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antidepressant medication, antihypertensive medication and medication that can promotes bowel motility), hypothalamic disease(disorder caused by damage in the hypothalamus), idiopathic hyperprolactinemia( no recognized cause are present since there is no pituitary or central nervous disease present), macroprolactin (complex form of prolactin in the blood), or prolactinoma (non-cancerous hormone in the pituitary gland). Because there are so many underlying factors, in order to provide the proper management of hyperprolactinemia, the pathological form and physiological increase in prolactin levels are differentiated, and the correct cause of hyperprolactinemia must be identified before treatment. There are two types of functional hyperprolactinemia: symptomatic and asymptomatic. For functional asymptomatic hyperprolactinemia, the treatment of choice is removing the associated cause, including antipsychotic therapy. However, prolactin levels should be drawn and monitored both prior to any discontinuation or changes to therapy, and afterwards. In contrast to functional asymptomatic hyperprolactinemia, the treatment for functional symptomatic hyperprolactinemia is different since stopping antipsychotic drugs for a short trial period is not recommended due to the risk of exacerbation or relapse of symptoms. A systemic review and meta analysis review has shown options for treatment of hyperprolactinemia in people with psychotic disorder include decreasing the dose of antipsychotics, adding aripiprazole as an adjunctive therapy, and switching antipsychotics as a last resort. On the other hand, the treatment of hyperprolactinemia in children and adolescents with antipsychotic medications has been studied to provide guidelines, as these medications may adversely affect child growth and development. Results have shown that aripiprazole significantly decreases prolactin levels compared to other medications such as olanzapine and risperidone, which result in increased prolactin levels. Pharmacologic hyperprolactinemia, the concerning drug can be switched to another treatment or discontinued entirely.
1131:(CT scan) is another indicator of abnormalities in pituitary gland size; it also gives an image of the pituitary, but is less sensitive than the MRI. In addition to assessing the size of the pituitary tumor, physicians also look for damage to surrounding tissues, and perform tests to assess whether production of other pituitary hormones are normal. Depending on the size of the tumor, physicians may request an eye exam that includes the measurement of visual fields. In the rare cases that other causes of hyperprolactinaemia, such as surgery, medication usage, renal and hepatic diseases, and seizures, are ruled out and no evidence of existing adenomas, the hyperprolactinaemia is considered as "idiopathic". When the cause of hyperprolactinaemia is concluded as idiopathic, standard of care is given to patients and an MRI is expected to be repeated in 6-12 months. In diagnosing hyperprolactinaemia in men, some physical signs may indicate the onset of the condition. Increased prolactin can have an effect of the inhibition of GnRH secretion which is responsible for libido, and the releases of FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone), LH (Luteinizing hormone), and testosterone. FSH in men is responsible to stimulate sperm production and LH is responsible for the stimulation of testosterone; with the inhibition of GnRH, FSH, and LH, physical signs that show in men include reduced sex drive and infertility, these symptoms suggests the onset of hyperprolactinaemia.
1178:(often preferred when pregnancy is possible), are the treatment of choice used to decrease prolactin levels and tumor size upon the presence of microadenomas or macroadenomas. A systematic review and meta-analysis has shown that cabergoline and quinagolide are more effective in the treatment of hyperprolactinemia compared to bromocriptine, this is because evidence had suggested fewer side effects, rapid titration and offers better dosing interval in medication like quinagolide compared to bromocriptine. Similar studies have been conducted regarding the safety and efficacy of dopamine agonists. According to SUCRA (Surface Under the Cumulative Ranking) and SMAA (Stochastic Multicriteria Acceptability Analysis), quinagolide was found to be the best treatment for women since it can help reduce menstrual irregularities, in addition bromocriptine was shown to be more effective in the treatment for galactorrhea (breast milk production unrelated to pregnancy), and cabergoline was the safest medication as it did not show any alarming side effects.Other dopamine agonists that have been used less commonly to suppress prolactin include
1143:
and ruled out. However, in patients with abnormally high levels of serum prolactin, false negative results that indicates a low level of prolactin may occur; this occurrence is due to a phenomenon called the "Hook effect". Antigen tests such as the pregnancy test shows positive line via the formation of a sandwich immune complex that allows the positive line to be visible, in the occurrence of Hook Effect, large amounts of analyte exists in the solution which saturates the antibodies, preventing normal binding and formation of the sandwich immune complex therefore showing a weak positive line. In the case of diagnosing hyperprolactinaemia, a weak positive line can often lead to a false negative result and increase the risk of misdiagnosis of the condition or a potential pituitary adenomas. If Hook Effect is suspected in the patient diagnosis, serial dilution of the analyte until the concentration of prolactin falls within the assay's analytical measurements is suggested. Ruling out the possibilities of false negative is important to ensure patients receive necessary care for their conditions.
1202:. If the prolactinoma does not initially respond to dopamine agonist therapy, such that prolactin levels are still high or the tumor is not shrinking as expected, the dose of the dopamine agonist can be increased in a stepwise fashion to the maximum tolerated dose. Another option is to consider switching between dopamine agonists. It is possible for the prolactinoma to be resistant to bromocriptine but respond well to cabergoline or other dopamine agonist and vice versa. It is crucial for people undergoing treatment with dopamine agonists to adhere to their medication and not stop it unless instructed by their medical provider. Meta-analysis and systematic reviews have shown that in many patients, hyperprolactinemia reemerges after withdrawal of the medication. For successful treatment with cabergoline, a duration of at least two years is recommended.
1096:
as an indicator of the etiology of the hyperprolactinemia diagnosis. Prolactin levels over 250 ng/mL may suggest prolactinoma. Prolactin levels less than 100 ng/mL may suggest drug-induced hyperprolactinemia, macroprolactinemia, nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas, or systemic disorders. Prolactin levels over 500ng/mL usually indicates the presence of macroprolactinoma, however, in patients with elevated serum prolactin ( >250ng/mL) without evidence of prolactinoma, some medications such as metoclopramide, a dopamine receptor antagonist, can result in elevation of prolactin ( >200ng/mL) in patients with no evidence of pituitary adenomas. In patients with mildly elevated serum prolactin levels, secondary causes such as pituitary adenomas can be ruled out
1111:, and in men with impaired sexual function and milk secretion. If high prolactin levels are present, all known conditions and medications which raises prolactin secretion must be assessed and excluded for diagnosis. After ruling out other causes and prolactin levels remain high, TSH levels are assessed. If TSH levels are elevated, hyperprolactinemia is secondary to hypothyroidism and treated accordingly. If TSH levels are normal, an MRI or CT scan is conducted to assess for any pituitary adenomas. Although hyperprolactinemia is often uncommon in postmenopausal women, prolactinomas detected after menopause are typically
878:, and exercise. During pregnancy, prolactin increases can range up to 600 ng/mL, depending on estrogen and progesterone concentrations. After delivery, progesterone concentrations decrease, and prolactin levels drop. Only during nipple stimulation will prolactin levels rise, allowing for milk production. At 6 weeks post-birth (postpartum), estradiol concentrations decrease, and prolactin concentrations return to normal even during breastfeeding. Fluctuations in prolactin levels during menstrual cycles and menopause are inconclusive.
