappear if the machine is turned off, or the user logs out. In order to have this data available in the future, additional code is needed to write it to permanent storage like a
291:, a record that contained the type of the date, its location in memory, and its precision and size. As descriptors could point to arrays and record structures as well, this allowed the machine language to process these as atomic objects.
248:
idea that programming was more expensive than hardware. If a system could greatly reduce the cost of development, then that system could be sold for more money, as the overall cost of operation would still be lower than the competition.
58:
in the code could point to objects in storage and they would invisibly be loaded into memory, eliminating the need to write code for file handling. The second was to include instructions corresponding to the statements in
470:
Future
Systems planned on making the single-level store the key concept in its new operating systems. Instead of having a separate database engine that programmers would call, there would simply be calls in the system's
350:
implementing the huge number of instructions. As this was software, if they did, those companies would be subject to copyright violations. At this point, the AFS/HLS concepts gained new currency within the company.
384:
It was hoped that a new architecture making heavier use of hardware resources, the cost of which was going down, could significantly simplify software development and reduce costs for both IBM and customers.
105:(ICs), which would allow the many individual components of the 360 to be replaced with a smaller number of ICs. This would allow a more powerful machine to be built for the same price as existing models.
673:
Although the FS project as a whole was killed, a simplified version of the architecture for the smallest of the three machines continued to be developed in
Rochester. It was finally released as the IBM
440:
are immediately available in the same state they were before. The entire concept of loading and saving is removed, programs, and entire systems, pick up where they were even after a machine restart.
702:
Besides System/38 and the AS/400, which inherited much of the FS architecture, bits and pieces of Future
Systems technology were incorporated in the following parts of IBM's product line:
422:
Another emerging technology at the time was the concept of virtual memory. In early systems, the amount of memory available to a program to allocate for data was limited by the amount of
240:
710:
mainframe computer, which was essentially the top-of-the line machine designed in
Poughkeepsie, using the System/370 emulator microcode, and with the FS microcode removed and used
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investigations and many subsequent legal remedies. In 1969, the company was forced to end its bundling arrangements and announced they would sell software products separately.
31:
in the early 1970s to develop a revolutionary line of computer products, including new software models which would simplify software development by exploiting modern powerful
287:
microcode or even a direct hardware implementation. This worked hand-in-hand with the single-level store; to implement HLS, every bit of data in the system was paired with a
526:
software and more would now be considered as making up one integrated system, with each and every elementary function implemented in one of many layers including circuitry,
129:
Two months before the announcement of the 370s, the company once again started considering changes in the market and how that would influence future designs. In 1965,
185:
to outline such systems. Having seen the term "future systems" being used, Evans referred to the group as
Advanced Future Systems. The group met roughly biweekly.
178:
83:
and moved to other systems in the lineup after that, but the concept of a machine that directly ran high-level languages has never appeared in an IBM product.
1113:
181:
to consider how the company might use these much cheaper components to build machines that would still retain the company's profits. Bloch, in turn, asked
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implementations, which would only be available on IBM systems, thereby achieving IBM's goal of tightly tying the hardware to the programs that ran on it.
1135:
A review of a book about "what went wrong at IBM", discussing in particular the relation of the Future
Systems project to the overall history of IBM
299:
was itself programmable in the same way, there would be no need to "write a program" for a simple task like this, it could be entered as a command.
1412:
275:
and their links to the operating system allowed users to type in programs using high-level concepts like "open file" or "add these arrays". The
633:
A continuous range of performance could be offered by varying the number of processors in a system at each of the four implementation levels.
2191:
1216:
182:
1437:
1569:
1547:
1019:
601:
The avowed aim of all this red tape is to prevent anyone from understanding the whole system; this goal has certainly been achieved.
553:, one of the chief designers of early IBM computers, began a research project to design the first reduced instruction set computer (
2323:
1211:
419:
emerged in the 1960s that allowed programs to hand data to the engine which would then save it and retrieve it again on demand.
