History of education in China

980: 1161: 50: 1367:, the number of universities in China increased from to 1,289 by 1960 and nationwide enrollment more than doubled to 962,000 in 1960. Educational reforms during the Great Leap Forward sought to increase student and staff participation in the administration process, to favor students from worker, peasant, or soldier backgrounds in admissions, and to increase the role of the Communist Party and of politics in schools. Beginning in 1961, universities rolled back these policy initiatives, and increase meritocratic university policies instead of egalitarian ones. 1022:(about 1800–1050 B.C.E.), which constitute the first written records in China and the main historical record for that period. Used for divination, questions would be written on the bones before they were placed in a fire, and then the results printed on the bones. Several of these divinations contain questions about school: ‘Is it auspicious for the children to go on school? Will it rain on their way home?’ However, the oracle bones contain little information about the function or purpose of the schools. 1725:, the school was named Shuada Suqin Women's Primary School after his wife Ma Suqin who was also involved in its founding. Hui Muslim refugees fled to northwest China from the central plains after the Japanese invasion of China, where they continued to practice women's education and build women's mosque communities, while women's education was not adopted by the local northwestern Hui Muslims and the two different communities continued to differ in this practice. 1602:. Shutting down private tutoring was intended to narrow the education gap between rich and poor. Rules issued in July 2021 prohibits new registration of private tuition tutoring centers and required existing centers to re-organize as non-profits. Tuition centers are prohibited from being listed on the stock market or receiving "excessive capital." They are no longer permitted to offer tutoring on the weekends or during public holidays. 1176:, which did not charge tuition fees and gave stipends to preselected students. They were dedicated to the pursuit of independent study of the classics and literature, rather than to the preparation for governance, as was the case with imperial academies. Professors rarely lectured students, instead offering advice and critiquing research. 1308:

improving literacy through both formal schooling and literacy campaigns. In the first sixteen years of the PRC, elementary school enrollment tripled, secondary school enrollment increased by a factor of 8.5, and college enrollment more than quadrupled. By 1979, participation by Chinese youth in primary school was nearly universal.

1528:.As part of the campaign, Patriotic Education Bases were established, and schools ranging from primary to the college levels were required to take students to sites of significance to the Chinese Communist Revolution. In history education, the Patriotic Education Campaign highlighted Japanese atrocities against China during the 1330:

it reduced the number of comprehensive universities but significantly increased the number of specialized practical or technical institutions. As part of this process of re-organization, the formerly American-affiliated higher educational institutions were divided among, and absorbed by, other colleges and universities.

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viewed the Chinese education system as hampered by a formalism that wasted young people's talents. By 1964, he argued that school curricula, which had been copied closely from the Soviet model of the 1950s, should be reformed. Mao proposed reducing the number of school years so that teaching could be

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directed schools to strengthen foreign language education. In July of that year, the Ministry of Education required that foreign languages (primarily English) be taught at the older grades of elementary schools. The next year, the Ministry required all schools and universities to further increase the

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sought to develop a system of political counselors as a pilot program in universities. Tsinghua University established a political counselor program in 1953, becoming the first university to do so. In this program, new graduates who were also CCP members worked as political counselors in managing the

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improved education in areas it controlled. It opened schools for adults and children (both male and female) in which locally produced textbooks were used and led literacy campaigns. These efforts marked the first time in Chinese history that peasants had educational opportunities. During the Mao era,

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studied at Al-Azhar University in Egypt along with several other Chinese Muslim students, the first Chinese students in modern times to study in the Middle East. Wang recalled his experience teaching at madrassas in the provinces of Henan (Yu), Hebei (Ji), and Shandong (Lu) which were outside of the

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Based on a July 1968 comment by Mao Zedong, July 21st Industrial Universities were established at factories as part-time technical and engineering study programs. Mao had given the instruction to emulate the model of the Shanghai Machine Tool Factory university. Mao stated that short-term vocational

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The PRC nationalized or dismantled various American-operated universities. U.S.-style universities for elites were re-organized into Soviet-style institutions for peasants and workers, with a greater focus on practical skills than theoretical knowledge. As China adopted the Soviet educational model,

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In 1951, China adopted the Resolution on the Educational System Reform. It made cadre and adult training schools an integral part of the school system, replaced bilevel elementary school (which leadership believed impeded the education of working class children) with five year elementary school, and