344:), a condition that is not always associated with high prolactin levels. For instance, many pre-menopausal women experiencing hyperprolactinemia do not experience galactorrhea and only some women who experience galactorrhea will be diagnosed with hyperprolactinemia. Thus, galactorrhea may be observed in individuals with normal prolactin levels and does not necessarily indicate hyperprolactinemia. This phenomenon is likely due to galactorrhea requiring adequate levels of
27:
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breastfeeding, prolactin suppresses gonadotropin secretion, potentially delaying ovulation. Ovulation may resume before the return of menstruation during this time. Although hyperprolactinemia can result from normal physiological changes during pregnancy and breastfeeding, it can also be caused by other etiologies. For example, high prolactin levels could result from diseases affecting the
889:, and surgery. While both aerobic and anaerobic activity increases prolactin, anaerobic activity has a greater effect. Coitus can also contribute to an increased prolactin release. Prolactin serum concentrations increase during nocturnal sleep, and increase transiently during daytime naps. After waking, prolactin levels return to daytime levels within 60-90 minutes.
252:(IGF-1), and hormones from the placenta, prolactin stimulates the proliferation of breast alveolar elements during pregnancy. However, lactation is inhibited during pregnancy due to elevated estrogen levels. After childbirth, the rapid decline in estrogen and progesterone levels allows lactation to begin.
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to form complexes. Although this can result in high prolactin levels in some assay tests, macroprolactin is biologically inactive and will not cause symptoms typical of hyperprolactinemia. In those who are asymptomatic or without obvious causes of hyperprolactinemia, macroprolactin should be assessed
1095:
The most common causes of hyperprolactinemia are prolactinomas, drug-induced hyperprolactinemia, and macroprolactinemia. Individuals with hyperprolactinemia may present with symptoms including galactorrhea, hypogonadism effects, and/or infertility. The magnitude that prolactin is elevated can be used
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Men often present late in the course of hyperprolactinemia, typically symptoms are related to the expansion of their pituitary tumor, such as headaches, visual defects, and external opthalmoplegia, or symptoms from secondary adrenal or thyroid failure. Despite experiencing sexual impairment for many
383:
changes, to prompt immediate medical consultation. As a result, the early signs of hyperprolactinemia are generally more difficult to detect and may go unnoticed until more severe symptoms are present. For instance, symptoms such as loss of libido and sexual dysfunction are subtle, arise gradually,
1205:
Surgical therapy can be considered if pharmacologic options have been exhausted.There is evidence to support improvement in outcomes in hyperprolactinemic patients who have shown to be resistant to or intolerant to the most effective treatment with dopamine agonists, on those patients radiotherapy
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Although some studies have tried to explain the consequences of untreated hyperprolactinemia, there are limited studies available. However, it has been shown that some consequences can lead to osteoporosis (low bone mass), increasing the risk of fracture. Further analysis might determine whether
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An appropriate diagnosis of hyperprolactinemia starts with conducting a complete clinical history before performing any treatment. Physiological causes, systemic disorders, and the use of certain drugs must be ruled out before the condition is diagnosed. Screening is indicated for those who are
255:
Unlike most tropic hormones released by the anterior pituitary gland, prolactin secretion is primarily regulated by hypothalamic inhibition rather than by negative feedback from peripheral hormones. Prolactin also self-regulates through a counter-current flow in the hypophyseal pituitary portal
332:. While mild hyperprolactinemia may not always result in menstrual disorders, it is uncommon for women to have normal menstrual cycles if their serum prolactin levels exceed 180 ng/ml (3,600 mU/L). In such cases, irregular menstrual flow may result in abnormally heavy and prolonged bleeding (
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The treatment for hyperprolactinemia is usually dependent upon its cause. There are many underlying factor that can cause hyperprolactinemia, some of them are hypothyroidism (disorder in which thyroid glands has a reduced thyroid hormone production), drug-induced hyperprolactinemia (such as
263:
Estrogen promotes the growth of pituitary lactotroph cells, particularly during pregnancy. However, lactation is hindered by the elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone during this period. The rapid decline in estrogen and progesterone after childbirth enables lactation to begin. While
3388:
Labad J, Montalvo I, González-Rodríguez A, García-Rizo C, Crespo-Facorro B, Monreal JA, et al. (August 2020). "Pharmacological treatment strategies for lowering prolactin in people with a psychotic disorder and hyperprolactinaemia: A systematic review and meta-analysis".
901:, which binds to dopamine receptors. Drugs that block the effects of dopamine at the pituitary or deplete dopamine stores in the brain may cause the pituitary to secrete excess prolactin without an inhibitory effect. These drugs include the
283:
is the most common culprit of consistently high levels of prolactin as well as the most common type of pituitary tumor. For non-tumor related hyperprolactinemia, the most common cause is medication-induced prolactin secretion. Particularly,
460:(TRH), stimulate prolactin secretion. As a result, hyperprolactinemia may be caused by disinhibition (e.g., compression of the pituitary stalk or reduced dopamine levels) or excess production. The most common cause of hyperprolactinemia is
400:
of prolactinomas differs between men and women. Unlike women, who most commonly have microprolactinomas, men usually present with macroprolactinomas, and their serum prolactin levels are generally much higher than those observed in women.
1045:. However, the link between erectile dysfunction and prolactin levels are not conclusive. When prolactin levels return to normal in these individuals, sexual desire fully recovers; however, erectile dysfunction only partially recovers.
272:. Other organs, such as the liver and kidneys, could affect prolactin clearance and consequently, prolactin levels in the serum. The disruption of prolactin regulation could also be attributed to external sources such as medications.
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It is well known that estrogen stimulates prolactin secretion by upregulating the formation of lactotrophs. However, there is mixed evidence whether estrogen-containing oral contraceptives significantly increases prolactin levels.
1158:
extract may be tried in cases of mild hyperprolactinemia. No treatment is required in asymptomatic macroprolactin and instead, serial prolactin measurements and pituitary imaging is monitored in a regular follow-up appointments.
3799:
Di Sarno A, Landi ML, Marzullo P, Di Somma C, Pivonello R, Cerbone G, et al. (July 2000). "The effect of quinagolide and cabergoline, two selective dopamine receptor type 2 agonists, in the treatment of prolactinomas".
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dos Santos Nunes V, El Dib R, Boguszewski CL, Nogueira CR (September 2011). "Cabergoline versus bromocriptine in the treatment of hyperprolactinemia: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials and meta-analysis".
