Historical Jesus - Knowledge

1854:, but there is little scholarly agreement on a single portrait, or the methods needed to construct it. There are, however, overlapping attributes among the various portraits, and scholars who differ on some attributes may agree on others. The conception of a "Historical Jesus" is limited to the abductions from modern scholars on the sources and the results can only produce fragments of what the "real Jesus" or "Jesus of history" may have been. Such conceptions are merely a sketch or model which may inform about but never will be the real Jesus of history; similar to how models exist in the natural sciences that inform about phenomena without specifying a particular object. W.R. Herzog has stated that: "What we call the historical Jesus is the composite of the recoverable bits and pieces of historical information and speculation about him that we assemble, construct, and reconstruct. For this reason, the historical Jesus is, in Meier's words, 'a modern abstraction and construct.'" 815:, the brother of Jesus. Paul states that he personally knew and interacted with eyewitnesses of Jesus such as his most intimate disciples (Peter and John) and family members (his brother James) starting around 36 AD, within just a few years after the crucifixion, and got some direct information about his life from them. From Paul's writings alone, a fairly full outline of the life of Jesus can found: his descent from Abraham and David, his upbringing in the Jewish Law, gathering together disciples, including Cephas (Peter) and John, having a brother named James, living an exemplary life, the Last Supper and betrayal, numerous details surrounding his death and resurrection (e.g. crucifixion, Jewish involvement in putting him to death, burial, resurrection, seen by Peter, James, the twelve and others) along with numerous quotations referring to notable teachings and events found in the Gospels. 1309: 1975: 2278: 824: 2016: 733: 1203: 1421:

the criteria. According to Tucker Ferda, "...criticisms of the criteria have sometimes produced rather grandiose claims about their "uselessness," which do not seem justified when one looks at the kind of argument that those same critics will use when making positive claims about the historical Jesus...criticisms of the notion of "authenticity" or "historicity" can create the impression that there is more disagreement with earlier research than is actually the case."

12755: 14452: 13468: 9865: 9955: 884:, differs greatly from the Synoptic Gospels. James Crossley and Robert J. Myles explain, John "is of limited use for reconstructing the life of the historical Jesus." However, since the third quest, John's gospel is seen as having more reliability than previously thought or sometimes even more reliable than the synoptics; certain sayings in John are as old as or older than their synoptic counterparts, his representation of the topography around 1535: 452: 33: 2243:. Boteach states clearly that he does not believe in Jesus as the Jewish Messiah. At the same time, Boteach argues that "Jews have much to learn from Jesus – and from Christianity as a whole – without accepting Jesus' divinity. There are many reasons for accepting Jesus as a man of great wisdom, beautiful ethical teachings, and profound Jewish patriotism." He concludes by writing, as to 8974: 464: 14462: 2191:, "God with us" – the Hebrew title given to the child in the prophecy of Isaiah (7:14) and applied by Matthew (1:23) to Jesus, but not used to address him except in such apostrophes as the medieval antiphon Veni, Veni, Immanuel that forms the epigraph to this chapter – four Aramaic words appear as titles for Jesus: Rabbi, or teacher; Amen, or prophet; Messias, or Christ; and 1909: 1194:, has made incorrect claims about geography, if the author appears to have hidden information, or if the author has fabricated a prophecy. Finally, scholars turn to external sources, including the testimony of early church leaders, to writers outside the church, primarily Jewish and Greco-Roman historians, who would have been more likely to have criticized the church, and to archaeological evidence. 2579:* Bible scholars James Beilby and Paul Eddy write that consensus is "elusive but not entirely absent". According to Beilby and Eddy, "Jesus was a first-century Jew, who was baptized by John, went about teaching and preaching, had followers, was believed to be a miracle worker and exorcist, went to Jerusalem where there was an "incident", was subsequently arrested, convicted and crucified." 1746:

However, James Crossley and Robert J. Myles and the emerging consensus disagree with Crossan, arguing that "we should dispel romantic notions that this movement was proudly egalitarian and progressive in the sense of the 'radical liberalism' of today" and instead point out that the core Twelve may have been "a central committee or politburo with membership sometimes changing."

