History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

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antagonising other tribes. This culminated into the split of the party into the MNC-Lumumba/MNC-L under Lumumba and the MNC-Kalonji/MNC-K under Kalonji and Iléo. The latter began advocating federalism. Adoula left the organisation. Alone to lead his own faction and facing competition from ABAKO, Lumumba became increasingly insistent in his demands for independence. Following an October riot in Stanleyville he was arrested. Nevertheless, the influence of himself and the MNC-L continued to grow rapidly. The party advocated for a strong unitary state, nationalism, and the termination of Belgian rule and began forming alliances with regional groups, such as the Kivu-based Centre du Regroupement Africain (CEREA). Though the Belgians supported a unitary system over the federal models suggested by ABAKO and CONAKAT, they and more moderate Congolese were unnerved by Lumumba's increasingly extremist attitudes. With the implicit support of the colonial administration, the moderates formed the Parti National du Progrès (PNP) under the leadership of

943:, and under his leadership, it became increasingly hostile to the colonial authority and sought autonomy for the Kongo regions in the Lower Congo. In 1956 a group of Congolese intellectuals under the tutelage of several European academics issued a manifesto calling for a transition to independence over the course of 30 years. The ABAKO quickly responded with a demand for "immediate independence". The Belgian government was not prepared to grant the Congo independence and even when it started realizing the necessity of a plan for decolonization in 1957, it was assumed that such a process would be solidly controlled by Belgium. In December 1957 the colonial administration instituted reforms that permitted municipal elections and the formation of political parties. Some Belgian parties attempted to establish branches in the colony, but these were largely ignored by the population in favour of Congolese-initiated groups. 157: 1950: 1478:(AFDL). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997. Various Zairean politicians who had unsuccessfully opposed the dictatorship of Mobutu for many years now saw an opportunity for them in the invasion of Zaire by two of the region's strongest military forces. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila in May 1997, Mobutu left the country on 16 May. The AFDL entered Kinshasa unopposed a day later, and Kabila named himself president, reverting the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He marched into Kinshasa on 20 May and consolidated power around himself and the AFDL. 1206:), capital of Katanga. In full view of the press he was beaten and forced to eat copies of his own speeches. For three weeks afterward, he was not seen or heard from. Then Katangan radio announced implausibly that he had escaped and been killed by villagers. It was soon clear that in fact he had been tortured and killed along with two others shortly after his arrival. In 2001, a Belgian inquiry established that he had been shot by Katangan gendarmes in the presence of Belgian officers, under Katangan command. Lumumba was beaten, placed in front of a firing squad with two allies, cut up, buried, dug up and what remained was dissolved in acid. 435: 5476: 1782:(FIB), which was the first UN peacekeeping force with a mandate to neutralize opposition rather than a defensive mandate, and the FIB quickly defeated M23. The FIB was then to fight the FDLR but were hampered by the efforts of the Congolese government, who some believe tolerate the FDLR as a counterweight to Rwandan interests. Since 2017, fighters from M23, most of whom had fled into Uganda and Rwanda (both were believed to have supported them), started crossing back into DRC with the rising crisis over Kabila's extension of his term limit. 748: 2057:(ADF), mostly active in North and South Kivu has also been involved in Ituri province. President Tshisekedi declared a "state of siege" or state of emergency in the province in May 2021 to tackle ADF. However, ADF killed 57 civilians in one attack in the same month in one of its deadliest single attacks. 30 people were massacred in September 2021 by the ADF. The President is accused of promoting former rebel leaders and generals accused of war crimes to be in charge of the province. 1809:, a cattle herding group of Rwandan origin derided as outsiders, and other ethnic groups who consider themselves indigenous. Additionally, neighboring Burundi and Rwanda, who have a thorny relationship, are accused of being involved, with Rwanda accused of training Burundi rebels who have joined with Mai Mai against the Banyamulenge and the Banyamulenge is accused of harboring the RNC, a Rwandan opposition group supported by Burundi. In June 2017, the group was formed called the 972: 1296: 680: 35: 1927:, rose up into militias, such as the "Perci" militia, and attacked Luba villages. A Luba militia known as "Elements" or "Elema" attacked back, notably killing at least 30 people in the "Vumilia 1" displaced people camp in April 2015. Since the start of the conflict, hundreds have been killed and tens of thousands have been displaced from their homes. The weapons used in the conflict are often arrows and axes, rather than guns. 1729: 1675:

legislators, gaining the support of almost 400 out of 500 members of the National Assembly. The pro-Kabila speakers of both houses of parliament were forced out. In April 2021, the new government was formed without the supporters of Kabila. President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to oust the last remaining elements of his government who were loyal to former leader Joseph Kabila. In January 2021, DRC's President

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by regional governments interested in Eastern Congo's vast mineral wealth. Some argue that much of the lack of security by the national army is strategic on the part of the government, who let the army profit from illegal logging and mining operations in return for loyalty. Different rebel groups often target civilians by ethnicity and militias often become oriented around ethnic local militias known as "

1246: 1176:. UN forces were ordered to block any shipments of arms into the country. The United States also looked for a way to replace Lumumba as leader. President Kasavubu had clashed with Prime Minister Lumumba and advocated an alliance with the West rather than the Soviets. The U.S. sent weapons and CIA personnel to aid forces allied with Kasavubu and combat the Soviet presence. 1642:

their homes. Police arrested anyone remotely connected to the opposition as well as innocent onlookers. Government propaganda, on television, and actions of covert government groups in the streets, acted against opposition as well as foreigners. The president's mandate was due to end on 19 December 2016, but no plans were made to elect a replacement at that time and this

836:. The interests of the government and private enterprise became closely tied; the state helped companies break strikes and remove other barriers imposed by the indigenous population. The country was split into nesting, hierarchically organized administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set "native policy" ( 1237:. Congolese government forces, supported by European mercenaries, fully defeated the Simba rebels by November 1965. The Simba rebels executed 20,000 Congolese and 392 Western hostages, including 268 Belgians, during the rebellion. Tens of thousands of people were killed in total during the suppression of the Simbas. 1038:

meeting" would be authorised. On the scheduled day of the rally the ABAKO leadership told the crowd that had gathered that the event was postponed and that they should disperse. The mass was infuriated and instead began hurling stones at the police and pillaging European property, initiating three days of

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also favored the Hema. While "Ituri conflict" often refers to the major fighting from 1999 to 2003, fighting has existed before and continues since that time. During the Second Congolese Civil War, Ituri was considered the most violent region. An agricultural and religious group from the Lendu people

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Kamwina Nsapu militia led by Kamwina Nsapu attacked state institutions. The leader was killed by authorities in August 2016 and the militia reportedly took revenge by attacking civilians. By June 2017, more than 3,300 people had been killed and 20 villages have been completely destroyed, half of them

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Clashes between Hutu militias and militias of other ethnic groups has also been prominent. In 2012, the Congolese army in its attempt to crush the Rwandan backed and Tutsi-dominated CNDP and M23 rebels, empowered and used Hutu groups such as the FDLR and a Hutu dominated Maï Maï Nyatura as proxies in

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Fearing that they were being overshadowed by Lumumba and the MNC, Kasa-Vubu and the ABAKO leadership announced that they would be hosting their own rally in the capital on 4 January 1959. The municipal government (under Belgian domination) was given short notice, and communicated that only a "private

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The inability of the state and the world's largest United Nations peacekeeping force to provide security throughout the vast country has led to the emergence of up to 120 armed groups by 2018, perhaps the largest number in the world. Armed groups are often accused of being proxies or being supported

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of the Lower Congo. However, they were restricted in their actions by the administration. While white settlers were consulted in the appointment of certain officials, the Congolese had no means of expressing their beliefs through the governing structures. Though native chiefs held legal authority in

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led to the arrest and punishment of white officials who had been responsible for cold-blooded killings during a rubber-collecting expedition in 1900, including a Belgian national who caused the shooting of at least 122 Congolese natives. Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. The first

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Similarly, in September 2016, violent protests were met with brutal force by the police and Republican Guard soldiers. Opposition groups claim 80 dead, including the Students' Union leader. From Monday 19 September Kinshasa residents, as well as residents elsewhere in Congo, were mostly confined to

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The response of the international community has been incommensurate with the scale of the disaster resulting from the war in the Congo. Its support for political and diplomatic efforts to end the war has been relatively consistent, but it has taken no effective steps to abide by repeated pledges to

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Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire. In turn, these Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate the massacres in November 1996, Tutsi

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In 1960, the country was very unstable—regional tribal leaders held far more power than the central government—and with the departure of the Belgian administrators, almost no skilled bureaucrats remained in the country. The first Congolese graduated from university only in 1956, and very few in the

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s were concerned only with social inequalities and their treatment by the Belgians. Questions of self-government were not considered until 1954 when ABAKO requested that the administration consider a list of suggested candidates for a Léopoldville municipal post. That year the association was taken

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class institutionally manifested itself in elite clubs through which they could enjoy trivial privileges that made them feel distinct from the Congolese "masses". Additional groups, such as labor unions, alumni associations, and ethnic syndicates, provided other Congolese the means of organization.