981:
for transgender women that includes estrogen and antiandrogens have shown to increase prolactin levels, but it is unclear whether the cause is due to the estrogen or antiandrogen therapy. The melatonin receptor agonist
1505:"Treating symptomatic hyperprolactinemia in women with schizophrenia: presentation of the ongoing DAAMSEL clinical trial (Dopamine partial Agonist, Aripiprazole, for the Management of Symptomatic ELevated prolactin)"
197:
average to about 13 ng/mL, while in men, they average 5 ng/mL. The upper normal limit of serum prolactin is typically between 15 to 25 ng/mL for both genders. Levels exceeding this range indicate hyperprolactinemia.
1051:
may induce transient hyperprolactinemia (neurogenic hyperprolactinemia) of about three weeks' duration; conversely, hyperprolactinemia may contribute to nonpuerperal mastitis. Some inflammatory conditions, such as
4008:
3993:
2502:
Baumgartner A, Gräf KJ, Kürten I (July 1988). "Prolactin in patients with major depressive disorder and in healthy subjects. II. Longitudinal study of basal prolactin and post-TRH-stimulated prolactin levels".
440:(BMD) serves as an "end organ" marker, reflecting the full extent of the disease. It could potentially become a surrogate marker for the severity of long-term hyperprolactinemia and associated hypogonadism.
1409:
Melmed S, Casanueva FF, Hoffman AR, Kleinberg DL, Montori VM, Schlechte JA, et al. (February 2011). "Diagnosis and treatment of hyperprolactinemia: an
Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline".
472:. Prolactin blood levels are typically correlated to the size of the tumors. Pituitary tumors smaller than 10 mm in diameter, or microadenomas, tend to have prolactin levels <200 ng/mL.
2923:
Wang YQ, Wen Y, Wang MM, Zhang YW, Fang ZX (January 2021). "Prolactin levels as a criterion to differentiate between psychogenic non-epileptic seizures and epileptic seizures: A systematic review".
468:). A blood serum prolactin level of 1000–5000 mIU/L (47–235 ng/mL) may arise from either mechanism, however levels >5000 mIU/L (>235 ng/mL) is likely due to the activity of an
3626:
Colao A, Di Sarno A, Guerra E, De Leo M, Mentone A, Lombardi G (April 2006). "Drug insight: Cabergoline and bromocriptine in the treatment of hyperprolactinemia in men and women".
3498:
Kilicdag EB, Tarim E, Bagis T, Erkanli S, Aslan E, Ozsahin K, et al. (June 2004). "Fructus agni casti and bromocriptine for treatment of hyperprolactinemia and mastalgia".
1729:
De Rosa M, Zarrilli S, Di Sarno A, Milano N, Gaccione M, Boggia B, et al. (2003). "Hyperprolactinemia in men: clinical and biochemical features and response to treatment".
2595:
Richardson G, Wang-Weigand S (March 2009). "Effects of long-term exposure to ramelteon, a melatonin receptor agonist, on endocrine function in adults with chronic insomnia".
2718:"Circadian rhythms of prolactin and thyroid-stimulating hormone during the menstrual cycle and early versus late sleep deprivation in premenstrual dysphoric disorder"
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In the general population, the prevalence of hyperprolactinemia is 0.4%. The prevalence increases to as high as 17% in women with reproductive diseases, such as
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of the bones surrounding the pituitary may reveal the presence of a large macroadenoma, small microadenomas will not be apparent. Magnetic resonance imaging (
1138:, otherwise known as 'big prolactin' or 'big-big prolactin', in the serum. Macroprolactin occurs when prolactin polymerizes together and can bind with
37:
388:–associated hyperprolactinemia may forego clinical help until they begin to experience serious endocrine and vision complications, such as major
3937:"Osteoporotic fractures in patients with untreated hyperprolactinemia vs. those taking dopamine agonists: A systematic review and meta-analysis"
4155:
1219:
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have been linked to a majority of non-tumor related hyperprolactinemia cases due to their prolactin-rising and prolactin-sparing mechanisms.
1857:
Ciccarelli A, Guerra E, De Rosa M, Milone F, Zarrilli S, Lombardi G, et al. (January 2005). "PRL secreting adenomas in male patients".
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years before receiving a diagnosis, it is unclear whether macroplactinomas are more commonly seen in men due to delayed diagnosis or if the
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Naidoo U, Goff DC, Klibanski A (April 2003). "Hyperprolactinemia and bone mineral density: the potential impact of antipsychotic agents".
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973:, while an atypical antipsychotic, lowers prolactin levels as it is contains both agonistic and antagonistic dopamine-receptor activity.
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and block the flow of dopamine from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland, causing prolactin levels to increase. Other causes include
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1026:. Hyperprolactinemia develops in one-third of individuals with chronic kidney disease due to impaired renal clearance and regulation.
98:
1976:"Persistent bone impairment despite long-term control of hyperprolactinemia and hypogonadism in men and women with prolactinomas"
194:
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Critchley HO, Maybin JA, Armstrong GM, Williams AR (July 2020). "Physiology of the
Endometrium and Regulation of Menstruation".
70:
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population like high-risk men or post-menopausal women with no other indication for treatment should be on dopamine agonists.
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and breast pain, particularly when prolactin levels rise initially, as the hormone promotes tissue changes in the breast.
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Capozzi A, Scambia G, Pontecorvi A, Lello S (July 2015). "Hyperprolactinemia: pathophysiology and therapeutic approach".
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carry the highest potential to induce hyperprolactinemia in a dose-dependent manner similar to typical antipsychotics.
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Prolactin secretion is regulated by both stimulatory and inhibitory mechanisms. Dopamine acts on pituitary lactotroph
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1038:
84:
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have been shown to induce significant, dose-dependent increases in prolactin levels up to 10-fold the normal limit.
56:
2847:"Increased plasma/serum levels of prolactin in systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
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system, which triggers the release of hypothalamic dopamine. This process also inhibits the pulsatile secretion of
436:. The prevalence of bone impairment is significantly higher in men with prolactinomas compared to women. Impaired
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66:
2548:"Effects of antiandrogens on prolactin levels among transgender women on estrogen therapy: A systematic review"
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3888:"Recurrence of Hyperprolactinemia after Withdrawal of Dopamine Agonists: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
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and breast development. Hyperprolactinemia, characterized by abnormally high levels of prolactin, may cause
4617:
3760:"Efficacy and safety in the treatment of hyperprolactinemia: A systematic review and network meta‐analysis"
2681:
Porter N, Beynon HL, Randeva HS (August 2003). "Endocrine and reproductive manifestations of sarcoidosis".
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260:(GnRH), thereby negatively influencing the secretion of pituitary hormones that regulate gonadal function.
249:
3723:
Barlier A, Jaquet P (February 2006). "Quinagolide--a valuable treatment option for hyperprolactinaemia".