12224: 1630:(i.e., that it is not disputed by ancient sources) – help establish the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical event. Eddy and Boyd state that it is now firmly established that there is non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus – referring to the mentions in Josephus and Tacitus. 1965:

The characterization of Jesus as an apocalyptic or millenarian prophet can also be combined with other categories, such as in the work of James Crossley and Robert J. Myles (see below) who regard the end-time teaching of Jesus as a culturally credible way of responding to social and material upheaval

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There is widespread disagreement among scholars on the details of the life of Jesus mentioned in the gospel narratives, and on the meaning of his teachings. Scholars differ on the historicity of specific episodes described in the biblical accounts of Jesus, but almost all modern scholars consider his

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in 1948. Form criticism began as an attempt to trace the history of the biblical material during the oral period before it was written in its current form, and may be seen as starting where textual criticism ends. Form criticism views Gospel writers as editors, not authors. Redaction criticism may be

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during the time of Jesus. A further characteristic of the third quest has been the interdisciplinary and global nature of its scholarship. While the first two quests were mostly carried out by European Protestant theologians, a modern aspect of the third quest is the worldwide influx of scholars from

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Others have criticized claims of a Fourth Quest and had a more measured response to critique of the criteria. The actual problem is arguably that critics use them inappropriately, trying to describe the history of minute portions of the Gospel text, rather than a true flaw in the historical logic of

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Historical criticism, also known as the historical-critical method or higher criticism, is a branch of criticism that investigates the origins of ancient texts in order to understand "the world behind the text". The primary goal of historical criticism is to discover the text's primitive or original

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or Peshar. The presence of details of Jesus' life in Paul, and the differences between letters and Gospels, are sufficient for most scholars to dismiss mythicist claims concerning Paul. Theissen says "there is broad scholarly consensus that we can best find access to the historical Jesus through the

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has stated that "there is a consensus of sorts on the basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God’s will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in

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explains that "It was concerned with presenting a historically true life of Jesus that functioned theologically as a critical force over against Christology." The first scholar to separate the historical Jesus from the theological Jesus in this way was philosopher, writer, classicist, Hebraist and

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Since the 18th century, three scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during each specific phase. These quests are distinguished from pre-Enlightenment approaches because they

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The most neutral and least controversial of these words is probably Rabbi, along with the related Rabbouni. Except for two passages, the Gospels apply the Aramaic word only to Jesus; and if we conclude that the title "teacher" or "master" (didaskalos in Greek) was intended as a translation of that

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has presented a feminist perspective which sees Jesus as a social reformer whose actions such as the acceptance of women followers resulted in the liberation of some women of his time. James Crossley and Robert J. Myles advocate a nuanced historical materialist perspective of Jesus as a religious

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adds: "To dismiss the Gospels from the historical record is neither fair nor scholarly." One book argues that if Jesus did not exist, "the origin of the faith of the early Christians remains a perplexing mystery." Eddy and Boyd say the best history can assert is probability, yet the probability of

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views Jesus as a charismatic "man of the spirit", a mystic or visionary who acts as a conduit for the "Spirit of God". Borg sees this as a well-defined religious personality type, whose actions often involve healing. Borg sees Jesus as a non-eschatological figure who did not intend to start a new

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Scholars involved in the third and next quests for the historical Jesus have constructed a variety of portraits and profiles for Jesus. However, there is little scholarly agreement on the portraits, or the methods used in constructing them. The portraits of Jesus that have been constructed in the

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In view of the skepticism produced in the mid-twentieth century by form criticism concerning the historical reliability of the gospels, the burden shifted in historical Jesus studies from attempting to identify an authentic life of Jesus to attempting to prove authenticity. The criteria developed

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Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) p. 13-14 "First, the New Testament Gospels are now viewed as useful, if not essentially reliable, historical sources. Gone is the extreme skepticism that for so many years dominated gospel research.

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life, and the Kingdom of God. A primary criterion used to discern historical details in the "third quest" is that of plausibility, relative to Jesus' Jewish context and to his influence on Christianity. Contemporary scholars of the "third quest" include E. P. Sanders, Géza Vermes, Gerd Theissen,

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When form criticism questioned the historical reliability of the Gospels, scholars began looking for other criteria. Taken from other areas of study such as source criticism, the "criteria of authenticity" emerged gradually, becoming a distinct branch of methodology associated with life of Jesus

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p. 124 "Since in the quest for the historical Jesus almost anything is possible, the function of the criteria is to pass from the merely possible to the really probable, to inspect various probabilities, and to decide which candidate is most probable. Ordinarily, the criteria can not hope to do

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accepts that there were twelve disciples, but holds that the list of their names cannot be determined with certainty. John Dominic Crossan disagrees, stating that Jesus did not call disciples and had an "open to all" egalitarian approach, imposed no hierarchy and preached to all in equal terms.