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and the U.N. Secretary-General have frequently denounced human rights abuses and the humanitarian disaster that the war unleashed on the local population, but have shown little will to tackle the responsibility of occupying powers for the atrocities taking place in areas under their control, areas

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rose up, taking a significant amount of territory and proclaiming a communist "People's Republic of the Congo" in Stanleyville. As the Congolese government was reclaiming territory from the Simbas, the rebels resorted to taking the local white population hostage. Belgian and American forces pushed

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s. Popular opinion in Belgium was one of extreme shock and surprise. An investigative commission found the riots to be the culmination of racial discrimination, overcrowding, unemployment, and wishes for more political self-determination. On 13 January the administration announced several reforms,

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the country, changing his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga, and demanded that African citizens change their Western names to traditional African names. Mobutu sought to repress any opposition to his rule, which he successfully did throughout the 1980s. However, with his regime

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Mai-Mai leaders from groups such as Corps du Christ and Mai-Mai Mazembe. Another alliance of Mai-Mai groups is CMC which brings together Hutu militia Nyatura and are active along the border between North Kivu and South Kivu. In September 2019, the army declared it had killed Sylvestre Mudacumura,

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was set up, a colonial army with white officers and black soldiers. In 1886, Leopold made Camille Jansen the first Belgian governor-general of Congo. Over the late 19th century, various Christian (including Catholic and Protestant) missionaries arrived intending to convert the local population. A

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suffered the most intensive enslavement. Over a strip of coastline about 400 kilometres (250 mi) long, about 4 million people were enslaved and sent across the Atlantic to sugar plantations in Brazil, the US and the Caribbean. From 1780 onwards, there was a higher demand for slaves in the US

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The political allies of former president Joseph Kabila, who stepped down in January 2019, maintained control of key ministries, the legislature, judiciary and security services. However, President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to strengthen his hold on power. In a series of moves, he won over more

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Meanwhile, discontent surfaced among the MNC leadership, who were bothered by Lumumba's domination over the party's politics. Relations between Lumumba and Kalonji also grew tense, as the former was upset with how the latter was transforming the Kasai branch into an exclusively Luba group and

1508:. They attacked in August 1998, backed by Rwandan and Ugandan troops. Soon afterwards, Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe became involved militarily in the Congo, with Angola and Zimbabwe supporting the government. While the six African governments involved in the war signed a ceasefire accord in 1626:

reported that returns from almost 2,000 polling stations in areas where support for Tshisekedi was strong had been lost and not included in the official results. They described the election as lacking credibility. On 20 December, Kabila was sworn in for a second term, promising to invest in

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s began interacting with others outside of their own locales and started discussing the future structures of a post-colonial Congolese state. Nevertheless, most political mobilisation occurred along tribal and regional divisions. In Katanga, various tribal groups came together to form the

2102:, a few weeks before the Presidential election, when mostly those of the Batende tribe massacred mostly those of the Banunu tribe. About 16,000 fled to neighboring Republic of the Congo. It was alleged that it was a carefully planned massacre, involving elements of the national military. 2045:

also involved in the violence. After disagreements over negotiating with the government and the killing of CODECO's leader, Ngudjolo Duduko Justin, in March 2020, the group splintered and violence spread into new areas. In late 2020, CODECO briefly held the capital of the province,

1046:, the colonial army, was called into service and suppressed the revolt with considerable brutality. In wake of the riots Kasa-Vubu and his lieutenants were arrested. Unlike earlier expressions of discontent, the grievances were conveyed primarily by uneducated urban residents, not 1793:, in the first such declaration since the country's independence. The military and police took over positions from civilian authorities and some saw it as a powerplay since the civilian officials were part of the opposition to the President. A similar declaration was avoided for 1759:(Congolese Tutsis). In 2009, after a deal between the DRC and Rwanda, Rwandan troops entered the DRC and arrested Nkunda and were allowed to pursue FDLR militants. The CNDP signed a peace treaty with the government where its soldiers would be integrated into the national army. 1530:(RCD) control a large section of the east; and government forces or their allies hold the west and south of the country. There were reports that the conflict is being prolonged as a cover for extensive looting of the substantial natural resources in the country, including 1152:

sent 20,000 peacekeepers to protect Europeans in the country and try to restore order. Western paramilitaries and mercenaries, often hired by mining companies to protect their interests, also began to pour into the country. In this period Congo's second richest province,

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Few people in the Congo have been unaffected by the conflict. A survey conducted in 2009 by the ICRC and Ipsos shows that three-quarters (76%) of the people interviewed have been affected in some way–either personally or due to the wider consequences of armed conflict.

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Following the riots in Leopoldville (4–7 January 1959) and in Stanleyville (31 October 1959), the Belgians realised they could not maintain control of such a vast country in the face of rising demands for independence. Belgian and Congolese political leaders held a

1690:, Tshisekedi had a clear lead in his run for a second term. On 31 December 2023, officials said that President Felix Tshisekedi had been re-elected with 73% of the vote. Nine opposition candidates signed a declaration rejecting the election and called for a rerun. 1602:. Sixteen people died before policemen and MONUC took control of the city. A new election was held on 29 October 2006, which Kabila won with 70% of the vote. Bemba has decried election "irregularities". On 6 December 2006 Joseph Kabila was sworn in as president. 778:

census was only done in 1924, so it is even more difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Roger Casement's famous 1904 report estimated ten million people. According to Casement's report, indiscriminate "war", starvation, reduction of births and

1813:(CNPSC) or Alliance of Article 64, a reference to Article 64 of the constitution, which says the people have an obligation to fight the efforts of those who seek to take power by force, in reference to President Kabila. It is one of three alliances of various 644:

in 2006. Joseph Kabila quickly sought peace. Foreign soldiers remained in the Congo for a few years and a power-sharing government between Joseph Kabila and the opposition party was set up. Joseph Kabila later resumed complete control over the Congo and was

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in 2016. While the Congolese army maintains that the ADF is an Islamist insurgency, most observers feel that they are only a criminal group interested in gold mining and logging. In March 2021, the United States claimed that the ADF was linked to the

1002:(MNC). Diverse in membership, the party sought to peacefully achieve Congolese independence, promote the political education of the populace, and eliminate regionalism. The MNC drew most of its membership from the residents of the eastern city of 1383:

In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop

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was built in the 1890s. Reports of widespread murder, torture, and other abuses in the rubber plantations led to international and Belgian outrage and the Belgian government transferred control of the region from Leopold II and established the

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Elema also began fighting the government mainly with machetes, bows and arrows in Congo's Haut Katanga and Tanganyika provinces. The government forces fought alongside a tribe known as the Abatembo and targeting civilians of the Luba and the

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came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a

4341:"DRC aid workers in record appeal for Kasai conflict victims: More than 10 million people in central Democratic Republic of the Congo's Kasai region will need aid in 2018, NGOs warn, in the largest funding appeal in country's history" 1523:. Upon taking office, Kabila called for multilateral peace talks to end the war. Kabila partly succeeded when a further peace deal was brokered between him, Uganda, and Rwanda leading to the apparent withdrawal of foreign troops. 635:

broke out, resulting in a regional war in which many different African nations took part and in which millions of people were killed or displaced. Laurent-Désiré Kabila was assassinated by his own bodyguard in 2001, and his son,

1550:, lasted a full six weeks, beginning in April 2002. In June, they signed a peace accord under which Kabila would share power with former rebels. By June 2003, all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo. 495:

controlled much of western and central Africa including what is now the western portion of the DR Congo between the 14th and the early 19th centuries. At its peak it had many as 500,000 people, and its capital was known as

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caused the country's depopulation. European and U.S. press agencies exposed the conditions in the Congo Free State to the public in 1900. By 1908 public and diplomatic pressure had led Leopold II to annex the Congo as the

964:. Hostile to immigrant peoples, it advocated provincial autonomy and close ties with Belgium. Most of its support was rooted in individual chiefs, businessmen, and European settlers of southern Katanga. It was opposed by 1515:

Kabila was assassinated in 2001 by a bodyguard called Rashidi Kasereka, 18, who was then shot dead, according to Justice Minister Mwenze Kongolo. Another account of the assassination says that the real killer escaped.

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its fight. The Nyatura and FDLR even arbitrarily executed up to 264 mostly Tembo civilians in 2012. In 2015, the army then launched an offensive against the FDLR militia. The FDLR and Nyatura were accused of killing

1494: 1392:, leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the 1546:. The conflict was reignited in January 2002 by ethnic clashes in the northeast and both Uganda and Rwanda then halted their withdrawal and sent in more troops. Talks between Kabila and the rebel leaders, held in 1499:

Kabila demonstrated little ability to manage the problems of his country, and lost his allies. To counterbalance the power and influence of Rwanda in DRC, Ugandan troops created another rebel movement called the

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and Banyindu are estimated to have burnt more than 100, mostly Banyamulenge, villages and stole tens of thousands of cattle from the largely cattle-herding Banyamulenge. About 200,000 people fled their homes.