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Elevated prolactin blood levels are typically assessed in women with unexplained breast milk secretion (
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4083:
3092:"Hyperprolactinemia/Prolactinomas in the Postmenopausal Period: Challenges in Diagnosis and Management"
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2886:"Circulating levels of prolactin are elevated in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis"
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2118:"Clinical inquiries. What is the recommended evaluation and treatment for elevated serum prolactin?"
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Prolactin secretion in the pituitary lactrotroph cells is normally suppressed by the brain chemical
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4362:
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4023:
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Verhelst J, Abs R, Maiter D, van den Bruel A, Vandeweghe M, Velkeniers B, et al. (July 1999).
3426:"A Meta-Analysis of Antipsychotic-Induced Hypo- and Hyperprolactinemia in Children and Adolescents"
978:
875:
609:
559:
333:
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Mann WA (March 2011). "Treatment for prolactinomas and hyperprolactinaemia: a lifetime approach".
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appears to be also correlated with elevated prolactin levels. In men, hyperprolactinemia leads to
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Medical therapy is the preferred treatment in prolactinomas. In most cases, medications that are
91:
41:
2810:
Peters F, Schuth W (March 1989). "Hyperprolactinemia and nonpuerperal mastitis (duct ectasia)".
1503:
Kelly DL, Wehring HJ, Earl AK, Sullivan KM, Dickerson FB, Feldman S, et al. (August 2013).
404:
Long-term hyperprolactinaemia can lead to detrimental changes in bone metabolism as a result of
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2765:"Hyperprolactinemia and male sexual function: focus on erectile dysfunction and sexual desire"
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vary in their ability to elevate prolactin levels, however, medications in this class such as
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and other tumors arising near the pituitary. These adjacent tumors, such as those that cause
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Corona G, Rastrelli G, Bianchi N, Sparano C, Sforza A, Vignozzi L, et al. (June 2024).
1079:. Shortly after epileptic seizures, prolactin levels often rise, whereas they are normal in
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scans may be repeated periodically to assess tumor progression and the effects of therapy.
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Buvat J (October 2003). "Hyperprolactinemia and sexual function in men: a short review".
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In many people, elevated prolactin levels remain unexplained and may represent a form of
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di
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1123:) is the most sensitive test for detecting pituitary tumors and determining their size.
379:. Unlike women, men do not experience reliable indicators of elevated prolactin such as
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Prolactin is crucial for milk production during pregnancy and lactation. Together with
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Wang AT, Mullan RJ, Lane MA, Hazem A, Prasad C, Gathaiya NW, et al. (July 2012).
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to prepare the breast tissue. Additionally, some women may also experience loss of
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also increases the risk of hyperprolactinemia, however, the mechanism is unclear.
412:. Studies have shown that chronically elevated prolactin levels lead to increased
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Wilson LM, Baker KE, Sharma R, Dukhanin V, McArthur K, Robinson KA (2020-10-10).
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722:
681:
662:
336:). Women who are not pregnant or nursing may also unexpectedly begin producing
329:
285:
4039:
4002:
3596:
3476:
3262:
2294:
1870:
1134:
However, a high measurement of prolactin may also result from the presence of
4606:
4455:
3952:
3921:
3785:
3543:"Cabergoline in the treatment of hyperprolactinemia: a study in 455 patients"
3449:
3270:
3213:
3204:
3058:
2909:
2870:
2788:
2741:
2648:
2398:
2347:
2302:
1521:
1343:
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914:
906:
867:
798:
744:
545:
174:
3936:
3153:
2967:
2317:
2117:
1792:
1092:
asymptomatic and those with elevated prolactin without an associated cause.
4563:
4382:
4176:
3960:
3864:
3821:
3758:
Fachi MM, Deus Bueno L, Oliveira DC, Silva LL, Bonetti AF (December 2021).
3744:
3709:
3690:
3647:
3604:
3568:
3559:
3542:
3519:
3484:
3410:
3331:
3231:
3172:
3117:
3076:
3024:
2983:
2944:
2796:
2702:
2694:
2667:
2616:
2581:
2488:
2447:
2355:
2257:
2230:
2211:
2171:
2133:
2102:
2044:
2017:
1952:
1913:
1878:
1843:
1800:
1750:
1686:
Sakiyama R, Quan M (December 1983). "Galactorrhea and hyperprolactinemia".
1666:
1628:
1585:
1540:
1489:
1431:
1362:
1270:
1100:
1067:, prolactin levels are often checked by physicians in those who have had a
995:
970:
962:
942:
930:
882:
855:
730:
691:
652:
594:
507:
484:
461:
437:
429:
425:
417:
397:
380:
376:
345:
341:
321:
301:
280:
265:
245:
226:
218:
3639:
3441:
3387:
2845:
Wang P, Lv TT, Guan SY, Li HM, Leng RX, Zou YF, et al. (2017-01-02).
2831:
2749:
2717:
2524:
2406:
2378:
2195:"Stress-Induced Hyperprolactinemia: Pathophysiology and Clinical Approach"
1707:
476:
larger than 10 mm in diameter possess prolactin >1000 ng/mL.
456:
to inhibit prolactin secretion while other peptides and hormones, such as
4559:
4532:
4524:
4513:
4479:
4471:
4459:
4444:
3903:
3581:
3312:
1423:
1191:
1171:
1167:
1108:
1023:
950:
926:
918:
739:
717:
503:
372:
337:
317:
297:
230:
3985:
3736:
3674:"Treatment of hyperprolactinemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
2884:
Wu Q, Dan YL, Zhao CN, Mao YM, Liu LN, Li XM, et al. (2019-02-17).
4581:
4577:
4463:
4129:
3776:
1470:
999:
954:
812:
788:
784:
657:
617:
589:
433:
325:
312:
In women, high blood levels of prolactin are typically associated with
55:
if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and
3912:
3108:
3091:
2422:"Paliperidone: the evidence of its therapeutic value in schizophrenia"
2093:
2076:
4553:
4543:
4483:
4475:
4372:
4058:
2318:"Anatomy and Physiology of the Breast during Pregnancy and Lactation"
1199:
1195:
983:
958:
863:
859:
832:
822:
802:
769:
686:
540:
535:
389:
359:
In men, the most common symptoms of hyperprolactinemia are decreased
214:
190:
162:
4075:
2608:
4549:
4494:
4467:
1187:
1183:
898:
421:
349:
241:
221:(production and spontaneous flow of breast milk), infertility, and
3247:"Hyperprolactinaemia in male infertility: Clinical case scenarios"
4451:
4349:
2968:"[Current diagnosis and treatment of hyperprolactinemia]"
1068:
1060:, are also linked to higher prolactin levels in certain regions.
776:
469:
428:. In men, the chronic presence of hyperprolactinemia can lead to
1553:
154:
3997:
3423:
1408:
1104:
360:
353:
3540:
3424:
Krøigaard SM, Clemmensen L, Tarp S, Pagsberg AK (2022-09-01).
3353:(Eighth ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. pp. 58–74.e8.