267:
Although the 360's instruction set was large, those instructions were still low-level, representing single operations that the
1683:
1134:
447:
system but proved to be very slow, but that was a side-effect of available hardware where the main memory was implemented in
121:
to make them more attractive, others felt nothing short of a complete reimagining of the system would work in the long term.
1059:
145:
wrote a memo on the topic, suggesting that the cost of logic and memory was going to zero faster than it could be measured.
691:
instruction set, which evolved from John Cocke's RISC machine. The dedicated hardware platform was replaced in 2008 by the
518:
Another way of presenting the same concept was that the entire collection of functions previously implemented as hardware,
334:
saw an opportunity to sell compatible machines without software; the customer could purchase a machine from Amdahl and the
380:
provide a technically sound basis for re-bundling as much as possible of IBM's offerings (hardware, software and services)
1427:
499:
Other instructions were designed to support the internal data structures and operations of programming languages such as
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2180:
1914:
1828:
1489:
1102:
1079:
472:
228:
188:
Among the many developments initially studied under AFS, one concept stood out. At the time, the first systems with
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512:
2270:
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2250:
1787:
550:
60:
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1960:
1950:
1848:
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1919:
1181:
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make obsolete all existing computing equipment, including IBM's, by fully exploiting the newest technologies,
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If IBM followed the suggestions of the HLS report, this would mean that other vendors would have to copy the
883:
2313:
2280:
2275:
1884:
252:
1777:
1669:
750:
665:
based applications to FS was in many cases likely to be greater than the cost of acquiring a new system.
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architectures, proved to be vastly cheaper to implement and capable of achieving much higher clock rate.
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55:
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similar to a hard disk, it appeared a single-level store would no longer have any performance downside.
2148:
2132:
1674:
1629:
1557:
614:
Three implementations of the FS architecture were planned: the top-of-line model was being designed in
117:
1262:
955:
2285:
2066:
1874:
1729:
622:, which had responsibility for the mid-range computers; the model below that was being designed in
320:
Other manufacturers had started to market compatible hardware, mainly peripherals such as tape and
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particular workloads and ran those instructions directly in hardware and implemented the others in
687:
instruction set. In later machines the lower-level instruction set was an extended version of the
678:, which proved to be a good design for ease of programming, but it was woefully underpowered. The
618:, where IBM's largest and fastest computers were built; the next model down was being designed in
79:
moribund, and formally cancelled in February 1975. The single-level store was implemented in the
2127:
1833:
1707:
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need-to-know by the project office. Documents were tracked and could be called back at any time.
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2318:
2158:
1929:
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1447:
562:
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2139:
1765:
1724:
1355:
1994:
1904:
1858:
1853:
1659:
1457:
1402:
1385:
1228:
988:
487:
Another principle was the use of very high-level complex instructions to be implemented in
272:
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diminish greatly the costs and efforts involved in application development and operations,
8:
2168:
2030:
1965:
1770:
1713:
1679:
1151:. This outlines the technical and organizational problems of the FS project in late 1974.
1030:
456:
534:. More than one layer of microcode and code were contemplated, sometimes referred to as
2143:
2118:
2018:
2000:
1664:
1091:
619:
496:
475:(API) to retrieve memory. And those API calls would be based on particular hardware or
399:
197:
134:
102:
39:
212:. The VM system would ensure that the data was synchronized with storage when needed.
137:
would see exponential growth in the number of circuits they supported, today known as
2255:
2202:
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1955:
1879:
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1350:
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974:
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662:
407:
256:
205:
142:
43:
32:
415:, and then read it back in the future. To ease these common operations, a number of
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1988:
1980:
1909:
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1340:
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615:
519:
335:
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911:
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partial answer, limited to the intersection of FS with their field of competence.