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as his chief of staff. In June 2020, chief of staff Vital Kamerhe was found guilty of embezzling public funds and he was sentenced to 20 years in prison. However, Kamerhe was released in December 2021.

508:). In the late 15th century, Portuguese sailors arrived in the Kingdom of Kongo, and this led to a period of great prosperity and consolidation, with the king's power being founded on Portuguese trade. 1825:. was formed and even briefly capturing a few strategic towns. In May 2019, Banyamulenge fighters killed a Banyindu traditional chief, Kawaza Nyakwana. Later in 2019, a coalition of militias from the 1475: 5148: 1342: 909:

s. Forming an African middle class in the colony, they held skilled positions (such as clerks and nurses) made available by the economic boom. While there were no universal criteria for determining

463: 1187:. Lumumba was dismissed from office on 5 September 1960 by Kasavubu who publicly blamed him for the massacres in South Kasai and for involving Soviets in the country. On 14 September 1960, with 5464: 1026:, Ghana, in December 1958 (Kasa-Vubu was informed that the documents necessary for his travel to the event were not in order and was not permitted to go). Lumumba was deeply impressed by the 4553: 5028: 4918: 2131: 1034:

and returned to the Congo with a more radical party programme. He reported on his trip during a widely attended rally in Léopoldville and demanded the country's "genuine" independence.

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which lasted from 31 March 1961 until it was reintegrated on 5 August 1961. After some reverses, UN and Congolese government forces succeeded in recapturing the breakaway provinces of

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infrastructure and public services. However, Tshisekedi maintained that the result of the election was illegitimate and said that he intended also to "swear himself in" as president.

1634:. The protests began following the announcement of a proposed law that would allow Kabila to remain in power until a national census can be conducted (elections had been planned for 5172: 4882: 5043: 4093: 52: 1854:, are accused of attacking Hutus. In North Kivu, in 2017, an alliance of Mai-Mai groups called the National Movement of Revolutionaries (MNR) began attacks in June 2017 includes 156: 5194: 4982: 1587: 1577: 913:, it was generally accepted that one would have "a good knowledge of French, adhere to Christianity, and have some form of post-primary education." Early on in their history, 595:. Lumumba was handed over to the Katangan government and executed in 1961. The secessionist movements were later defeated by the Congolese government as were the Soviet-backed 5417: 3333: 2126: 3642: 1598:

took 45% of the votes and his opponent Jean-Pierre Bemba 20%. That was the origin of a fight between the two parties from 20 to 22 August 2006 in the streets of the capital,

1810: 456: 543:. However, de facto control of such a huge area took decades to achieve. Many outposts were built to extend the power of the state over such a vast territory. In 1885, the 4908: 169: 5457: 1266: 2895: 5252: 5182: 5063: 5038: 2116: 1289: 773:. Under Leopold II, the Congo Free State became one of the most infamous international scandals of the turn of the twentieth century. The report of the British Consul 613: 917:

s sought to use their unique status to earn special privileges in the Congo. Since opportunities for upward mobility through the colonial structure were limited, the

5318: 5232: 5109: 5053: 1447:-led government had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursions into Rwanda. In October 1996 Rwandan forces attacked refugee camps in the 6730: 5276: 2111: 1067:. It advocated centralisation, respect for traditional elements, and close ties with Belgium. In southern Léopoldville Province, a socialist-federalist party, the 449: 136: 3398: 5391: 5247: 5138: 3518: 1655: 1638:). By Wednesday 21 January clashes between police and protesters had claimed at least 42 lives (although the government claimed only 15 people had been killed). 1635: 1591: 1581: 641: 1258: 512:(1506–1543) had raids carried out on neighboring districts in response to Portuguese requests for slaves. After his death, the kingdom underwent a deep crisis. 5450: 5189: 5048: 5023: 1687: 654: 646: 573: 425: 99: 5480: 5114: 5099: 5033: 4875: 4578: 3412: 3183: 1331: 71: 5328: 5303: 5165: 5143: 5126: 5094: 5089: 3834: 5222: 5131: 4145: 3149:"Revealed: how Africa's dictator died at the hands of his boy soldiers: President Laurent Kabila's blind faith in his teenage warriors was a fatal error" 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 3860: 1280:" in 1971 and required citizens to adopt African names and drop their French-language ones. The name comes from Portuguese, adapted from the Kongo word 5381: 5293: 5288: 5155: 5121: 2037:

known as the "Cooperative for the Development of Congo" or CODECO allegedly reemerged as a militia in 2017 and began attacking the Hema as well as the

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The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by

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Currently, the Ugandans and the MLC still hold a 200-mile (320 km) wide section of the north of the country; Rwandan forces and its front, the

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Forbath, Peter (1977). The River Congo: The Discovery, Exploration and Exploitation of the World's Most Dramatic Rivers. Harper & Row. p. 19.

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invasions into the southeast Shaba region. These rebels were driven out with the aid of French and Belgian paratroopers plus Moroccan troops. An

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as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next two years, they never took place.

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existed from the 14th to the early 19th century. Until the arrival of the Portuguese it was the dominant force in the region along with the

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which led to more people being enslaved. By 1780, more than 15,000 people were shipped annually from the Loango Coast, north of the Congo.

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head of the FDLR, and in November that year the army declared it had killed Juvenal Musabimana, who had led a splinter group of the FDLR.

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where the worst violence in the country took place. In particular Rwanda and Uganda have escaped any significant sanction for their role.

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formally relinquished personal control of the Congo Free State. The renamed Belgian Congo was put under the direct administration of the

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was re-elected for a second term as president. After the results were announced on 9 December, there was violent unrest in Kinshasa and

4526: 4265: 4015: 1887: 5426: 5160: 4448: 3444: 3426: 769:, a non-governmental organization. Leopold was the sole shareholder and chairman. The state included the entire area of the present 3779: 6541: 3376: 1996:, constituting people from the Chokwe, Pende, and Tetela, have committed ethnically motivated attacks against the Luba and Lulua. 6381: 5431: 4171: 2077: 1315: 439: 5903: 4947: 1842:

and of burning their houses. The Nande-dominate UPDI militia, a Nande militia called Mai-Mai Mazembe and a militia dominated by

1121:(Moyen Congo) also chose the name Republic of the Congo upon its independence, so the two countries were more commonly known as 1114: 519:

occurred from approximately 1500 to 1850, with the entire west coast of Africa targeted, but the region around the mouth of the

484:, approximately 90,000 years ago. The first real states, such as the Kongo, the Lunda, the Luba and Kuba, appeared south of the 351: 1662:

as the winner of the vote. He was officially sworn in as president on 24 January 2019. in the ceremony of taking of the office

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weakened in the 1990s, Mobutu was forced to agree to a power-sharing government with the opposition party. Mobutu remained the

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whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight. There was also a high degree of

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used by the U.S. nuclear programme during World War II was Congolese—led to substantial interest in the region from both the

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with free elections and a constitution. As details of the reforms were delayed, soldiers in September 1991 began looting

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ethnic groups, who together made up around 40% of Ituri's population, with other groups including the Ndo-Okebo and the

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in July 2003 until the election was over. A constitution was approved by voters and on 30 July 2006 the Congo held its

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in the 1980s. Although Mobutu successfully maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the

1019: 288: 2050:, but retreated. In June 2019, attacks by CODECO led to 240 people being killed and more than 300,000 people fleeing. 1821:

warlord William Yakutumba whose Mai-Mai Yakutumba is the largest component of the CNPSC and has had friction with the

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programs aimed at making the territory into a "model colony". Notable advances were made in treating diseases such as

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Following unrest, Belgium granted Congo independence in 1960. However, the Congo remained unstable, leading to the

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demand accountability for the war crimes and crimes against humanity that were routinely committed in Congo. The

699:, one of the oldest barbed harpoons ever found, which is believed to have been used to catch giant river catfish. 6311: 4913: 4067: 1984:

The UN discovered dozens of mass graves. There was an ethnic nature to the conflict with the rebels being mostly

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force twice as large as that in any other African colony. The Congo's rich natural resources, including uranium—

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After trying to get help from the United States and the United Nations, Prime Minister Lumumba turned to the

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and declared himself president for the next five years. Mobutu quickly consolidated his power, despite the

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Yellen, John E. (1998). "Barbed Bone Points: Tradition and Continuity in Saharan and Sub-Saharan Africa".

2305: 1018:. Belgian officials appreciated its moderate and anti-separatist stance and allowed Lumumba to attend the 6699: 6695: 3937: 1766:

and troops loyal to him mutinied, claiming a violation of the peace treaty and formed a rebel group, the

1451:

near the intersection of the Congolese, Rwandan and Burundi borders meet, scattering refugees. They took

1140:

broke out in the capital and rampant looting began. On 11 July 1960 the richest province of the country,

867:. One of the results of these measures was the development of a new middle class of Europeanised African 6304: 4851: 3282: 1851: 1779: 1418: 1345:(UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism. 674: 628: 2032:. During Belgian rule, the Hema were given privileged positions over the Lendu while long time leader 1172:

viewed the Soviet presence as an attempt to take advantage of the situation and gain a proxy state in

6708: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5227: 1890:. By 2021, the ADF was considered the deadliest of the many armed groups in the east of the country. 1797:, in a move believed to avoid antagonizing armed groups with ties to regional powers such as Rwanda. 1385: 1376:

to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on

860: 731: 4660:

The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis

6456: 4733: 3196: 2793: 2054: 1874: 1785:

After rising insecurity, President Tshisekedi declared a "state of siege" or state of emergency in

1068: 4470: 4123: 1877:(ADF) has been waging an insurgency in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and is blamed for the 931:

some jurisdictions, in practice they were used by the administration to further its own policies.