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Despite the significant differences among scholars on what constitutes a suitable portrait for Jesus, the mainstream views supported by a number of scholars may be grouped together based on certain distinct, primary themes. These portraits often include overlapping elements, and there are also

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states that the suggestions that an adult Jesus traveled to Egypt or India are "without historical foundation". John Dominic Crossan states that none of the theories presented to fill the 15–18-year gap between the early life of Jesus and the start of his ministry have been supported by modern

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still implicit in scholarly questions of the Jewishness of Jesus. Instead, sober scholarship now focuses on treating the subject matter as part of the wider human phenomenon of religion, cultural comparison, class relations, slave culture and economy, and the social history of historical Jesus

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have traced elements of Christianity to currents in first-century Judaism and have discarded nineteenth-century minority views that Jesus was based on previous pagan deities. Mentions of Jesus in extra-biblical texts exist and are supported as genuine by the majority of historians. Differences

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Age of Reason, 2009, pp. vii–viii: it is "the theory that no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person lay at the root of the

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within this framework, therefore, are tools that provide arguments solely for authenticity, not inauthenticity. In 1901, the application of criteria of authenticity began with dissimilarity. It was often applied unevenly with a preconceived goal. In the early decades of the twentieth century,

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By the end of the twentieth century, scholar Tom Holmén writes that Enlightenment skepticism had given way to a more "trustful attitude toward the historical reliability of the sources ... the conviction of Sanders, (we know quite a lot about Jesus) characterizes the majority of contemporary

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is often superior to that of the synoptics, his testimony that Jesus was executed before, rather than on, Passover, might well be more accurate, and his presentation of Jesus in the garden and the prior meeting held by the Jewish authorities are more historically plausible than their synoptic

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A number of scholars have criticized the various approaches used in the study of the historical Jesus—on one hand, for the lack of rigor in research methods; on the other, for being driven by "specific agendas" that interpret ancient sources to fit specific goals. By the 21st century, the

1399:, and as part of a larger process of accounting for how and why early Christians came to view Jesus in the ways that they did." According to Keith, "these two models are methodologically and epistemologically incompatible," calling into question the methods and aim of the first model. 1032:("the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James"). Paul references meeting and interacting with James, Jesus' brother, and since this agreement between the different sources supports Josephus' statement, the statement is only disputed by a small number of scholars. 1962:. Other scholars follow most themes of the apocalyptic portrait, but take such teachings of Jesus as relating to the destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70 AD and not the end of the world due to the wider significance of the Temple in Judaism that would warrant apocalyptic language. 1591:, i.e. that it is a story which the early Christian Church would have never wanted to invent, as it implies that Jesus was subservient to John. Another argument used in favour of the historicity of the baptism is that multiple accounts refer to it, usually called the criterion of 2272:

is built on the view that Jesus knowingly marginalized himself in a number of ways, first by abandoning his profession as a carpenter and becoming a preacher with no means of support, then arguing against the teachings and traditions of the time while he had no formal rabbinic

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as historical documents. Historical reliability is not dependent on a source being inerrant or void of agendas since there are sources that are considered generally reliable despite having such traits (e.g. Josephus). The question of reliability is a matter of ongoing debate.

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Harper Collins, 2012, p. 12, "Earl Doherty defines the view...In simpler terms, the historical Jesus did not exist. Or if he did, he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity." Further quoting as representative the fuller definition provided by Doherty in

1278:). Semler refuted Reimarus' arguments, but it was of little consequence. Reimarus' writings had already made lasting changes by making it clear criticism could exist independently of theology and faith, and by founding historical Jesus studies within that non-sectarian view. 1269:

who failed at creating political change and was executed. His disciples then stole the body and invented the story of the resurrection for personal gain. Reimarus' controversial work prompted a response from "the father of historical critical research" Johann Semler in 1779,

975:). There is no means by which certainty can be established concerning this or any of the other lost references, partial references, and questionable references that mention some aspect of Jesus' life or death, but in evaluating evidence, it is appropriate to note they exist. 1118:

at the hands of the Athenians. He links the death of the 'wise king' to the Jews being driven from their kingdom. He also states that the 'wise king' lives on because of the "new laws he laid down". The dating of the letter is disputed but was probably soon after 73 AD.