511:. In effect, FS was designed to be the ultimate complex instruction set computer (
169:, president of the IBM System Development Division which developed their largest
2163:
2076:
1899:
1838:
1484:
1407:
1277:
1138:
416:
215:
This was seen as a particularly useful concept at the time, as the emergence of
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2081:
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1970:
1924:
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1552:
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1206:
1198:
851:
464:
403:
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271:(CPU) would perform, like "add two numbers" or "compare this number to zero".
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2006:
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1360:
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1250:
1154:
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1005:
714:
460:
432:
296:
216:
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The major objectives of the FS project were consequently stated as follows:
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2024:
2012:
1617:
1612:
1591:
1167:
1148:
280:
166:
130:
68:
623:
2240:
2101:
2071:
1894:
1782:
1506:
1501:
1272:
452:
448:
423:
331:
321:
220:
201:
174:
72:
51:
1823:
1816:
1750:
1496:
1317:
1307:
684:
651:
412:
325:
224:
110:
97:
47:
63:, allowing the system to directly run programs without the need for a
1581:
1574:
1390:
1312:
1302:
675:
570:
539:
527:
523:
488:
476:
364:
347:
261:
170:
80:
231:(APIs) for the same data depending on whether it was loaded or not.
200:. In this concept, all data in the system is treated as if it is in
2197:
1945:
1889:
1654:
1639:
1622:
1467:
1395:
1365:
735:
728:
718:
707:
654:
535:
531:
276:
255:(ISA) would be defined that offered every possible instruction the
64:
1020:"The Library for Systems Solutions Computing Technology Reference"
2207:
1649:
1644:
1586:
1417:
1345:
688:
627:
566:
558:
500:
444:
193:
406:(VM) to cover persistent data. In traditional designs, programs
38:
There were two key components to FS. The first was the use of a
1634:
1607:
1564:
1542:
1462:
679:
451:
with a far slower backing store in the form of a hard drive or
360:
279:
would convert these higher-level abstractions into a series of
50:
to be referred to within a program as if it was data stored in
1255:
696:
504:
251:
The basic concept of the System/360 series was that a single
1479:
1422:
746:
722:
554:
508:
359:
In May–June 1971, an international task force convened in
1190:
1026:
28:
742:, which had been intended for FS input/output processing
738:
mid-range computer, which was based on a CPU called the
196:
project had expanded on this concept as the basis for a
923:
561:
RISC architecture, which eventually evolved into IBM's
27:) was a research and development project undertaken in
1159:
219:
suggested that future systems would not have separate
818:
816:
1072:
Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology
935:
803:
801:
799:
797:
795:
599:
In Sowa's memo (see External Links, below) he noted
75:
and the machine would be able to run that directly.
1090:
813:
828:
792:
780:
768:
431:memory" which is then perhaps sent to some other
2305:
1413:Criminal Reduction Utilising Statistical History
463:, that worked at speeds similar to core but had
71:. One could, for instance, write a program in a
626:, and the smallest model was being designed in
1175:
717:, and some machines that would lead to the
204:, and if the data is physically located on
1182:
1168:
491:. As an example, one of the instructions,
909:
1123:(Interview). Interviewed by Burton Grad.
905:
903:
901:
899:
897:
877:
875:
873:
871:
869:
867:
865:
863:
861:
609:
455:. With the introduction of new forms of
845:
843:
2306:
1089:Pugh, Emerson W.; et al. (1991).
1057:
972:
941:
929:
884:"Fifty Years of Operating IBM Systems"
881:
443:This concept had been explored in the
311:
1548:Center for The Business of Government
1163:
894:
858:
590:
2236:
1111:
1088:
1069:
1003:
990:AS/400 Disk Storage Topics and Tools
910:McPherson, John (25 February 1970).
849:
840:
834:
822:
807:
786:
774:
192:(VM) were emerging, and the seminal
124:
13:
1058:Aspray, Bill (24 September 2000).
953:
398:One design principle of FS was a "
229:application programming interfaces
14:
2335:
1217:PC business acquisition by Lenovo
1128:
1112:Case, Richard (7 December 2006).