6691: 6566: 6556: 6361: 4838: 4823: 1944: 1631: 1377: 1180: 903:

During the latter stages of World War II a new social stratum emerged in the Congo, known as the

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came from across the social spectrum, but were nonetheless always treated as superior to blacks.

833: 670: 532: 45: 3993: 3724: 2381:

European atrocity, African catastrophe : Leopold II, the Congo Free State and its aftermath

6571: 6461: 6391: 4504: 2189: 1847: 1234: 825: 1618:, where official tallies showed that a strong majority had voted for the opposition candidate 1397: 6631: 6551: 6516: 6501: 6486: 6441: 6376: 4273: 2363:"Report of the British Consul, Roger Casement, on the Administration of the Congo Free State" 2179: 1471: 1262: 802: 760: 536: 6682: 4860: 4636: 4586: 4358: 3148: 1619: 1389: 1122: 1039: 6506: 2169: 1903: 1547: 923: 528: 516: 4617:

Apartheid, Colonialism, and the Cold War: the United States and Southern Africa, 1945–1952

4226: 4094:"Sud-Kivu : Les miliciens envahissent les localités abandonnées par l'armée à Kalehe" 1076: 8: 6606: 6581: 6431: 6426: 6406: 6371: 6356: 2165: 2093: 2081: 1358: 1228:

Beginning in 1964, in the east of the country, Soviet and Cuban backed rebels called the

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took power and renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Afterwards, the

3093: 1676: 1663: 1659: 1105:, and full independence granted on 30 June 1960. The elections produced the nationalist 650: 410: 6678: 6669: 6660: 6591: 6561: 6546: 6531: 6521: 6511: 6476: 6471: 6421: 6366: 6341: 4778: 4715: 4363: 3473:"DRC : Tshisekedi pardons those convicted in the killing of Laurent-Désiré Kabila" 3459:"Felix Tshisekedi's Newly-Independent Agenda for the DRC: Modernizer or Strongman 2.0?" 3413:"DR Congo court gives 20-year sentence to president's chief of staff Kamerhe for graft" 3384: 3069:

Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa

2344: 2302:"Katanda Bone Harpoon Point | the Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program" 2149: 1899: 1747:(CNDP). Starting in 2004, CNDP, believed to be backed by Rwanda as a way to tackle the 1512:

in July 1999, the Congolese rebels did not and the ceasefire broke down within months.

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interests. The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of

3236: 1778:, a provincial capital with a population of one million people. The UN authorized the 6601: 6596: 6536: 6491: 6451: 6346: 6327: 5366: 4843: 4804: 4785: 4762: 4743: 4721: 4702: 4683: 4664: 4643: 4620: 3526: 3073: 3048: 3038: 2975: 2954: 2938: 2874: 2849: 2805: 2798: 2384: 2348: 2265: 2255: 2222:, but many Batwa in certain areas of the country also refer to themselves as Bambuti. 2121: 1992:

and have selectively killed non-Luba people while the government allied militia, the

1924: 1767: 1679:

pardoned all those convicted in the murder of Laurent-Désiré Kabila in 2001. Colonel

1505: 1277: 1165: 1126: 957: 779: 696: 509: 222: 3129: 1974: 6656: 6576: 6526: 6481: 6466: 6446: 6436: 6411: 6351: 5492: 4972: 4957: 4923: 3694: 3250: 3218: 2362: 2336: 2159: 2033: 2025: 1909: 1490: 1354: 1254: 1222: 1141: 940: 742: 711: 703: 632: 600: 592: 565: 540: 492: 481: 390: 284: 202: 182: 3166: 2839: 1961: 1953: 1495:

International Criminal Court investigation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

961: 691:

was populated as early as 90,000 years ago, as shown by the 1988 discovery of the

6586: 6496: 6386: 5242: 4967: 4855: 4737: 4696: 4663:. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 4658: 4295: 3305: 3067: 2868: 1978: 1414: 1380:

planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa.

1338: 1229: 1214: 1110: 1106: 1072: 987: 975: 840:)—in contrast to the British and the French, who generally favored the system of 707: 692: 620: 596: 576: 380: 192: 4833: 4638:

The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800

4554:"As violence in the Congo escalates, thousands are in effect being held hostage" 603:

was deposed and Mobutu seized complete power of the country and then renamed it

2185: 2071: 2042: 2029: 2017: 2005: 1855: 1839: 1830: 1790: 1763: 1736: 1683:

and his co-defendants, who have been incarcerated for 15 years, were released.

1273: 1149: 1064: 1043: 1027: 1015: 991: 774: 719: 608: 544: 4579:"'Along the Main Road You See the Graves': U.N. Says Hundreds Killed in Congo" 3491:"DR Congo presidential election: partial results give Tshisekedi a clear lead" 2853: 2340: 2020:

region of the north-eastern DRC involved fighting between the agriculturalist

1658:. On 10 January 2019, the electoral commission announced opposition candidate 995: 6724: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5625: 4994: 4989: 4935: 4706: 4392:"Mystery militia sows fear – and confusion – in Congo's long-suffering Ituri" 4314:"DRC's Kasai-Oriental province requires emergency assistance 600,000 says UN" 4016:"27 killed in DRC after Maï-Maï fighters target Hutu civilians in North Kivu" 3530: 3052: 2269: 2175: 1956:

province, where the Kamwina Nsapu militia clashes with security forces began.

1878: 1843: 1723: 1712: 1667: 1623: 1611: 1595: 1520: 1169: 1145: 1031: 841: 796: 784: 747: 637: 588: 554: 400: 299: 855:

During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced an unprecedented level of

848:. Large numbers of white immigrants who moved to the Congo after the end of 627:

invaded Zaire, in which Mobutu lost his power during this process. In 1997,

4952: 2215: 2211: 1989: 1932: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1806: 1770:(M23), which was believed to be backed by Rwanda. On 20 November 2012, M23 1756: 1448: 1362: 1161: 1118: 1088: 1007: 965: 927: 882: 856: 849: 821: 715: 580: 561: 549: 497: 341: 232: 212: 4808: 4725: 4687: 1055:, declared that independence would be granted to the Congo in the future. 971: 4449:"Rebel splits and failed peace talks drive new violence in Congo's Ituri" 2038: 1985: 1965: 1920: 1805:

Ethnic conflict in Kivu has often involved the Congolese Tutsis known as

1680: 1440: 1368:

In April 1990, Mobutu declared the Third Republic, agreeing to a limited

1314:

Relative peace and stability prevailed until 1977 and 1978 when Katangan

1218: 1184: 1154: 1011: 944: 905: 869: 569: 520: 3835:"Inside the Congolese army's campaign of rape and looting in South Kivu" 1101:

At the end of the conference, on 27 January 1960, it was announced that

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and promised elections within the next two years that never took place.

3495: 3377:"REFILE-Opposition leader Felix Tshisekedi sworn in as Congo president" 2145: 1794: 1786: 1615: 1295: 1203: 1168:

agreed to help, offering advanced weaponry and technical advisors. The

1138:

a military mutiny by Congolese soldiers against their European officers

1060: 874: 4266:"Refugees reaching Zambia accuse DRC troops of killing civilians -U.N" 1253:

Unrest and rebellion plagued the government until November 1965, when

4471:"Congo army says it killed 33 militiaman in days of intense fighting" 3780:"In eastern Congo, a local conflict flares as regional tensions rise" 3032: 2098:

Nearly 900 people were killed between 16 and 17 December 2018 around

1993: 1743:

who were integrated into the army defected and called themselves the

1213:, those loyal to the deposed Lumumba set up a rival government under 1210: 1003: 679: 6296: 3986:"Congo rebels kill at least 8 civilians in mounting ethnic violence" 3552:"Thousands Flee Across Congo's Borders After Violence in East Rages" 3273:"UPDATE 2-Congo protests enter third day, rights group says 42 dead" 34: 3806:"Heavy Fighting in Eastern DR Congo, Threats to Civilians Increase" 3310: 2155: 2132:

List of heads of government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

2041:

to control the resources in the region, with the Ndo-Okebo and the

1740: 1656:

presidential election to determine the successor to Kabila was held

1599: 1476:

Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre

1424: 1373: 1349: 1327: 1303: 886: 812:

Belgian rule in the Congo was based around the "colonial trinity" (

584: 369: 3399:"DR Congo: Felix Tshisekedi Appoints Vital Kamerhe Chief of Staff" 2896:"Chronology of the Democratic Republic of Congo/Zaire (1960-1997)" 2210:

The two major divisions of Pygmies in the DRC are the Bambuti, or

1969:

by government troops. The militia has expanded to the neighboring

4849:

Kivu Security Tracker - data on armed groups and casualty figures

4423:"UN: 1,300 civilians killed in DRC violence, half a million flee" 3519:"DRC president declared election winner as opposition cries foul" 3277: 2996:"Thousands of Troops on Rampage Of Looting and Violence in Zaire" 2626: 2624: 2622: 1814: 1755:(FDLR), rebelled against the government, claiming to protect the 1700: 1531: 1323: 1307: 1299: 953: 806: 365: 3912:"At least 21 Hutus killed in 'alarming' east Congo violence: UN" 1632:

protests led by students at the University of Kinshasa broke out

4527:"At least 30 dead in DR Congo massacre blamed on ADF jihadists" 4201:"ADF rebels killed 57 civilians in DR Congo's Ituri region: UN" 3352:"Surprise Winner of Congolese Election Is An Opposition Leader" 2219: 1916: 1728: 1578:

Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

1543: 1535: 1509: 1456: 1428: 1006:, where Lumumba was well known, and from the population of the 624: 505: 501: 3334:"Clashes in Kinshasa leave 50 dead, say DRC opposition groups" 2738: 2711: 2619: 2127:

List of heads of state of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

1202:

On 17 January 1961 Mobutu sent Lumumba to Élisabethville (now

1133:

new nation had any idea how to manage a country of such size.

1082: 5994: 4962: 4890: 3427:"DRC: Under what conditions has Vital Kamerhe been released?" 2099: 2047: 2021: 1913: 1811:

National Coalition of the People for the Sovereignty of Congo

1649: 1452: 1444: 1432: 1023: 604: 361: 4848: 2972:

African Struggles Today: Social Movements Since Independence

2873:. Oxford; New York City: Osprey Publishing. pp. 14–18. 1113:

as president. On independence the country adopted the name "

4124:"Rwandan Hutu militia commander killed in Congo, army says" 3612:"Congo Warns Return of M23 Rebels in East Could Block Vote" 2937:

Anthony Mockler, 'The New Mercenaries,' Corgi Books, 1985,

2451: 2084:

where clashes had broken out over access to fishing ponds.

1775: 1748: 1539: 1460: 1436: 968:'s Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga (BALUBAKAT). 4680:

The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961

3861:"Eastern Congo rebels aim to march on Kinshasa: spokesman" 2774: 2254:. New York, NY: HarperCollins. pp. Chapters 1 and 2. 2117:

Former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

3960:"DRC: Rebels kill at least 10 in troubled eastern region" 3219:"DR Congo election: Questions hang over Kabila's victory" 2648: 2429: 2427: 1935:

tribes who were believed to be sympathetic to the Elema.

1245: 1233:

the Simbas out of Stanleyville in November 1964 during a

1188: 832:

flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became

4146:"Congo army kills leader of splinter Hutu militia group" 4042:"DR Congo militia attack kills dozens in eastern region" 3751:"Is President Tshisekedi's 'state of siege' a cover-up?" 2728: 2726: 2677: 2675: 2636: 2595: 2559: 2547: 2112:

Economic history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

476:

The earliest known human settlements in what is now the

4386: 4384: 4382: 4296:"DR Congo Kasai conflict: 'Thousands dead' in violence" 4244:"DR Congo: Ethnic Militias Attack Civilians in Katanga" 3669:"DRC: Thousands flee amid surge in 'horrific violence'" 3445:"DR Congo names new cabinet, cements president's power" 3030: 1582:

Democratic Republic of the Congo general election, 2006

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rebels. Following the end of the Congo Crisis in 1965,

4801:

Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence

4227:"Democratic Republic of the Congo – Batwa and Bambuti" 3774: 3772: 2583: 2424: 2402: 2400: 1862: 1571: 4739:

The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History

4720:. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press. 3251:"DR Congo President Joseph Kabila begins second term" 3034:

Zaire after Mobutu a case of a humanitarian Emergency

2800:

The Congo, From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History

2762: 2750: 2723: 2699: 2687: 2672: 2660: 2511: 2487: 2475: 2439: 1195:

and arrested Lumumba. A technocratic government, the

572:

attempted to gain independence with Belgian support.

4742:(illustrated, reprint ed.). London: Zed Books. 4379: 3237:"DRC Presidential Election Results Lack Credibility" 2607: 2571: 2499: 1481:

In September 1997, Mobutu died in exile in Morocco.

1157:, also announced its independence on 8 August 1960. 1079:

was in charge of the Léopoldville Province chapter.

3769: 2535: 2523: 2463: 2412: 2397: 1443:) who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of a 1396:(HCR-PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and 1257:, by then commander in chief of the national army, 1103:

elections would be held in the Congo on 22 May 1960

59:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4824:BBC, Country profile: Democratic Republic of Congo 4777: 4635: 3725:"Congo says M23 fighters captured downed air crew" 2797: 1706: 1292:, Leopoldville became Kinshasa and Katanga Shaba. 954:Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga 531:arrived in and explored what is now the DR Congo. 4642:(2nd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. 4497:"Survivors recall horror of Congo ethnic attacks" 4417: 4415: 4413: 3306:"DR Congo unrest: Catholic church backs protests" 3239:(Press release). Carter Center. 10 December 2011. 2841:Dragon Rouge: The Rescue of Hostages in the Congo 2804:(3rd ed.). New York: Palgrave. p. 108. 2284:"Felix Tshisekedi sworn in as DR Congo president" 1394:High Council of Republic-Parliament of Transition 1334:remained in the region for some time afterwards. 1267:elected unopposed as president in a sham election 68:"History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" 6722: 4780:Patrimonialism and Political Change in the Congo 4732: 4195: 4193: 4172:"At least 40 killed in latest DR Congo massacre" 3637: 3635: 3633: 3606: 3604: 2792: 2744: 2717: 2630: 2137:Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 751:Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule 579:tried to suppress secession with the aid of the 6731:History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 3643:"UN peacekeeping in Congo Never-ending mission" 3583:"In Congo, Wars Are Small and Chaos Is Endless" 3146: 2900:Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network 1745:National Congress for the Defence of the People 1484: 736: 488:on the savannah from the 14th century onwards. 4410: 3906: 3904: 3577: 3575: 3573: 2914:"Kasavubu Regime Ousted By Army Coup in Congo" 1850:" (NDC), also called Maï-Maï Sheka and led by 1753:Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda 1467:militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu. 1117:" (République du Congo). The French colony of 859:and the colonial administration began various 6312: 5458: 4876: 4190: 3630: 3601: 3197:"Human Rights Watch: War Crimes in Kisangani" 3065: 2249: 1343:Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social 642:elected president by the Congolese government 457: 4701:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2870:Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002 2060: 1605: 1408: 1276:, President Mobutu renamed the country the " 873:in the cities. By the 1950s the Congo had a 4759:The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth, and Reality 4614: 4238: 4236: 4100:(in French). 2 October 2017. Archived from 4008: 3901: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3570: 3266: 3264: 2969: 2457: 1083:Independence and the Congo Crisis (1960–65) 6319: 6305: 5465: 5451: 4883: 4869: 4694: 3525:. Agence France-Presse. 31 December 2023. 3167:"Kabila's son to be sworn in as president" 2654: 1650:Félix Tshisekedi presidency (2019–present) 1528:Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie 1098:in Brussels beginning on 18 January 1960. 922:Among the most important of these was the 790: 464: 450: 4803:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2252:Congo : the epic history of a people 1403: 1306:Visits Zaire and Meets Mobutu during The 1179:On 23 August, the Congolese armed forces 809:government and its Ministry of Colonies. 119:Learn how and when to remove this message 4698:Political Awakening in the Belgian Congo 4359:"Local Context – Armed Political Groups" 4233: 3930: 3820: 3695:"Goma: M23 rebels capture DR Congo city" 3261: 2087: 1964:province, starting in 2016, the largely 1948: 1727: 1294: 1244: 982:In October 1958 a group of Léopoldville 970: 746: 678: 4784:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 4775: 4713: 4677: 4068:"Rebellion fears grow in eastern Congo" 3303: 3014:"New Riots in Zaire: 300 Are Evacuated" 2902:. Paris Institute of Political Studies. 2893: 2837: 2780: 2768: 2756: 2732: 2705: 2693: 2681: 2666: 2642: 2565: 2517: 2493: 2481: 1888:Islamic State's Central Africa Province 1800: 1762:In April 2012, the leader of the CNDP, 1717: 1566: 1316:Front for Congolese National Liberation 1255:Lieutenant General Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 978:, founding member and leader of the MNC 14: 6723: 4839:Timeline: Democratic Republic of Congo 4756: 4633: 4338: 4229:. Minority Rights Group International. 3002:. Associated Press. 24 September 1991. 2866: 2445: 2433: 2418: 2406: 2326: 2076:In October 2009 a conflict started in 1893: 1693: 1365:of government funds for personal use. 1183:and perpetrated massacres against the 6326: 6300: 5446: 4864: 4798: 4656: 4619:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4551: 4339:Wambua, Catherine (23 January 2018). 3705:from the original on 20 November 2012 3369: 3331: 3094:"Capture of Zaire's capital complete" 2613: 2601: 2589: 2577: 2553: 2541: 2529: 2505: 2469: 2378: 4246:. Human Rights Watch. 11 August 2015 3808:. Human Rights Watch. 4 October 2017 3297: 3270: 3147:Stuart Jeffries (10 February 2001). 2894:Olivier, Lanotte (25 January 2016). 2245: 2243: 2241: 2239: 2204: 1999: 1938: 1884:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant 1504:(MLC), led by the Congolese warlord 1502:Movement for the Liberation of Congo 1288:("river that swallows all rivers"). 1240: 893:Rise in Congolese political activity 771:the Democratic Republic of the Congo 766:Association Internationale africaine 564:, where the regional governments of 148:the Democratic Republic of the Congo 57:adding citations to reliable sources 28: 4761:(2nd ed.). London: Zed Books. 4682:. London: Oxford University Press. 4272:. 23 September 2017. Archived from 2012:Allied Democratic Forces insurgency 1869:Allied Democratic Forces insurgency 1863:Allied Democratic Forces insurgency 1572:Transitional government (2003–2006) 1423:By 1996, tensions from the war and 1010:, where efforts were directed by a 24: 4451:. The New Humanitarian. 5 May 2020 3332:Burke, Jason (20 September 2016). 3112:"Zaire Chooses Confusing New Name" 2970:Zeilig, Leo; Dwyer, Peter (2012). 956:(CONAKAT) under the leadership of 25: 6752: 4983:Transitional Government (2003–06) 4817: 4585:. 29 January 2019. Archived from 3383:. 24 January 2019. Archived from 3304:Jullien, Maud (21 January 2015). 3130:"Mobutu dies in exile in Morocco" 2236: 2065: 1519:Kabila was succeeded by his son, 647:re-elected in a disputed election 591:to support a coup led by Colonel 6627:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 6397:Democratic Republic of the Congo 5942:Democratic Republic of the Congo 5485:Democratic Republic of the Congo 5474: 4892:Democratic Republic of the Congo 4571: 4545: 4519: 4489: 4463: 4441: 4351: 4332: 4306: 4288: 4258: 3031:Emizet, Kisangani N. F. (1997). 2974:. Haymarket Books. p. 170. 1197:College of Commissioners-General 725: 689:Democratic Republic of the Congo 664: 478:Democratic Republic of the Congo 433: 155: 33: 4834:BBC, Q&A: DR Congo conflict 4552:Tampa, Vava (10 January 2022). 4219: 4164: 4138: 4116: 4086: 4060: 4034: 3992:. 8 August 2016. Archived from 3978: 3952: 3879: 3853: 3798: 3743: 3717: 3687: 3661: 3544: 3511: 3483: 3465: 3451: 3437: 3419: 3405: 3391: 3344: 3325: 3271:Ross, Aaron (21 January 2015). 3243: 3229: 3211: 3189: 3177: 3159: 3140: 3122: 3104: 3086: 3059: 3024: 3006: 2988: 2963: 2947: 2931: 2906: 2887: 2860: 2831: 2818: 2786: 1707:Conflict in Kivu (2004–present) 1560:United Nations Security Council 1361:, most notably his own massive 1269:in 1970 for a seven-year term. 1191:support, Colonel Joseph Mobutu 1020:All-African Peoples' Conference 535:of DR Congo began in 1885 when 44:needs additional citations for 4919:Colonial governors (1885–1960) 4844:BBC, In pictures: Congo crisis 4503:. 18 June 2019. Archived from 2372: 2355: 2320: 2294: 2276: 1688:the 2023 presidential election 1622:. Official observers from the 1129:, after their capital cities. 640:, succeeded him and was later 13: 1: 4776:Willame, Jean-Claude (1972). 4717:Congo: Background of Conflict 3938:"Armed groups in eastern DRC" 3887:"Who are the Nyatura rebels?" 3072:. PublicAffairs. p. 23. 2329:African Archaeological Review 2250:Van Reybrouck, David (2015). 2229: 1259:seized control of the country 1075:served as its president, and 1040:violent and destructive riots 1030:ideals of Ghanaian President 899:Belgian Congo in World War II 885:and the United States as the 6741:History of Africa by country 5000:M23 offensive (2022–present) 4973:Second Congo War (1998–2003) 4948:Congo-Léopoldville (1960–65) 4924:Congo Free State (1885–1908) 4615:Borstelmann, Thomas (1993). 4318:International Business Times 4126:. Reuters. 18 September 2019 4020:International Business Times 3940:. Irin news. 31 October 2013 2826:The Assassination of Lumumba 1923:often exploit and allegedly 1594:since independence in 1960. 1485:Second Congo War (1998–2003) 1388:as its chairman, along with 1000:Mouvement National Congolais 737:Congo Free State (1885–1908) 480:have been dated back to the 18:History of the Belgian Congo 7: 5115:Foreign policy under Mobutu 4678:Hoskyns, Catherine (1965). 3020:. Reuters. 23 October 1991. 2105: 1592:first multi-party elections 1272:Embarking on a campaign of 755:The Congo Free State was a 683:Map of the Kingdom of Kongo 548:railway between Matadi and 411:Félix Tshisekedi presidency 10: 6757: 4958:State of Katanga (1960–63) 4607: 2379:Ewans, Sir Martin (2001). 