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In the Sui dynasty (581–619), the imperial examination system was established to train and recruit Confucian scholar-officials. Especially in the Song dynasty (960–1279), the imperial examination become the most fundamental and important ancient Chinese political and educational system. The function

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was viewed as the main student constituency. Curriculum was revised with a focus on practical education and abstract learning and "bookishness" were condemned. Classroom education included only a fraction of the school day and the balance was spent in practical training. The precise mix of academic

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government supported the Chengda Teachers Academy, which helped usher in a new era of Islamic education in China, promoting nationalism and Chinese language among Muslims, and fully incorporating them into the main aspects of Chinese society. The Ministry of Education provided funds to the Chinese

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disrupted education, which became one of the most contested socio-political matters. In June 1966, the national university entrance examinations were suspended. With the disruption in education, the secondary school classes of 1966, 1967, and 1968 which were unable to graduate on time later became

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The weakening of the Zhou empire and the rise of local warlords ushered in the Period of Warring States. Some local warlords may have founded academies to consolidate their power and gain legitimacy. The different schools were often organized into political entities to gain social influence. Rival

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By the Zhou dynasty, inscriptions from bronze vessels and the Book of Rites suggest that the Zhou kings founded schools for young aristocratic men to serve the king. The Book of Rites suggests that most of these schools were located near ponds and forests, and therefore historians infer that these

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Xi has also implemented a number of other education reforms. Schools are required to adjust their opening hours to be consistent with work hours in their area so that parents can pick-up their children directly after work (in order to reduce reliance on private classes for adult supervision after

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and the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the CCP brought the educational system under national control. Improving population-wide literacy was the focus of education in the early years of the PRC. In 1949, the literacy rate was only between 20 and 40%. The government focused on

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As part of Xi's 2021 directive on "double lessening" (reducing excessive off-campus tutoring and reducing homework burdens), schools may not assign homework to children to grades one and two, homework is limited to no more than 60 minutes for children in grades three to six, and no more than 90

1572:. In 2012, there were about a hundred such schools nationwide; as of 2021, there were more than 1,440. Master's degree and Doctoral programs in Marxism have increased significantly since 2016. In 2017, Chinese universities and regional governments began establishing centers for the study of 1716:

Hui Muslims from the Central Plains (Zhongyuan) differed in their view of women's education than Hui Muslims from the northwestern provinces, with the Hui from the Central Plains provinces like Henan having a history of women's Mosques and religious schooling for women, while Hui women in

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Since the 1990s the Soviet model has been largely abolished in China, with many universities expanding or merging with others to provide more comprehensive education in parallel with specialized technical training. Also beginning in the 1990s, the political counselor system was further

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era, the college entrance exam system was reintroduced. Its reintroduction decreased educational opportunities for the highly motivated, but not academically prepared, peasants who had benefited from the "worker, peasant, soldier" model of the later stage of the Cultural Revolution.

1276:'s defeat in 1949, the government had retreated to Taiwan. During the first 20 years of Nationalist rule, mandatory schooling consisted of six years of primary school education, which was also the length under Japanese rule. In 1968, the ROC government extended it to nine years. 1535:

Women's educational attainment grew considerably. By 2009 half of all college students were women. China's rate of increase in women's higher education levels has been substantially greater than countries with similar, and some countries with higher, per capita income levels.

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known as the Old three cohort. Alongside a break in the direct progression from high school to college, the rural education system was expanded and rural high school graduates were expected to later return to their villages to contribute to rural development. Languages of

1440:(trial textbooks) heavily weighted towards practical knowledge such as operating machinery or pumps proliferated. By 1971, these textbooks had achieved a greater balance between practical knowledge and more traditional academic subjects.From 1973 to 1975, the practice of 1476:

surged to take the examinations, eager to pick up the studies they had left off during the chaotic Cultural Revolution period. This included an older generation of students resuming their studies. Children from Third Front work units received preference on the new exam.

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Deng endorsed the political counselor program in universities, which had been piloted by Tsinghua University before the Cultural Revolution and which had resumed in 1977. After its endorsement by Deng, the program expanded across higher educational institutions.'

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Zurndorfer, Harriet T.. 1992. “Learning, Lineages, and Locality in Late Imperial China. A Comparative Study of Education in Huichow (anhwei) and Foochow (fukien) 1600–1800. Part II”. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 35 (3). BRILL: 209–38.