473:application programming interface
354:
2246:
2245:
2235:
2226:
2225:
1915:Sabre airline reservation system
1761:Thomas J. Watson Research Center
1029:. pp. 24–25. Archived from
1004:Sowa, John (November 27, 1974).
993:. IBM. April 2000. SG24-5693-00.
745:network enhancements concerning
581:
67:to convert from the language to
61:high-level programming languages
2324:Information technology projects
1428:Information Management Software
1093:IBM'S 360 and Early 370 Systems
1051:
1012:
997:
981:
975:"Overview of IBM Future System"
966:
947:
731:automatic magnetic tape library
2181:International chess tournament
1961:Globally integrated enterprise
1951:Commercial Processing Workload
1155:Overview of IBM Future Systems
1114:"Oral History of Richard Case"
882:Hansen, Bill (11 March 2019).
683:with some similarities to the
640:
576:
393:
1:
1920:Scanning tunneling microscope
1141: (archived June 29, 2016)
756:
402:" which extended the idea of
388:
890:. Vol. 29, no. 15.
761:
482:
253:instruction set architecture
7:
1788:Canada Head Office Building
1778:Cambridge Scientific Center
1670:Science Research Associates
1438:Mainframe operating systems
42:that allows data stored on
10:
2340:
1849:Virtual Universe Community
1570:International subsidiaries
1490:Service Automation Manager
1060:"Gene Amdahl Oral History"
668:
86:
2221:
2110:
2052:
1979:
1938:
1867:
1801:
1697:
1600:
1535:
1526:
1378:
1328:
1243:
1236:
1227:
1197:
1070:Pugh, Emerson W. (1995).
913:Higher Level System (HLS)
852:"Advanced Future Systems"
557:). In the long run, the
1875:Automated teller machine
1829:The Great Mind Challenge
1212:Mergers and acquisitions
493:CreateEncapsulatedModule
1834:Linux Technology Center
1189:
1121:Computer History Museum
269:central processing unit
2159:Dynamic infrastructure
2124:Big Blue sports teams
1930:Universal Product Code
309:
302:The report concluded:
234:
160:
118:recession of 1969–1970
91:
21:Future Systems project
16:1970s research project
2291:Vacuum tube computers
2175:IBM and the Holocaust
2140:Common Public License
2025:Louis V. Gerstner Jr.
1808:Academy of Technology
1263:Power microprocessors
695:platform running the
657:on the same machine.
610:Planned product lines
546:set computer (RISC).
304:
273:Programming languages
1905:Magnetic stripe card
1854:World Community Grid
1730:Toronto Software Lab
1386:Carbon Design System
1341:Cell microprocessors
740:Universal Controller
179:IBM Poughkeepsie Lab
2314:Computing platforms
2169:GUIDE International
2031:Samuel J. Palmisano
1890:Electronic keypunch
1714:One Atlantic Center
1684:Weather Underground
1680:The Weather Company
954:Gillis, Alexander.
919:(Technical report).
850:Sowa, John (2016).
530:, and conventional
457:non-volatile memory
312:Compatible concerns
135:integrated circuits
103:integrated circuits
2271:Personal computers
2261:Midrange computers
2251:Navigational boxes
2144:IBM Public License
2119:A Boy and His Atom
2077:Michelle J. Howard
2019:John Fellows Akers
2001:T. Vincent Learson
1708:1250 René-Lévesque
1448:Planning Analytics
973:Smotherman, Mark.
932:, pp. 27, 28.
699:operating system.
624:Böblingen, Germany
591:Project management
400:single-level store
198:single-level store
40:single-level store
2301:
2300:
2266:Operating systems
2128:American football
2097:Joseph R. Swedish
2092:Martha E. Pollack
1995:Thomas Watson Jr.