510:). This is the cause of many of the symptoms described below.
3798:
2762:
2149:
2077:"Pitfalls in the Diagnostic Evaluation of Hyperprolactinemia"
1891:
1856:
1728:
1116:
500:
3934:
3757:
3089:
189:) is a condition characterized by abnormally high levels of
3885:
3296:"False Negative Urine Pregnancy Test: Hook Effect Revealed"
3347:"Chapter 3 - Prolactin and Its Role in Human Reproduction"
1657:. In Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Blackman MR, Boyce A (eds.).
384:
and may falsely indicate a different cause. Many men with
3625:
3497:
3040:
2545:
1973:
1139:
1124:
1120:
837:
3628:
Nature
Clinical Practice. Endocrinology & Metabolism
3293:
2965:
2715:
1502:
1451:
3043:"PCOS and Hyperprolactinemia: what do we know in 2019?"
2972:
Revista Medica del
Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social
2192:
3892:
The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
3463:
Glezer A, Bronstein MD (March 2015). "Prolactinomas".
2594:
2243:
2115:
3465:
Endocrinology and
Metabolism Clinics of North America
2501:
2322:
Diseases of the Breast during
Pregnancy and Lactation
2074:
858:) causes that can increase prolactin levels include:
3975:
3547:
The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
1452:
Samperi I, Lithgow K, Karavitaki N (December 2019).
1412:
The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
3671:
3500:
International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics
2680:
2315:
1934:
3430:Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology
2997:Serri O, Chik CL, Ur E, Ezzat S (September 2003).
2632:"Multiple Pituitary Adenomas: A Systematic Review"
1821:
881:Stress-related factors include physical exercise,
416:and suppress bone formation, resulting in reduced
324:. Menstruation disturbances commonly manifests as
4368:Placental growth hormone (growth hormone variant)
4337:
3684:. Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (UK): 33.
3294:Priyadarshini S, Manas F, Prabhu S (March 2022).
2419:
2116:Jackson J, Safranek S, Daugird A (October 2005).
1577:20.500.11820/36236a4e-a35e-4818-abe3-5d8b278c66f8
941:and medication-induced nausea (such as that from
4604:
3935:D'Sylva C, Khan T, Van Uum S, Fraser LA (2015).
3041:Delcour C, Robin G, Young J, Dewailly D (2019).
2999:"Diagnosis and management of hyperprolactinemia"
2996:
2922:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
279:. In cases of tumor-related hyperprolactinemia,
3462:
3344:
3090:Pekić S, Medic Stojanoska M, Popovic V (2019).
3047:Clinical Medicine Insights. Reproductive Health
3036:
3034:
2276:
2252:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.
2145:
2143:
2039:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.
2030:
1885:
1652:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1265:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.
3842:
3185:
3145:Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism
2629:
2463:"Pharmacological causes of hyperprolactinemia"
2075:Vilar L, Vilar CF, Lyra R, Freitas MD (2019).
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1324:
1071:, when there is need to differentiate between
51:Please review the contents of the article and
4323:
4091:
3764:Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics
3722:
3138:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1648:
1646:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1063:Apart from diagnosing hyperprolactinemia and
479:Hyperprolactinemia inhibits the secretion of
225:disruptions in women. In men, it can lead to
3836:
3792:
3667:
3665:
3619:
3534:
3244:
3031:
2883:
2844:
2809:
2460:
2140:
1685:
1283:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
3575:
3141:"Imaging of the pituitary: Recent advances"
2803:
2769:International Journal of Impotence Research
2552:International Journal of Transgender Health
1781:International Journal of Impotence Research
1438:
1256:
1033:may have mildly elevated prolactin levels.
4330:
4316:
4098:
4084:
3351:Yen and Jaffe's Reproductive Endocrinology
2454:
2244:Al-Chalabi M, Bass AN, Alsalman I (2024).
2070:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
1765:
1643:
1609:European Journal of Clinical Investigation
1369:
153:
3911:
3775:
3699:
3689:
3662:
3558:
3321:
3311:
3278:
3221:
3203:
3162:
3152:
3107:
3066:
3014:
2657:
2647:
2571:
2478:
2467:Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management
2437:
2376:
2220:
2210:
2092:
2007:
1661:. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.
1575:
1530:
1520:
1479:
1469:
1352:
1342:
1237:
994:A common cause for hyperprolactinemia is
3186:Majumdar A, Mangal NS (September 2013).
809:Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
487:, which in turn inhibits the release of
16:Excess of prolactin hormone in the blood
2316:Alex A, Bhandary E, McGuire KP (2020).
2199:Obstetrics and Gynecology International
2057:
849:
4605:
3192:Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences
3139:Chaudhary V, Bano S (September 2011).
2193:Levine S, Muneyyirci-Delale O (2018).
1688:Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey
1331:Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences
4311:
4105:
4079:
3345:Tritos NA, Klibanski A (2019-01-01).
2630:Budan RM, Georgescu CE (2016-02-01).
2420:Kantrowitz J, Citrome L (July 2008).
1778:
1220:Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
307:
3349:. In Strauss JF, Barbieri R (eds.).
2461:Torre DL, Falorni A (October 2007).
2379:"The effect of seizures on hormones"
1606:
989:
20:
2277:Chahal J, Schlechte J (June 2008).
1325:Majumdar A, Mangal NS (July 2013).
571:Hypothalamic-pituitary stalk damage
515:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
13:
4216:Isolated growth hormone deficiency
3845:Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology
3359:10.1016/B978-0-323-47912-7.00003-2
3245:Dabbous Z, Atkin SL (March 2018).
3147:. 15 Suppl 3 (Suppl3): S216–S223.
2391:10.1111/j.1528-1157.1991.tb05892.x
14:
4634:
3971:
3725:European Journal of Endocrinology
3857:10.1097/00003081-200306000-00013
3814:10.1046/j.1365-2265.2000.01016.x
2937:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2020.106508
2824:10.1001/jama.1989.03420110094030
1939:. 28 Suppl 2 (Suppl 2): 97–108.
1700:10.1097/00006254-198312000-00001
1621:10.1111/j.1365-2362.2010.02399.x
1206:and surgery are an alternative.
117:
25:
4230:Secondary adrenal insufficiency
3928:
3879:
3751:
3716:
3491:
3456:
3417:
3381:
3338:
3287:
3238:
3179:
3132:
3083:
2990:
2959:
2916:
2877:
2838:
2756:
2709:
2674:
2623:
2588:
2539:
2495:
2413:
2370:
2309:
2270:
2237:
2186:
2109:
2031:Yatavelli RK, Bhusal K (2021).
2024:
1967:
1928:
1850:
1815:
1722:
1653:Glezer A, Bronstein MD (2000).