1639:馬复初 1794–1874 in Yunnan with Ma Lianyuan writing books on law 'Umdat al-'Islām (عمدة الإسلام) شىي ش grammar book on ṣarf (صرف) called Hawā and Ma Fuchu writing a grammar book on naḥw (نحو) called Muttasiq (متسق) and Kāfiya (كافية). Šarḥ al-laṭā'if (شرح اللطائف) 1705:

traditional stronghold of Muslim education in northwest China, and where the living conditions were poorer and the students had a much tougher time than the northwestern students. In 1931 China sent five students to study at Al-Azhar in Egypt, among them was

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school hours). Schools must also promote health by requiring outdoor physical education classes daily and providing eye examinations twice per term. Private Tibetan schools have been closed and many Tibetans children attend mandatory state boarding schools.

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Following the launch of the Free Lunch Project by a grassroots non-governmental organization, in 2011 China's central government established the National Nutrition Subsidies Policy to provide 16 billion yuan (US$ 2.32 billion) per year for rural students.

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was a form of Islamic education developed during the Ming dynasty among the Hui, centered around Mosques. The Arabic and Persian language Thirteen Classics were part of the main curriculum. In the madrassas, some Chinese Muslim literature like the

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areas. By 2015, more than 15% of adults had college degrees. The growth in college educational opportunities has been particularly large for those born in the 1980s. As of 2020, 54% of China's college-aged population was enrolled in college.

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schools mostly focused on martial arts education, especially archery. From the Zhou period onwards, the imperial government would have a strong influence on the education system. The traditions from this period were passed on through the

1651:) Arabic translation by (Muḥammad Nūr al-Ḥaqq ibn Luqmān as-Ṣīnī) (محمد نور الحق إبن لقمان الصيني), the Arabic name of Ma Lianyuan. Islamic names, du'ā' (دُعَاء), ġusl (غسل), prayers, and other ceremonies were taught in the 1739:

Although religious education for children is officially forbidden by law in China, the CCP allows Hui Muslims to violate this law and have their children educated in religion and attend Mosques while the law is enforced on

3589: 3577: 1077:. The open and tolerant atmosphere in this academy attracted Confucian and Daoist scholars from across the country for debate and study. However, the institution had no long-term impact on subsequent Chinese institutions. 4321:(New York: Basic Books, 1989). The observations of a leading American educationist who visited China in the 1980s and ascribed the effectiveness of Chinese education to underlying cultural attitudes and political choices. 3613: 1179:

The near total neglect of engineering, mathematics, and other applied science education by the state contributed to a vast gap in military power between China and the European empires, as evidenced by the outcomes of the

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courses should be created for current industrial workers. Factories around the country therefore established their own educational programs for technicians and engineers. By 1976, there were 15,000 July 21 Universities.

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Foreign language schools resumed in the early 1970s. Among their tasks was to work with peasants and workers revise foreign language dictionaries, eliminating aspects that were deemed "serious capitalist perspectives."

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of Confucianism. The traditional Chinese attitude towards education followed Mencius's advice that "Those who labor with their minds govern others; those who labor with their strength are governed by others."

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In 2003, China's Ministry of Education called for adding environmental education content throughout the public school curriculum from the first year of primary school through the second year of high school.

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Cultural Revolution reformers wanted students to develop critical thinking, industrial skills, and farming skills, while still retaining a focus on academics. When schools re-opened in the early 1970s, the

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combined with activities in fields like agriculture, industry, military service, and politics. Mao argued that these changes would overcome the limits of specialization and established social hierarchies.

1322:, the State Planning Commission set the number of university enrollment spaces. Beginning in the 1950s and running through the 1960s, university graduates were provided with jobs via state allocation. 3223: 4399:

Translations of articles by specialists in the PRC on policy making; early childhood education; basic education; special education; vocational education; ethnic minority education; private education.

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Since September 2021, private schools providing compulsory education can no longer be controlled by foreign entities or individuals. Only Chinese nationals may serve on their Boards of Directors.

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Canon. During the late Autumn and Spring period, such schools had become commonplace throughout the Zhou dynasty, but the power of the central government was slowly giving way to local warlords.

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institutionalized and expanded in higher educational institutions throughout China, with standardized rules such as term limits and age limits being issued by the Ministry of Education in 2000.