1956:Customer engineer
1880:Cynefin framework
1766:Hakozaki Facility
1725:Rome Software Lab
1693:
1692:
1522:
1521:
1475:Rational Software
1374:
1373:
1356:Personal Computer
1351:Midrange computer
693:IBM Power Systems
663:assembly language
495:, was a complete
257:assembly language
239:Evans also asked
206:secondary storage
143:Jerrier A. Haddad
125:Replacing the 370
44:secondary storage
2331:
2249:
2248:
2239:
2238:
2229:
2228:
1989:Thomas J. Watson
1910:Relational model
1859:Think conference
1740:330 North Wabash
1660:Microelectronics
1533:
1532:
1458:Quantum Platform
1403:Cognos Analytics
1241:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1184:
1177:
1170:
1161:
1160:
1145:An internal memo
1124:
1118:
1108:
1096:
1085:
1066:
1064:
1045:
1044:
1042:
1041:
1035:
1024:
1016:
1010:
1009:
1001:
995:
994:
985:
979:
978:
970:
964:
963:
956:"virtual memory"
951:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
920:
918:
907:
892:
891:
888:The Four Hundred
879:
856:
855:
847:
838:
832:
826:
820:
811:
805:
790:
784:
778:
772:
616:Poughkeepsie, NY
520:operating system
494:
417:database engines
336:operating system
2339:
2338:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2304:
2303:
2302:
2297:
2217:
2203:SHARE computing
2164:GlobalFoundries
2106:
2054:
2048:
1975:
1934:
1925:Financial swaps
1900:Hard disk drive
1863:
1797:
1771:Yamato Facility
1689:
1596:
1528:
1518:
1485:Tivoli Software
1370:
1324:
1223:
1193:
1188:
1139:Wayback Machine
1131:
1116:
1105:
1082:
1062:
1054:
1049:
1048:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1002:
998:
987:
986:
982:
971:
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952:
948:
940:
936:
928:
924:
916:
908:
895:
880:
859:
848:
841:
833:
829:
821:
814:
806:
793:
785:
781:
773:
769:
764:
759:
671:
643:
612:
593:
584:
579:
497:linkage editor.
492:
485:
459:, most notably
408:allocate memory
396:
391:
357:
314:
237:
163:
133:predicted that
127:
94:
89:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2337:
2327:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2299:
2298:
2296:
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2294:
2293:
2288:
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2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2243:
2233:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2188:
2186:Lucifer cipher
2183:
2178:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2122:
2114:
2112:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2102:Peter R. Voser
2099:
2094:
2089:
2087:Andrew Liveris
2084:
2082:Arvind Krishna
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2058:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2043:Arvind Krishna
2040:
2034:
2028:
2022:
2016:
2010:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1985:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1871:
1869:
1865:
1864:
1862:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1844:Smarter Planet
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1809:
1805:
1803:
1799:
1798:
1796:
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1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1755:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1736:IBM Buildings
1734:
1733:
1732:
1727:
1721:Software Labs
1719:
1718:
1717:
1711:
1710:, Montreal, QC
1701:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1688:
1687:
1677:
1675:Service Bureau
1672:
1667:
1665:Product Center
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1630:Ambra Computer
1627:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1610:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1584:
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1511:
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1499:
1494:
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1492:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1465:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1433:Lotus Software
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1388:
1382:
1380:
1376:
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1371:
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1300:
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1247:
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1220:
1219:
1209:
1203:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1187:
1186:
1179:
1172:
1164:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1142:
1130:
1129:External links
1127:
1126:
1125:
1109:
1103:
1086:
1080:
1067:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1011:
996:
980:
965:
946:
934:
922:
893:
857:
839:
827:
825:, p. 541.
812:
791:
779:
766:
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
754:
753:
743:
732:
725:
711:
670:
667:
642:
639:
611:
608:
592:
589:
583:
580:
578:
575:
484:
481:
465:memory density
404:virtual memory
395:
392:
390:
387:
382:
381:
378:
375:
356:
355:Future Systems
353:
313:
310:
283:instructions.