2218:in the northeast, and the 2214:, who largely live in the 2091: 2069: 2016:The Ituri conflict in the 2009: 2003: 1942: 1897: 1866: 1780:Force Intervention Brigade 1721: 1710: 1575: 1488: 1419:Great Lakes refugee crisis 1412: 1265:of 1966 and 1967, and was 1086: 947:fermented in 1958 as more 926:(ABAKO), representing the 896: 803:King Leopold II of Belgium 794: 740: 729: 687:The area now known as the 675:Prehistoric Central Africa 668: 659:peaceful transfer of power 6736:History of Central Africa 6640: 6615: 6334: 6141: 5993: 5940: 5902: 5624: 5491: 5404: 5352: 5284: 5275: 5218: 5209: 5085: 5076: 5019: 5010: 4968:First Congo War (1996–98) 4899: 4734:Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges 4714:Merriam, Alan P. (1961). 4695:Lemarchand, René (1964). 3199:. Hrw.org. 20 August 2002 3082:– via Google Books. 2794:Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges 2061:Conflict in the Northwest 1739:with other soldiers from 1606:Kabila overstays his term 1409:First Congo War (1996–97) 1386:Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya 1320:Angolan People's Republic 1221:on 30 December 1961, and 732:Belgian overseas colonies 265:Intl. African Association 6382:Central African Republic 5090:Administrative divisions 4829:BBC, DR Congo: Key facts 4799:Young, Crawford (1965). 4657:Gibbs, David N. (1991). 3184:DRC, Opinion survey 2009 2197: 2055:Allied Democratic Forces 1875:Allied Democratic Forces 1654:On 30 December 2018 the 1235:hostage rescue operation 1193:overthrew the government 1069:Parti Solidaire Africain 934:Up into the 1950s, most 759:privately controlled by 401:Joseph Kabila presidency 4995:M23 rebellion (2012–13) 4936:Belgian Congo (1908–60) 4757:Turner, Thomas (2007). 3889:. IBT. 22 February 2017 2838:Wagoner, F. E. (1980). 2341:10.1023/A:1021659928822 1945:Kamwina Nsapu rebellion 1817:militias and is led by 1644:caused further protests 1588:transitional government 1109:as prime minister, and 865:African trypanosomiasis 791:Belgian Congo (1908–60) 671:Early Congolese history 4953:Congo Crisis (1960–65) 4914:Colonization (1867–85) 3066:Jason Stearns (2012). 2867:Abbott, Peter (2014). 1957: 1912:starting in 2013, the 1848:Nduma Defense of Congo 1733: 1474:, became known as the 1431:had spilled over into 1404:Civil wars (1996–2003) 1311: 1250: 1096:Round Table Conference 1051:and the Belgian King, 979: 752: 684: 539:founded and ruled the 6542:São Tomé and Príncipe 6402:Republic of the Congo 4634:Freund, Bill (1998). 3477:The Africa Report.com 3431:The Africa Report.com 2745:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2002 2718:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2002 2631:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2002 2088:Yumbi Massacre (2018) 1952: 1852:Gédéon Kyungu Mutanga 1731: 1472:Laurent-Desire Kabila 1359:government corruption 1318:rebels, based in the 1298: 1263:Stanleyville mutinies 1248: 1115:Republic of the Congo 974: 761:Leopold II of Belgium 750: 682: 629:Laurent-Désiré Kabila 4396:The New Humanitarian 4276:on 23 September 2017 3784:The New Humanitarian 3701:. 20 November 2012. 3116:The Spokesman-Review 2383:. Richmond: Curzon. 2141:Cities in DR Congo: 1904:Mai-Mai Kata Katanga 1801:Mai Mai insurgencies 1718:Tutsi led insurgency 1567:Joseph Kabila period 1225:on 15 January 1963. 924:Alliance des Bakongo 801:On 15 November 1908 661:since independence. 533:Belgian colonization 529:Henry Morton Stanley 517:Atlantic slave trade 53:improve this article 6617:States with limited 4854:21 May 2022 at the 4104:on 29 December 2017 3867:. 29 September 2017 3387:on 25 January 2019. 3257:. 20 December 2011. 3225:. 10 December 2011. 3186:, by ICRC and Ipsos 3136:. 7 September 1997. 2918:archive.nytimes.com 2783:, pp. 131–132. 2604:, pp. 296–297. 2556:, pp. 274–275. 2082:Sud-Ubangi District 1894:Conflict in Katanga 1694:Continued conflicts 1630:On 19 January 2015 1332:Inter-African Force 1290:Among other changes 1199:, was established. 1181:invaded South Kasai 1071:(PSA) was founded. 879:much of the uranium 275:Intl. Congo Society 5253:Telecommunications 5100:Court of Cassation 5064:Former place names 4583:The New York Times 4533:. 6 September 2021 4364:Human Rights Watch 4152:. 10 November 2019 4048:. 28 November 2016 4022:. 20 February 2017 3841:. 18 December 2017 3587:The New York Times 3499:. 25 December 2023 3433:. 7 December 2021. 3285:on 21 January 2015 3173:. 19 January 2001. 2290:. 24 January 2019. 1958: 1900:Batwa-Luba clashes 1734: 1620:Étienne Tshisekedi 1610:In December 2011, 1390:Étienne Tshisekedi 1370:multi-party system 1312: 1274:cultural awareness 1251: 1174:sub-Saharan Africa 1123:Congo-Léopoldville 980: 846:racial segregation 838:politique indigène 753: 685: 649:in 2011. In 2018, 527:In 1870, explorer 415:2019–present 352:Congo–Léopoldville 6718: 6717: 6644:other territories 6417:Equatorial Guinea 6328:History of Africa 6294: 6293: 5904:Republic of Congo 5440: 5439: 5400: 5399: 5319:Human trafficking 5271: 5270: 5205: 5204: 5173:Political parties 5166:National Assembly 5110:Foreign relations 5072: 5071: 4791:978-0-8047-0793-0 4768:978-1-84277-688-9 4649:978-0-333-69872-3 4626:978-0-19-507942-5 4591:on 1 January 2022 4477:. 28 October 2020 4367:. 22 January 2003 4074:. 31 October 2017 3918:. 8 February 2016 3786:. 28 October 2019 3731:. 31 January 2017 3618:. 3 February 2017 3558:. 30 January 2018 3479:. 5 January 2021. 2880:978-1-78200-076-1 2811:978-1-84277-053-5 2645:, pp. 25–27. 2592:, pp. 36–37. 2568:, pp. 22–23. 2436:, pp. 198–9. 2122:History of Africa 2000:Conflict in Ituri 1939:Conflict in Kasai 1768:March 23 Movement 1506:Jean-Pierre Bemba 1355:faltering economy 1337:Zaire remained a 1278:Republic of Zaire 1241:Zaire (1965–1997) 1166:Nikita Khrushchev 1127:Congo-Brazzaville 1077:Cléophas Kamitatu 958:Godefroid Munongo 780:Tropical diseases 655:elected president 486:equatorial forest 474: 473: 419: 418: 318: 317: 241: 240: 223:Kingdom of Chokwe 129: 128: 121: 103: 16:(Redirected from 6748: 6705: 6704:(United Kingdom) 6700:Tristan da Cunha 6696:Ascension Island 6688: 6675: 6666: 6642:Dependencies and 6335:Sovereign states 6321: 6314: 6307: 6298: 6297: 5493:Congo Free State 5479: 5478: 5477: 5467: 5460: 5453: 5444: 5443: 5420: 5413: 5282: 5281: 5243:Franc (currency) 5216: 5215: 5083: 5082: 5017: 5016: 4885: 4878: 4871: 4862: 4861: 4812: 4795: 4783: 4772: 4753: 4729: 4710: 4691: 4674: 4653: 4641: 4630: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4596: 4590: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4549: 4543: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4523: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4512: 4493: 4487: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4419: 4408: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4398:. 13 August 2019 4388: 4377: 4376: 4374: 4372: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4292: 4286: 4285: 4283: 4281: 4262: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4251: 4240: 4231: 4230: 4223: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4212: 4197: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4183: 4168: 4162: 4161: 4159: 4157: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4090: 4084: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4064: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4053: 4038: 4032: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4012: 4006: 4005: 4003: 4001: 3996:on 9 August 2016 3982: 3976: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3956: 3950: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3934: 3928: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3908: 3899: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3883: 3877: 3876: 3874: 3872: 3857: 3851: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3831: 3818: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3776: 3767: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3747: 3741: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3721: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3691: 3685: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3639: 3628: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3608: 3599: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3579: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3515: 3509: 3508: 3506: 3504: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3441: 3435: 3434: 3423: 3417: 3416: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3364: 3362: 3348: 3342: 3341: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3301: 3295: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3281:. 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Archived from 2298: 2292: 2291: 2280: 2274: 2273: 2247: 2223: 2208: 2034:Mobutu Sese Seko 2024:and pastoralist 1910:Katanga Province 1823:Congolese Tutsis 1677:Félix Tshisekedi 1664:Félix Tshisekedi 1660:Félix Tshisekedi 1491:Second Congo War 1439:militia forces ( 1249:Mobutu Sese Seko 1164:for assistance. 1144:, seceded under 1136:On 5 July 1960, 998:established the 941:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 814:trinité colonial 758: 743:Congo Free State 712:Kingdom of Lunda 704:Kingdom of Kongo 651:Félix Tshisekedi 633:Second Congo War 601:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 541:Congo Free State 504:, in modern-day 493:Kingdom of Kongo 482:Middle Stone Age 466: 459: 452: 438: 437: 436: 391:Second Congo War 324: 323: 285:Congo Free State 247: 246: 203:Kingdom of Lunda 183:Kingdom of Kongo 165: 164: 159: 149: 131: 130: 124: 117: 113: 110: 104: 102: 61: 37: 29: 21: 6756: 6755: 6751: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6746: 6745: 6721: 6720: 6719: 6714: 6713: 6703: 6686: 6673: 6664: 6645: 6643: 6636: 6620: 6618: 6611: 6330: 6325: 6295: 6290: 6137: 5989: 5936: 5898: 5620: 5487: 5475: 5473: 5471: 5441: 5436: 5423: 5416: 5409: 5396: 5392:Public holidays 5348: 5267: 5201: 5139:Law enforcement 5068: 5006: 4963:Zaire (1965–97) 4895: 4889: 4856:Wayback Machine 4820: 4815: 4792: 4769: 4750: 4671: 4650: 4627: 4610: 4605: 4604: 4594: 4592: 4577: 4576: 4572: 4562: 4560: 4550: 4546: 4536: 4534: 4525: 4524: 4520: 4510: 4508: 4507:on 24 June 2019 4495: 4494: 4490: 4480: 4478: 4469: 4468: 4464: 4454: 4452: 4447: 4446: 4442: 4432: 4430: 4421: 4420: 4411: 4401: 4399: 4390: 4389: 4380: 4370: 4368: 4357: 4356: 4352: 4337: 4333: 4323: 4321: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4302:. 