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writes: "Today nearly all historians, whether Christians or not, accept that Jesus existed". In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, Ehrman wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees."

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portrait advances the idea that Jesus was simply a rabbi who sought to reform certain ideas within Judaism. This idea can be traced to the late nineteenth century, when various liberal Jews sought to emphasize the Jewish nature of Jesus, and saw him as something of a

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and historian) states that "In recent years, no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non-historicity of Jesus, or at any rate very few have, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary."

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The prophet of social change portrait positions Jesus primarily as someone who challenged the traditional social structures of his time. Gerd Theissen sees three main elements to the activities of Jesus as he effected social change: his positioning as the

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Tacitus' reference to Jesus is extremely brief, but it shows no evidence of later Christian influence and hence is widely accepted as genuine. It does then provide independent, non-Christian evidence at least for Jesus' existence and his execution under

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states that the very negative tone of Tacitus' comments on Christians makes the passage extremely unlikely to have been forged by a Christian scribe and the Tacitus reference is now widely accepted as an independent confirmation of Jesus's crucifixion.

1595:. Technically, multiple attestation does not guarantee authenticity, but only determines antiquity. However, for most scholars, together with the criterion of embarrassment it lends credibility to the baptism of Jesus by John being a historical event. 12959: 698:

first developed in the 19th century: that the New Testament has no historical value with respect to Jesus's existence, that there are no non-Christian references to Jesus from the first century, and that Christianity had pagan and/or mythical roots.

2869:) states that "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non-historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary." in 1957:

does not see Jesus as advocating specific timetables for the End Times, but sees him as preaching his own doctrine of "apocalyptic eschatology" derived from post-exilitic Jewish teachings, and views the apocalyptic teachings of Jesus as a form of

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states that Jesus had difficulties communicating with the outside world and suffered from dissociative identity disorder (formerly known as multiple personality disorder), which made him a schizothymic or even schizophrenic type. In 1998–2000

1951:, chapters 4 and 5, probably written by the end of AD 52, present Jesus as far more apocalyptic than other Christian sources produced towards the end of the 1st century, contending that the apocalyptic messages were progressively toned down. 11552: 2030:'s view Jesus was crucified not for religious reasons but because his social teachings challenged the seat of power held by the Jewish authorities. Crossan believes Galilee was a place where Greek and Jewish culture heavily interacted, with 1297:('The Life of Jesus', 1835), in which Strauss expresses his conclusion that Jesus existed, but that his godship is the result of "a historic nucleus worked over and reshaped into an ideal form by the first Christians under the influence of 2042:

also holds that Jesus was a Cynic whose teachings were so different from those of his time that they shocked the audience and forced them to think, but Mack views his death as accidental and not due to his challenge to Jewish authority.

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In addition to the two historical elements of baptism and crucifixion, scholars attribute varying levels of certainty to various other aspects of the life of Jesus, although there is no universal agreement among scholars on these items:

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viewed as the child of source criticism and form criticism. and views the Gospel writers as authors and early theologians and tries to understand how the redactor(s) has (have) molded the narrative to express their own perspectives.

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was a physical and historical event. Wright's portrait of Jesus is closer to the traditional Christian views than many other scholars, and when he departs from the Christian tradition, his views are still close to them. Like Wright,

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The portraits of Jesus that have been constructed through history using these processes have often differed from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts. Such portraits include that of Jesus as an apocalyptic

2319:, that the positions ascribed to the Pharisees in the Gospels are very different from what we know of them, and in fact their opinions were very similar to those ascribed to Jesus. Harvey Falk also sees Jesus as proto-Pharisee or 1024:, is most likely not authentic in its entirety, it is broadly agreed upon that it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus, which was then subject to Christian interpolation. Of the other mention in Josephus, Josephus scholar 614:. There is little scholarly agreement on a single portrait, nor the methods needed to construct it, but there are overlapping attributes among the various portraits, and scholars who differ on some attributes may agree on others. 2025:

In the Cynic philosopher profile, Jesus is presented as a Cynic, a traveling sage and philosopher preaching a cynical and radical message of change to abolish the existing hierarchical structure of the society of his time. In

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Other considerations outside Christendom include the possible mentions of Jesus in the Talmud. The Talmud speaks in some detail of the conduct of criminal cases of Israel whose texts were gathered together from 200 to 500 CE.