241:John McPherson
236:
233:
190:virtual memory
162:
159:
126:
123:
93:
90:
88:
85:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2336:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2319:IBM computers
2317:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
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2065:
2063:
2062:Thomas Buberl
2060:
2059:
2057:
2051:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2037:Ginni Rometty
2035:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2011:
2008:
2007:Frank T. Cary
2005:
2002:
1999:
1996:
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1990:
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1986:
1984:
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1807:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1794:
1793:IBM Rochester
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:, Chicago, IL
1741:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1720:
1716:, Atlanta, GA
1715:
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1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1443:Mashup Center
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
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1333:
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1327:
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1311:
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1304:
1301:
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1294:
1291:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1268:Power Systems
1266:
1264:
1261:
1257:
1254:
1253:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1239:
1235:
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1204:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1192:
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1173:
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1166:
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1156:
1153:
1150:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1122:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1104:0-262-16123-0
1100:
1097:. MIT Press.
1095:
1094:
1087:
1083:
1081:0-262-16147-8
1077:
1074:. MIT Press.
1073:
1068:
1061:
1056:
1055:
1036:on 2011-06-17
1032:
1028:
1021:
1015:
1007:
1000:
992:
991:
984:
976:
969:
961:
957:
950:
944:, p. 32.
943:
938:
931:
926:
915:
914:
906:
904:
902:
900:
898:
889:
885:
878:
876:
874:
872:
870:
868:
866:
864:
862:
853:
846:
844:
837:, p. 58.
836:
831:
824:
819:
817:
810:, p. 57.
809:
804:
802:
800:
798:
796:
789:, p. 54.
788:
783:
777:, p. 47.
776:
771:
767:
752:
748:
744:
741:
737:
733:
730:
726:
724:
721:terminal and
720:
716:
715:laser printer
712:
709:
705:
704:
703:
700:
698:
694:
690:
686:
681:
677:
666:
664:
658:
656:
653:
647:
638:
634:
631:
629:
625:
621:
617:
607:
603:
602:
597:
588:
582:Project start
574:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
547:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
516:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
490:
480:
478:
474:
468:
466:
462:
461:bubble memory
458:
454:
450:
446:
441:
438:
434:
433:backing store
428:
425:
420:
418:
414:
409:
405:
401:
386:
379:
376:
373:
372:
371:
368:
366:
362:
352:
349:
344:
340:
337:
333:
329:
327:
323:
318:
308:
303:
300:
298:
297:command shell
292:
290:
284:
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274:
270:
265:
263:
258:
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246:
242:
232:
230:
226:
222:
218:
217:bubble memory
213:
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84:
82:
76:
74:
70:
66:
62:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
36:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2190:
2173:
2154:Deep Thought
2117:
2045:(since 2020)
2013:John R. Opel
1971:Think slogan
1812:Deep Thunder
1618:Kaleida Labs
1613:AIM alliance
1298:Q System Two
1293:Q System One
1149:John F. Sowa
1120:
1092:
1071:
1065:(Interview).