20 June 2017. 4294: 4293: 4289: 4279: 4277: 4264: 4263: 4259: 4249: 4247: 4242: 4241: 4234: 4225: 4224: 4220: 4210: 4208: 4199: 4198: 4191: 4181: 4179: 4170: 4169: 4165: 4155: 4153: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4129: 4127: 4122: 4121: 4117: 4107: 4105: 4092: 4091: 4087: 4077: 4075: 4066: 4065: 4061: 4051: 4049: 4040: 4039: 4035: 4025: 4023: 4014: 4013: 4009: 3999: 3997: 3984: 3983: 3979: 3969: 3967: 3958: 3957: 3953: 3943: 3941: 3936: 3935: 3931: 3921: 3919: 3910: 3909: 3902: 3892: 3890: 3885: 3884: 3880: 3870: 3868: 3859: 3858: 3854: 3844: 3842: 3833: 3832: 3821: 3811: 3809: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3789: 3787: 3778: 3777: 3770: 3760: 3758: 3749: 3748: 3744: 3734: 3732: 3723: 3722: 3718: 3708: 3706: 3693: 3692: 3688: 3678: 3676: 3675:. 30 April 2016 3667: 3666: 3662: 3652: 3650: 3641: 3640: 3631: 3621: 3619: 3610: 3609: 3602: 3592: 3590: 3589:. 30 April 2016 3581: 3580: 3571: 3561: 3559: 3550: 3549: 3545: 3535: 3533: 3517: 3516: 3512: 3502: 3500: 3489: 3488: 3484: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3443: 3442: 3438: 3425: 3424: 3420: 3415:. 20 June 2020. 3411: 3410: 3406: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3375: 3374: 3370: 3360: 3358: 3350: 3349: 3345: 3330: 3326: 3316: 3314: 3302: 3298: 3288: 3286: 3269: 3262: 3249: 3248: 3244: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3217: 3216: 3212: 3202: 3200: 3195: 3194: 3190: 3182: 3178: 3165: 3164: 3160: 3145: 3141: 3128: 3127: 3123: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3092: 3091: 3087: 3080: 3064: 3060: 3045: 3029: 3025: 3012: 3011: 3007: 2994: 2993: 2989: 2982: 2968: 2964: 2952: 2948: 2936: 2932: 2922: 2920: 2912: 2911: 2907: 2892: 2888: 2881: 2865: 2861: 2848:. p. 182. 2836: 2832: 2823: 2819: 2812: 2791: 2787: 2779: 2775: 2767: 2763: 2755: 2751: 2743: 2739: 2731: 2724: 2716: 2712: 2704: 2700: 2692: 2688: 2680: 2673: 2665: 2661: 2655:Lemarchand 1964 2653: 2649: 2641: 2637: 2629: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2600: 2596: 2588: 2584: 2576: 2572: 2564: 2560: 2552: 2548: 2540: 2536: 2528: 2524: 2516: 2512: 2504: 2500: 2492: 2488: 2480: 2476: 2468: 2464: 2456: 2452: 2444: 2440: 2432: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2405: 2398: 2391: 2377: 2373: 2365: 2361: 2360: 2356: 2325: 2321: 2311: 2309: 2308:on 2 March 2015 2300: 2299: 2295: 2282: 2281: 2277: 2262: 2248: 2237: 2232: 2227: 2226: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2108: 2096: 2090: 2074: 2068: 2063: 2014: 2008: 2002: 1947: 1941: 1906: 1898:Main articles: 1896: 1886:as part of the 1871: 1865: 1803: 1726: 1720: 1715: 1709: 1696: 1652: 1608: 1586:DR Congo had a 1584: 1576:Main articles: 1574: 1569: 1497: 1489:Main articles: 1487: 1427:in neighboring 1421: 1415:First Congo War 1413:Main articles: 1411: 1406: 1339:one-party state 1322:, launched the 1243: 1215:Antoine Gizenga 1111:Joseph Kasavubu 1107:Patrice Lumumba 1091: 1085: 1073:Antoine Gizenga 988:Patrice Lumumba 976:Patrice Lumumba 901: 895: 826:private company 799: 793: 757:corporate state 756: 745: 739: 734: 728: 708:Kingdom of Luba 693:Semliki harpoon 677: 669:Main articles: 667: 657:; in the first 621:First Congo War 607:. 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4903: 4897: 4896: 4894: articles 4888: 4887: 4880: 4873: 4865: 4859: 4858: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4819: 4818:External links 4816: 4814: 4813: 4796: 4790: 4773: 4767: 4754: 4748: 4730: 4711: 4692: 4675: 4669: 4654: 4648: 4631: 4625: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4570: 4544: 4518: 4488: 4462: 4440: 4409: 4378: 4350: 4331: 4320:. 8 March 2017 4305: 4287: 4257: 4232: 4218: 4189: 4163: 4137: 4115: 4085: 4059: 4033: 4007: 3977: 3966:. 19 July 2016 3951: 3929: 3900: 3878: 3852: 3819: 3797: 3768: 3755:Deutsche Welle 3742: 3716: 3686: 3660: 3629: 3600: 3569: 3543: 3510: 3482: 3464: 3461:. 26 May 2021. 3450: 3436: 3418: 3404: 3390: 3368: 3343: 3324: 3296: 3260: 3242: 3228: 3210: 3188: 3176: 3158: 3139: 3121: 3118:. 20 May 1997. 3103: 3100:. 18 May 1997. 3085: 3079:978-1610391597 3078: 3058: 3043: 3023: 3018:New York Times 3005: 3000:New York Times 2987: 2981:978-1608461202 2980: 2962: 2946: 2930: 2905: 2886: 2879: 2859: 2830: 2828:, Verso, 2001. 2817: 2810: 2785: 2773: 2761: 2749: 2737: 2722: 2710: 2698: 2686: 2671: 2659: 2657:, p. 241. 2647: 2635: 2618: 2616:, p. 277. 2606: 2594: 2582: 2580:, p. 276. 2570: 2558: 2546: 2534: 2522: 2510: 2508:, p. 291. 2498: 2486: 2474: 2462: 2450: 2448:, p. 198. 2438: 2423: 2411: 2396: 2390:978-0700715893 2389: 2371: 2354: 2335:(3): 173–198. 2319: 2293: 2275: 2260: 2234: 2233: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2224: 2202: 2201: 2199: 2196: 2195: 2194: 2193: 2192: 2182: 2172: 2162: 2152: 2139: 2134: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2107: 2104: 2094:Yumbi Massacre 2092:Main article: 2089: 2086: 2072:Dongo conflict 2070:Main article: 2067: 2066:Dongo Conflict 2064: 2062: 2059: 2006:Ituri conflict 2004:Main article: 2001: 1998: 1971:Kasai-Oriental 1943:Main article: 1940: 1937: 1895: 1892: 1867:Main article: 1864: 1861: 1802: 1799: 1791:Ituri province 1764:Bosco Ntaganda 1737:Laurent Nkunda 1719: 1716: 1711:Main article: 1708: 1705: 1695: 1692: 1651: 1648: 1607: 1604: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1486: 1483: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1398:Kengo Wa Dondo 1378:U.S. Air 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4909:Early history 4907: 4906: 4904: 4902: 4898: 4893: 4886: 4881: 4879: 4874: 4872: 4867: 4866: 4863: 4857: 4853: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4797: 4793: 4787: 4782: 4781: 4774: 4770: 4764: 4760: 4755: 4751: 4749:9781842770535 4745: 4741: 4740: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4718: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4699: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4676: 4672: 4670:9780226290713 4666: 4662: 4661: 4655: 4651: 4645: 4640: 4639: 4632: 4628: 4622: 4618: 4613: 4612: 4589: 4584: 4580: 4574: 4559: 4555: 4548: 4532: 4528: 4522: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4492: 4476: 4472: 4466: 4450: 4444: 4429:. 8 June 2020 4428: 4424: 4418: 4416: 4414: 4397: 4393: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4366: 4365: 4360: 4354: 4346: 4342: 4335: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4301: 4297: 4291: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4261: 4245: 4239: 4237: 4228: 4222: 4207:. 4 June 2021 4206: 4202: 4196: 4194: 4178:. 27 May 2020 4177: 4173: 4167: 4151: 4147: 4141: 4125: 4119: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4089: 4073: 4069: 4063: 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2966: 2960: 2959:0-06-122490-1 2956: 2950: 2944: 2943:0-552-12558-X 2940: 2934: 2919: 2915: 2909: 2901: 2897: 2890: 2882: 2876: 2872: 2871: 2863: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2842: 2834: 2827: 2821: 2813: 2807: 2802: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2782: 2777: 2771:, p. 31. 2770: 2765: 2759:, p. 30. 2758: 2753: 2747:, p. 86. 2746: 2741: 2735:, p. 10. 2734: 2729: 2727: 2720:, p. 85. 2719: 2714: 2708:, p. 28. 2707: 2702: 2696:, p. 23. 2695: 2690: 2684:, p. 29. 2683: 2678: 2676: 2669:, p. 27. 2668: 2663: 2656: 2651: 2644: 2639: 2633:, p. 84. 2632: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2615: 2610: 2603: 2598: 2591: 2586: 2579: 2574: 2567: 2562: 2555: 2550: 2544:, p. 51. 2543: 2538: 2532:, p. 29. 2531: 2526: 2520:, p. 22. 2519: 2514: 2507: 2502: 2496:, p. 25. 2495: 2490: 2484:, p. 24. 2483: 2478: 2472:, p. 70. 2471: 2466: 2459: 2454: 2447: 2442: 2435: 2430: 2428: 2421:, p. 29. 2420: 2415: 2409:, p. 28. 2408: 2403: 2401: 2392: 2386: 2382: 2375: 2364: 2358: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2323: 2307: 2303: 2297: 2289: 2285: 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1665: 1661: 1657: 1647: 1645: 1639: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1625: 1624:Carter Center 1621: 1617: 1613: 1612:Joseph Kabila 1603: 1601: 1597: 1596:Joseph Kabila 1593: 1589: 1583: 1579: 1564: 1561: 1555: 1551: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1524: 1522: 1517: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1496: 1492: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1468: 1464: 1463:and Mugunga. 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1420: 1416: 1401: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1381: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1247: 1238: 1236: 1231: 1226: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1207: 1205: 1200: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1175: 1171: 1170:United States 1167: 1163: 1158: 1156: 1151: 1147: 1146:Moise Tshombe 1143: 1139: 1134: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1099: 1097: 1090: 1080: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1056: 1054: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1035: 1033: 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