1035:Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
2122:The Journal of Family Practice
1679:
1600:
1547:
1496:
1002:, can physically compress the
892:
756:Dopamine synthesis inhibitors
614:Adenoma with stalk compression
481:gonadotropin-releasing hormone
369:erectile dysfunction/impotence
258:gonadotropin-releasing hormone
53:add the appropriate references
1:
4588:Vasoactive intestinal peptide
4570:Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
4140:Pituitary ACTH hypersecretion
2902:10.1080/00325481.2019.1559430
2863:10.1080/00325481.2017.1241130
2564:10.1080/15532739.2020.1819505
2164:10.3109/09513590.2015.1017810
1945:10.1016/s0306-4530(02)00129-4
1230:
458:thyrotropin releasing hormone
4613:Gynaecological endocrinology
3403:10.1016/j.schres.2020.04.031
2734:10.1016/0165-1781(96)02905-8
2517:10.1016/0006-3223(88)90196-5
1458:Journal of Clinical Medicine
1146:
1086:
1058:systemic lupus erythematosus
523:Causes of hyperprolactinemia
489:follicle-stimulating hormone
250:insulin-like growth factor-1
7:
3941:Neuro Endocrinology Letters
2330:10.1007/978-3-030-41596-9_1
2152:Gynecological Endocrinology
1213:
710:Dopamine receptor blockers
705:Drug-induced hypersecretion
213:. It plays a vital role in
38:reliable medical references
10:
4639:
4259:Central diabetes insipidus
3512:10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.01.001
2781:10.1038/s41443-023-00717-1
2636:Frontiers in Endocrinology
2000:10.1038/s41598-021-84606-x
1906:10.1007/s11102-020-01041-3
1836:10.1007/s11102-019-01009-y
1568:10.1152/physrev.00031.2019
1257:Thapa S, Bhusal K (2021).
795:Tricyclic antidepressants
585:Suprasellar pituitary mass
530:Physiologic hypersecretion
499:and results in diminished
4504:
4435:
4424:
4391:
4348:
4265:
4253:
4211:Growth hormone deficiency
4198:
4189:
4164:
4148:
4122:
4113:
4049:
3979:
3597:10.1007/s11102-010-0290-z
3477:10.1016/j.ecl.2014.11.003
3263:10.1016/j.aju.2017.10.002
2295:10.1007/s11102-008-0107-5
1871:10.1007/s11102-005-5084-3
1031:polycystic ovary syndrome
854:Physiological (i.e., non-
819:Calcium channel blockers
443:
277:polycystic ovary syndrome
168:
161:
152:
138:
133:
44:or relies too heavily on
4363:Human placental lactogen
4288:Lymphocytic hypophysitis
3205:10.4103/0974-1208.121400
3059:10.1177/1179558119871921
2649:10.3389/fendo.2016.00001
2597:Human Psychopharmacology
1937:Psychoneuroendocrinology
1522:10.1186/1471-244X-13-214
1344:10.4103/0974-1208.121400
1039:hypoactive sexual desire
979:Gender-affirming therapy
939:gastro-esophageal reflux
766:Catecholamine depletors
647:Pituitary hypersecretion
610:Lymphocytic hypophysitis
424:, and increased risk of
193:in the blood. In women,
4540:antidopaminergic agents
3251:Arab Journal of Urology
3154:10.4103/2230-8210.84871
2246:"Physiology, Prolactin"
1793:10.1038/sj.ijir.3901043
923:atypical antipsychotics
714:Atypical antipsychotics
635:Pituitary stalk section
294:Atypical antipsychotics
195:normal prolactin levels
147:Chiari–Frommel syndrome
3802:Clinical Endocrinology
3691:10.1186/2046-4053-1-33
3560:10.1210/jcem.84.7.5810
3391:Schizophrenia Research
2385:. 32 Suppl 6: S46–50.
1743:10.1385/ENDO:20:1-2:75
1081:non-epileptic seizures
1020:bronchogenic carcinoma
1008:chronic kidney failure
903:typical antipsychotics
677:Chronic kidney failure
290:Typical antipsychotics
3640:10.1038/ncpendmet0160
3442:10.1089/cap.2021.0140
2890:Postgraduate Medicine
2851:Postgraduate Medicine
2505:Biological Psychiatry
2377:Pritchard PB (1991).
1556:Physiological Reviews
1454:"Hyperprolactinaemia"
1077:non-epileptic seizure
1049:Nonpuerperal mastitis
887:myocardial infarction
870:, chest wall injury,
201:Prolactin (PRL) is a
67:"Hyperprolactinaemia"
4273:Empty sella syndrome
4245:LH/hCG insensitivity
3904:10.1210/jc.2009-1238
3313:10.7759/cureus.22779
3188:"Hyperprolactinemia"
3053:: 1179558119871921.
2695:10.1093/qjmed/hcg103
2279:"Hyperprolactinemia"
2212:10.1155/2018/9253083
1655:"Hyperprolactinemia"
1424:10.1210/jc.2010-1692
1327:"Hyperprolactinemia"
1259:"Hyperprolactinemia"
1054:rheumatoid arthritis
1043:erectile dysfunction
937:drugs used to treat
874:, stress-associated
850:Physiological causes
438:bone mineral density
420:, increased risk of
235:erectile dysfunction
4618:Pituitary disorders
4491:dopaminergic agents
4135:Hyperprolactinaemia
3737:10.1530/eje.1.02075
2722:Psychiatry Research
1992:2021NatSR..11.5122A
1180:dihydroergocryptine
1129:Computed Tomography
1041:and, occasionally,
638:Suprasellar surgery
506:production (termed
493:luteinizing hormone
183:Hyperprolactinaemia
134:Hyperprolactinaemia
4339:Prolactin receptor
4283:Sheehan's syndrome
4278:Pituitary apoplexy
4235:GnRH insensitivity
4050:External resources
3777:10.1111/jcpt.13460
3678:Systematic Reviews
3096:Neuroendocrinology
2128:(10): 897–8, 901.
2081:Neuroendocrinology
1980:Scientific Reports
1471:10.3390/jcm8122203
1155:Vitex agnus-castus
961:, used to control
697:Epileptic seizures
671:Systemic disorders
558:Stress-associated
392:or eye problems.
365:sexual dysfunction
308:Signs and symptoms
187:hyperprolactinemia
143:Hyperprolactinemia
4600:
4599:
4596:
4595:
4305:
4304:
4301:
4300:
4293:Pituitary adenoma
4240:FSH insensitivity
4221:Hypoprolactinemia
4206:Kallmann syndrome
4185:
4184:
4172:Nelson's syndrome
4107:Pituitary disease
4073:
4072:
3368:978-0-323-47912-7
3109:10.1159/000494725
2925:Epilepsy Research
2818:(11): 1618–1620.