1210:(or Imperial Tientsin University), the first modern university in China was established in 1895, of which the undergraduate education system was fully based on the counterpart in USA. In 1898, 1480:

Vocational and practical training at the university level was greatly decreased in favor of research. Fewer rural people returned to their villages after completing their university studies.

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General Ma Fuxiang donated funds to promote education for Hui Muslims and help build a class of intellectuals among the Hui and promote the Hui role in developing the nation's strength.

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of workers and peasants. Because literacy in China had historically been connected with political power, public education and literacy campaigns were viewed as inherently revolutionary.

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In April 1933, the Communist Party's provisional government issued education policy guidelines directed party committees at all levels to focus on cultural education and increasing the

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scholars were invited to courts; governmental sponsorship led to the development of the first Chinese academies. Importance of education and respect to the teachers was stressed in the

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In 1990, less than 2% of China's adult population had college degrees. Since 2000, higher education has experienced a boom in China, with many universities and colleges being built in

4342:. Comprehensive collection of articles on finance and access under reform; schools, teachers, literacy, and educational quality under market reforms after the death of Mao in 1976. 1390:

campaign to develop basic industry and national defense industry in China's hinterlands also resulted in urban educational standards and pedagogy being brought to the countryside.

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Chaudhary, Latika, Aldo Musacchio, Steven Nafziger, and Se Yan. "Big BRICs, weak foundations: The beginning of public elementary education in Brazil, Russia, India, and China."

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to children has resulted in criminal prosecution. After secondary education is completed, China then allows Hui students who are willing to embark on religious studies under an

1655:(Zaxue) 雜學 while 'āyāt (آيات) from the Qur'an were taught in the Xatm al-Qur'an (ختم القرآن) (Haiting). Ma Fuchu brought an Arabic Qasidat (Gesuide jizhu 格随德集注) poem to China. 3321: 4243: 3957: 3412: 1257:

of 1919 was a reaction against the Chinese government's emphasis on technical knowledge, and resulted in a new enthusiasm for theoretical knowledge, but with a focus on

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Since the 1980s Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government in Muslim areas outside Xinjiang.

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were introduced into schools, as well as in publications like newspapers. This language reform was intended to make reading easier and thereby increase literacy.

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In 2021, the government shutdown private tutoring for schoolchildren based on the rationale that rising educational costs were antithetical to the goals of

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In 2021, the government shutdown private tutoring for schoolchildren based on the rationale that rising educational costs were antithetical to the goals of

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Efird, Rob (2020). "Nature for Nurture in Urban Chinese Childrearing". In Esarey, Ashley; Haddad, Mary Alice; Lewis, Joanna I.; Harrell, Stevan (eds.).

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began in 605, which required students to pass their local minimum score before the final examination in the capital. So the private school prevailed.

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Ethnic languages were repudiated as one of the "four olds" and large numbers of books and documents pertaining to ethnic languages were burned.

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were their models. Meanwhile, the art school Pear Garden appeared in the early 8th century, and in 1178 a national military school was set up.

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Hsu, Immanuel (July–September 1964). "The Reorganisation of Higher Education in Communist China, 1949–61" (19). The China Quarterly: 128–160.

1557: 17: 4972: 4473: 5061: 4198: 4051:(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979). Shows that rates of literacy in the Qing dynasty were far higher than had been thought. 5007: 966: 906: 3855: 4874: 4805: 4679: 1799: 1721:, started bringing female education in the 1920s. In Linxia, Gansu, a secular school for Hui girls was founded by the Muslim warlord 3224:""Opinions Concerning Further Strengthening and Improving Propaganda and Ideology Work in Higher Education Under New Circumstances"" 4537: 1568:

education in colleges and universities. During Xi Jinping's tenure, numerous colleges and universities have established schools of

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wrote texts to help Hui learn Arabic. Persian was the main Islamic foreign language used by Chinese Muslims, followed by Arabic.

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1522–1597. There were 5 Persian books and the Qur'an was among 8 Arabic books which made up the "Thirteen Classics" (سابقة).

896: 4128:(Ithaca,: Cornell University Press, 1971). The growth and influence of thirteen colleges founded by Protestant missionaries. 1337:, Chinese students were required to participate in a nationwide study movement on political history and concepts, including 2148: 469: 459: 4864: 4714: 2143:

Thornton, Patricia M. (2019). "Cultural Revolution". In Sorace, Christian; Franceschini, Ivan; Loubere, Nicholas (eds.).