1052:Bibliography
1038:. Retrieved
1031:the original
1014:
999:
989:
983:
968:
959:
949:
937:
925:
912:
887:
830:
782:
770:
739:
701:
672:
659:
648:
644:
635:
632:
620:Endicott, NY
613:
604:
600:
598:
594:
585:
548:
544:
517:
486:
469:
442:
436:
429:
421:
397:
383:
369:
358:
345:
341:
330:
319:
315:
305:
301:
293:
288:
285:
281:machine code
266:
250:
238:
214:
187:
167:Bob O. Evans
164:
155:
151:
147:
131:Gordon Moore
128:
115:
107:
95:
77:
69:machine code
37:
24:
20:
18:
2286:Typewriters
2192:Mathematica
2133:Rugby union
2072:Alex Gorsky
2039:(2012–2020)
2033:(2002–2011)
2027:(1993–2002)
2021:(1985–1993)
2015:(1981–1985)
2009:(1973–1981)
2003:(1971–1973)
1997:(1956–1971)
1991:(1914–1956)
1939:Terminology
1895:Floppy disk
1839:SkillsBuild
1802:Initiatives
1783:IBM Hursley
1757:Facilities
1408:Connections
1278:FlashSystem
942:Aspray 2000
930:Aspray 2000
641:Project end
628:Hursley, UK
577:Development
549:Meanwhile,
424:main memory
394:Data access
332:Gene Amdahl
322:disk drives
225:disk drives
221:core memory
202:main memory
175:Erich Bloch
139:Moore's Law
73:text editor
52:main memory
48:disk drives
2308:Categories
2281:System/370
2276:System/360
2067:David Farr
1966:e-business
1868:Inventions
1817:Develothon
1698:Facilities
1558:Promontory
1553:Consulting
1040:2010-09-05
1006:"Memo 125"
960:TechTarget
757:References
685:System/360
652:System/370
551:John Cocke
522:software,
413:hard drive
389:Technology
326:anti-trust
289:descriptor
183:Carl Conti
171:mainframes
111:System/370
98:System/360
2149:Deep Blue
2055:directors
1514:WebSphere
1453:PureQuery
1361:Selectric
1336:Blue Gene
1251:Mainframe
835:Case 2006
823:Pugh 1991
808:Case 2006
787:Case 2006
775:Case 2006
762:Citations
713:the 3800
676:System/38
540:millicode
528:microcode
524:data base
489:microcode
483:Processor
477:microcode
365:John Opel
348:microcode
339:operate.
307:enhanced.
277:compilers
262:microcode
243:at IBM's
165:In 1969,
81:System/38
56:variables
2231:Category
2198:IBM Plex
2053:Board of
1946:Big Blue
1746:Honolulu
1655:Merative
1640:EduQuest
1623:Taligent
1592:Research
1529:entities
1527:Business
1468:OpenQASM
1396:Cloudant
1366:ThinkPad
1289:Quantum
1237:Hardware
1229:Products
736:IBM 8100
729:IBM 3850
719:IBM 3279
708:IBM 3081
655:emulator
536:picocode
532:software
210:variable
173:, asked
141:. IBM's
65:compiler
33:hardware
2241:Commons
2208:ScicomP
1751:Seattle
1704:Towers
1650:Lexmark
1645:Kyndryl
1587:Red Hat
1536:Current
1507:Granite
1502:Watsonx
1418:Fortran
1346:PowerPC
1273:Storage
1244:Current
1207:History
1199:History
1137:at the
689:PowerPC
669:Results
567:PowerPC
559:IBM 801
501:FORTRAN
445:Multics
435:by VM,
194:Multics
177:of the
87:History
2213:Unions
1824:Fellow
1635:Cognos
1608:AdStar
1601:Former
1565:Kenexa
1543:Apptio
1497:Watson
1463:Qiskit
1329:Former
1318:Condor
1308:Osprey
1283:DS8000
1101:
1078:
680:AS/400
569:, and
507:, and
363:under
361:Armonk
245:Armonk
2111:Other
1582:Press
1575:India
1391:Cloud
1379:Other
1313:Heron
1303:Eagle
1256:IBM Z
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1063:(PDF)
1034:(PDF)
1023:(PDF)
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571:Power
563:POWER
505:COBOL
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2256:FOSS
1981:CEOs
1885:DRAM
1480:SPSS
1423:ILOG
1099:ISBN
1076:ISBN
749:and
747:VTAM
734:the
727:the
723:GDDM
706:the
555:RISC
513:CISC
509:PL/I
453:drum
449:core
223:and
116:The
96:The
19:The
1191:IBM
1147:by
1027:IBM
751:NCP
538:or
515:).
437:all
235:HLS
161:AFS
92:370
29:IBM
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