2339:978-3-030-41595-2
2094:10.1159/000499694
1164:dopamine agonists
1073:epileptic seizure
990:Specific diseases
847:
846:
580:Craniopharyngioma
550:Chest wall Injury
466:pituitary adenoma
320:, and changes in
180:
179:
128:Medical condition
126:
125:
102:
4630:
4433:
4432:
4406:Δ1–14-G129R-hPRL
4332:
4325:
4318:
4309:
4308:
4196:
4195:
4120:
4119:
4115:Hyperpituitarism
4100:
4093:
4086:
4077:
4076:
3977:
3976:
3965:
3964:
3932:
3926:
3925:
3915:
3883:
3877:
3876:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3796:
3790:
3789:
3779:
3770:(6): 1549–1556.
3755:
3749:
3748:
3720:
3714:
3713:
3703:
3693:
3669:
3660:
3659:
3623:
3617:
3616:
3579:
3573:
3572:
3562:
3553:(7): 2518–2522.
3538:
3532:
3531:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3460:
3454:
3453:
3421:
3415:
3414:
3385:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3375:
3342:
3336:
3335:
3325:
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3291:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3225:
3207:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3166:
3156:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3111:
3087:
3081:
3080:
3070:
3038:
3029:
3028:
3018:
2994:
2988:
2987:
2963:
2957:
2956:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2881:
2875:
2874:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2807:
2801:
2800:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2661:
2651:
2627:
2621:
2620:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2575:
2543:
2537:
2536:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2482:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2441:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2264:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2224:
2214:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2147:
2138:
2137:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2096:
2072:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2011:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1854:
1848:
1847:
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1776:
1763:
1762:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1650:
1641:
1640:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1579:
1562:(3): 1149–1179.
1551:
1545:
1544:
1534:
1524:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1483:
1473:
1449:
1436:
1435:
1406:
1367:
1366:
1356:
1346:
1322:
1281:
1280:
1278:
1277:
1254:
1115:. While a plain
1029:Some women with
955:alpha-methyldopa
935:gastroprokinetic
520:
519:
483:(GnRH) from the
209:in the anterior
207:lactotroph cells
157:
131:
130:
121:
120:
112:
109:
103:
101:
60:
29:
28:
21:
4638:
4637:
4633:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4628:
4627:
4603:
4602:
4601:
4592:
4517:
4500:
4448:
4427:
4420:
4401:Δ1–9-G129R-hPRL
4387:
4344:
4336:
4306:
4297:
4261:
4249:
4226:ACTH deficiency
4191:Hypopituitarism
4181:
4160:
4144:
4109:
4104:
4074:
4069:
4068:
4045:
4044:
3988:
3974:
3969:
3968:
3933:
3929:
3884:
3880:
3841:
3837:
3797:
3793:
3756:
3752:
3721:
3717:
3670:
3663:
3624:
3620:
3580:
3576:
3539:
3535:
3496:
3492:
3461:
3457:
3422:
3418:
3386:
3382:
3373:
3371:
3369:
3343:
3339:
3292:
3288:
3243:
3239:
3184:
3180:
3137:
3133:
3088:
3084:
3039:
3032:
2995:
2991:
2964:
2960:
2921:
2917:
2882:
2878:
2843:
2839:
2808:
2804:
2761:
2757:
2714:
2710:
2679:
2675:
2628:
2624:
2609:10.1002/hup.993
2593:
2589:
2544:
2540:
2500:
2496:
2459:
2455:
2418:
2414:
2375:
2371:
2340:
2314:
2310:
2275:
2271:
2262:
2260:
2242:
2238:
2191:
2187:
2148:
2141:
2114:
2110:
2073:
2058:
2049:
2047:
2029:
2025:
1972:
1968:
1933:
1929:
1890:
1886:
1855:
1851:
1820:
1816:
1777:
1766:
1727:
1723:
1694:(12): 689–700.
1684:
1680:
1671:
1669:
1651:
1644:
1605:
1601:
1552:
1548:
1501:
1497:
1450:
1439:
1407:
1370:
1323:
1284:
1275:
1273:
1255:
1238:
1233:
1225:Hypopituitarism
1216:
1149:
1103:) or irregular
1089:
1065:hypopituitarism
1016:liver cirrhosis
1004:pituitary stalk
992:
895:
852:
781:H2 antagonists
517:dysregulation.
497:pituitary gland
453:
446:
414:bone resorption
410:hypoandrogenism
406:hypoestrogenism
386:pituitary tumor
314:hypoestrogenism
310:
270:pituitary gland
211:pituitary gland
203:peptide hormone
129:
122:
118:
113:
107:
104:
61:
50:
46:primary sources
30:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4636:
4626:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4598:
4597:
4594:
4593:
4591:
4590:
4585:
4567:
4557:
4547:
4536:
4529:metoclopramide
4515:
4510:
4508:
4502:
4501:
4499:
4498:
4487:
4446:
4441:
4439:
4430:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4397:
4395:
4389:
4388:
4386:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4358:Growth hormone
4354:
4352:
4346:
4345:
4335:
4334:
4327:
4320:
4312:
4303:
4302:
4299:
4298:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4269:
4267:
4263:
4262:
4257:
4255:
4251:
4250:
4248:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4202:
4200:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4183:
4182:
4180:
4179:
4174:
4168:
4166:
4162:
4161:
4159:
4158:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4145:
4143:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4126:
4124:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4103:
4102:
4095:
4088:
4080:
4071:
4070:
4067:
4066:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4031:
4020:
4005:
3989:
3984:
3983:
3981:
3980:Classification
3973:
3972:External links
3970:
3967:
3966:
3947:(8): 745–749.
3927:
3878:
3851:(2): 349–362.
3835:
3791:
3750:
3731:(2): 187–195.
3715:
3661:
3634:(4): 200–210.
3618:
3591:(3): 259–265.
3574:
3533:
3506:(3): 292–293.
3490:
3455:
3436:(7): 374–389.
3416:
3380:
3367:
3337:
3286:
3237:
3198:(3): 168–175.
3178:
3131:
3082:
3030:
3009:(6): 575–581.
2989:
2978:(1): 111–121.
2958:
2915:
2896:(2): 156–162.
2876:
2857:(1): 126–132.
2837:
2802:
2775:(4): 324–332.
2755:
2728:(2): 147–160.
2708:
2689:(8): 553–561.
2673:
2622:
2603:(2): 103–111.
2587:
2558:(4): 391–402.
2538:
2511:(3): 268–285.
2494:
2473:(5): 929–951.
2453:
2432:(4): 261–271.
2412:
2369:
2338:
2308:
2289:(2): 141–146.
2269:
2236:
2185:
2158:(7): 506–510.
2139:
2108:
2056:
2033:"Prolactinoma"
2023:
1966:
1927:
1900:(3): 314–321.
1884:
1849:
1814:
1787:(5): 373–377.
1764:
1737:(1–2): 75–82.
1721:
1678:
1642:
1615:(3): 334–342.
1599:
1546:
1509:BMC Psychiatry
1495:
1437:
1418:(2): 273–288.
1368:
1337:(3): 168–175.