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Creel, H. G. (1983). The Origins of Statecraft in China: The Western Chou Empire, pp. 406–9. University of Chicago Press.

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rather than Confucianism. Education was mostly decentralized in this period, since China was politically disunited, with

1223: 938: 100: 4737: 4729: 998:(advocated in the Warring States period, originated in Han, founded in Tang) was instrumental in the transition from an 4610: 3530:

http://mideast.shisu.edu.cn/_upload/article/fb/db/19a957ee4eb3ae82fbbea2186643/47aadfee-840d-4e2c-a95c-a0284510f630.pdf

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Qingxia, Dai; Yan, Dong (March 2001). "The Historical Evolution of Bilingual Education for China's Ethnic Minorities".

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Everyday Lives in China's Cold War Military Industrial Complex: Voices from the Shanghai Small Third Front, 1964-1988

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Everyday Lives in China's Cold War Military Industrial Complex: Voices from the Shanghai Small Third Front, 1964-1988

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In 1872, the Qing dynasty sent 120 students to study in the United States. It was China's first Educational Mission.

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government. Education was also seen as a symbol of power; the educated often earned significantly greater incomes.

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Islamic National Salvation Federation for Chinese Muslim's education. The president of the federation was General

5057: 5032: 4646: 4527: 3883: 1752:. China does not enforce the law against children attending Mosques on non-Uyghurs in areas outside of Xinjiang. 1350: 521: 4691: 3724: 3491: 4967: 4920: 4615: 3135: 2532: 2302: 1429: 1248: 959: 911: 4002:(Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996). History of social and political reform using schools. 1713:

was another one of the students sent to Al-Azhar in 1931, along with Zhang Ziren, Ma Jian, and Lin Zhongming.

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Toward a New World Outlook: A Documentary History of Education in the People's Republic of China, 1949–1976

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of a professional bureaucracy in ancient Chinese higher education served the imperial examination system.

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in 1861, which hired foreign teachers to teach European languages, mathematics, astronomy and chemistry.

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became important in early education, with students learning it in tandem with, or even before, learning

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toward higher education inside China, as well as for Chinese students to study in the United States.

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Emperor Wu of Han favored Confucianism and made it as the national educational doctrine. In 124 BC,

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Hayford, Charles W. "Literacy Movements in Modern China," in Harvey Graff and Robert Arnove, ed.,

3826:"Xinjiang Authorities Are Retroactively Applying Laws to Prosecute Religious Leaders as Criminals" 3601: 1697:(Tang Ko-san). 40 Sino-Arabic primary schools were founded in Ningxia by its Governor Ma Hongkui. 4800: 4562: 3928:. Compiled by State Dept (U S ) (illustrated ed.). Government Printing Office. p. 160. 3811: 3347: 3277: 2258: 1717:

northwestern provinces were kept in the house. However, in northwestern China reformers, such as

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Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th-Century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model

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Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th-Century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model

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People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War

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increased specialized technological education at the secondary school level and in colleges.

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Contemporary China Studies – School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies – University of Oxford

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Revolution and counterrevolution : China's continuing class struggle since liberation

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Revolution and counterrevolution : China's continuing class struggle since liberation

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Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation and Communication

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U.S. – China Educational Exchange: State, Society, and Intercultural Relations, 1905-19

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number of English classes and to increase efforts to identify English language talent.

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The Chinese Muslim Arabic writing scholars Ma Lianyuan 馬聯元 1841–1903 was trained by

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China Learns English: Language Teaching and Social Change in the People's Republic

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Lee, T. H. C. (2018). Education in Traditional China: A History. Retrieved from

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and they were the first Chinese to study at Al-Azhar. Na Zhong, a descendant of

4328:. London; New York: Routledge, Critical Asian Scholarship, 2007. xx, 282 p.p. 4314: 3995: 2405:

Rejuvenating Communism: Youth Organizations and Elite Renewal in Post-Mao China

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To Open Minds: Chinese Clues to the Dilemma of Contemporary American Education

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Bridging Minds across the Pacific: U.S.-China Educational Exchanges, 1978–2003

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Senate (U S ) Committee on Foreign Relations (2005). State Dept (U S ) (ed.).

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China's Education and the Industrialized World: Studies in Cultural Transfer

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