1282:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1215:
1212:
1148:
1145:
1136:macroprolactin
1088:
1085:
1012:hypothyroidism
991:
988:
953:; less often,
947:metoclopramide
915:butyrophenones
911:chlorpromazine
907:phenothiazines
894:
891:
851:
848:
845:
844:
843:
842:
841:
840:
835:
827:
826:
825:
817:
816:
815:
807:
806:
805:
793:
792:
791:
779:
774:
773:
772:
764:
763:
762:
754:
753:
752:
750:Metoclopramide
747:
742:
736:Butyrophenones
733:
727:chlorpromazine
723:Phenothiazines
720:
706:
702:
701:
700:
699:
694:
689:
684:
682:Hypothyroidism
679:
672:
668:
667:
666:
665:
663:Laron syndrome
660:
655:
648:
644:
643:
642:
641:
640:
639:
636:
628:
625:
620:
615:
612:
607:
602:
601:
600:
597:
592:
587:
582:
572:
568:
567:
566:
565:
562:
556:
551:
548:
543:
538:
531:
527:
526:
524:
495:(LH) from the
451:
445:
442:
330:oligomenorrhea
316:, anovulatory
309:
306:
286:antipsychotics
185:(also spelled
178:
177:
172:
166:
165:
159:
158:
150:
149:
140:
136:
135:
127:
124:
123:
116:
114:
33:
31:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4635:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4610:
4608:
4589:
4586:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4568:
4565:
4561:
4558:
4555:
4551:
4548:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4519:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4507:
4503:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4456:bromocriptine
4453:
4450:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4423:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4398:
4396:
4394:
4390:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4355:
4353:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4340:
4333:
4328:
4326:
4321:
4319:
4314:
4313:
4310:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4203:
4201:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4188:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4163:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4147:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4101:
4096:
4094:
4089:
4087:
4082:
4081:
4078:
4065:
4061:
4060:
4056:
4055:
4052:
4048:
4041:
4037:
4036:
4032:
4030:
4026:
4025:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4004:
4000:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3990:
3987:
3982:
3978:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3931:
3923:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3882:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3839:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3795:
3787:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3754:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3719:
3711:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3668:
3666:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3622:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3578:
3570:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3537:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3494:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3459:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3384:
3370:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3341:
3333:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3306:(3): e22779.
3305:
3301:
3297:
3290:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3233:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3174:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3135:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3078:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3037:
3035:
3026:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2993:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2962:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2919:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2806:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2759:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2712:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2677:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2591:
2583:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2542:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2498:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2457:
2449:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2426:Core Evidence
2423:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2240:
2232:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2144:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1853:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1682:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1649:
1647:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1603:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1364:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1236:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1217:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1176:bromocriptine
1173:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1144:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1113:macroadenomas
1110:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
996:prolactinomas
987:
985:
980:
974:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
890:
888:
884:
879:
877:
873:
869:
868:breastfeeding
865:
861:
857:
839:
836:
834:
831:
830:
828:
824:
821:
820:
818:
814:
811:
810:
808:
804:
800:
799:Amitriptyline
797:
796:
794:
790:
786:
783:
782:
780:
778:
775:
771:
768:
767:
765:
761:
758:
757:
755:
751:
748:
746:
745:Thioxanthenes
743:
741:
737:
734:
732:
728:
724:
721:
719:
715:
712:
711:
709:
708:
707:
704:
703:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
678:
675:
674:
673:
670:
669:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
650:
649:
646:
645:
637:
634:
633:
632:
629:
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4560:Progestogens
4383:Somatotropin
4177:Hypophysitis
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963:hypertension
943:chemotherapy
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760:α-Methyldopa
731:perphenazine
692:Pseudocyesis
653:Prolactinoma
595:Dysgerminoma
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508:hypogonadism
485:hypothalamus
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430:hypogonadism
426:osteoporosis
418:bone density
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398:pathogenesis
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377:gynecomastia
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342:galactorrhea
322:menstruation
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302:paliperidone
281:prolactinoma
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266:hypothalamus
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227:hypogonadism
219:galactorrhea
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4472:metergoline
4460:cabergoline
4393:Antagonists
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1192:metergoline
1172:quinagolide
1168:cabergoline
1109:infertility
1024:sarcoidosis
951:domperidone
927:risperidone
919:haloperidol
893:Medications
740:haloperidol
718:risperidone
627:Irradiation
605:Empty sella
504:sex hormone
464:(a type of
373:infertility
338:breast milk
334:menorrhagia
318:infertility
298:risperidone
231:infertility
139:Other names
36:needs more
4607:Categories
4582:taltirelin
4578:protirelin
4464:lergotrile
4437:Inhibitors
4428:modulators
4416:G129R-hPRL
4378:S179D-hPRL
4342:modulators
4130:Acromegaly
4035:DiseasesDB
3913:2066/89490
3374:2024-07-25
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2250:StatPearls
2050:2021-07-30
2037:StatPearls
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1276:2021-07-27
1263:StatPearls
1231:References
1166:, such as
1000:acromegaly
813:Fluoxetine
789:ranitidine
785:Cimetidine
658:Acromegaly
618:Granulomas
599:Metastases
590:Meningioma
491:(FSH) and
434:osteolysis
326:amenorrhea
78:newspapers
4623:Syndromes
4574:analogues
4554:estradiol
4550:Estrogens
4544:reserpine
4538:Indirect
4506:Releasers
4489:Indirect
4484:terguride
4476:pergolide
4411:G120K-hGH
4373:Prolactin
4254:Posterior
4149:Posterior
4059:eMedicine
3953:0172-780X
3922:0021-972X
3786:0269-4727
3585:Pituitary
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2383:Epilepsia
2364:221202364
2348:0065-2598
2303:1386-341X
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1922:214647438
1894:Pituitary
1859:Pituitary
1824:Pituitary
1731:Endocrine
1594:211063583
1200:terguride
1196:pergolide
1147:Treatment
1087:Diagnosis
984:ramelteon
959:reserpine
876:REM sleep
864:pregnancy
860:ovulation
833:Estrogens
829:Hormones
823:Verapamil
803:amoxapine
770:Reserpine
687:Cirrhosis
560:REM Sleep
541:Pregnancy
536:Ovulation
454:receptors
422:fractures
390:headaches
381:menstrual
223:menstrual
215:lactation
191:prolactin
170:Specialty
163:Prolactin
4518:receptor
4495:levodopa
4468:lisuride
4452:agonists
4449:receptor
4426:Indirect
4350:Agonists
4199:Anterior
4123:Anterior
4064:med/1098
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1541:23968123
1490:31847209
1432:21296991
1363:24347930
1271:30726016
1214:See also
1188:lisuride
1184:ergoloid
925:such as
917:such as
909:such as
899:dopamine
564:Exercise
350:estrogen
242:estrogen
108:May 2017
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2009:7933248
1988:Bibcode
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361:libido
354:libido
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1117:X-ray
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