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authored a study in which, based on his own history of delusions of mission and overvalued ideas, and information communicated in the Gospels, made an attempt at reconstructing Jesus’ psyche with the view of the apocalyptic

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religion, but his message set him at odds with the Jewish powers of his time based on the "politics of holiness". Both Sanders and Casey agree that Jesus was also a charismatic healer in addition to an apocalyptic prophet.

2893:, p. 34. "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church’s imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that anymore." 2238:

for their cruelty, and to have fought them courageously. The book states that the Jews had nothing whatsoever to do with the murder of Jesus, but rather that the blame for his trial and killing lies with the Romans and

1943:. Bart D. Ehrman aligns himself with Schweitzer's view that Jesus expected an apocalypse during his own generation, and he bases some of his views on the argument that the earliest gospel sources (for which he assumes 8095: 12191: 723:

states, "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church's imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that anymore."

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compared to the Gospels and states that he never knew Jesus, he was a contemporary of Jesus and does make it clear that he considers Jesus to have been a real person and a Jew. Moreover, he claims to have met with

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and the overwhelming majority of modern scholars view Josephus' accounts of the activities of John the Baptist as authentic. One of the arguments in favor of the historicity of the Baptism of Jesus by John is the

1253:(1729–1781) in the library at Wolfenbüttel where Lessing was the librarian. Reimarus had left permission for his work to be published after his death, and Lessing did so between 1774 and 1778, publishing them as 5526: 12954: 1482:

are a variety of rules used to determine if some event or person is more or less likely to be historical. These criteria are primarily, though not exclusively, used to assess the sayings and actions of Jesus.

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We quote the rabbis of the Talmud; shall we then, not also quote the rabbi of Bethlehem? Shall not he in whom there burned, if it burned in anyone, the spirit and the light of Judaism, be reclaimed by the

1499:. By the 1950s, coherence was also included. By 1987, D. Polkow lists 25 separate criteria being used by scholars to test for historical authenticity including the criterion of "historical plausibility". 13673: 2116:

organizer who responded to the intersecting material conditions of Galilee and Judea in culturally credible ways such as through intra-Jewish legal debate and a revolutionary millenarian proclamation.

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places Jesus within the Jewish context of "exile and return", a notion he uses to build on his view of the 1st-century concept of hope. Wright believes that Jesus was the Messiah and argues that the

1080:, but appears only in the later commentaries of the Gemara." Jesus is not mentioned by name, but there is a subtle attack on the virgin birth that refers to the illegitimate son of a Roman soldier 13110: 12750: 1373:

multiple disciplines. More recently, historicists have focused their attention on the historical writings associated with the era in which Jesus lived or on the evidence concerning his family.

12219: 2810:(a secular agnostic) wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees, based on certain and clear evidence." B. Ehrman, 2011 799:, approximately twenty to thirty years after the generally accepted time period for the death of Jesus), and are the earliest surviving Christian texts that include information about Jesus. 13150: 11337: 12326: 14168: 13543: 3838:

Price, Robert M. (2009). "Jesus at the Vanishing Point". In Beilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul R. (eds.). The Historical Jesus: Five Views. InterVarsity Press. pp. 55–83. ISBN 978-0-8308-3868-4

543:. Scholars differ about the beliefs and teachings of Jesus as well as the accuracy of the biblical accounts, with only two events being supported by nearly universal scholarly consensus: 1857:

Contemporary scholarship, representing the "third quest" and the "next quest" places Jesus firmly in the Jewish tradition. Jesus was a Jewish preacher who taught that he was the path to

1408:) announced that historical Jesus scholarship now had moved to the era of the Next Quest. The Next Quest has moved on from the criteria, obsessions with the uniqueness of Jesus, and the 13555: 11535: 8858: 1171:

Historians subject the gospels to critical analysis by differentiating authentic, reliable information from possible inventions, exaggerations, and alterations. Since there are more

13599: 1810:" or "go the extra mile." Within the traditional ethic of "Christian forgiveness" there are some significantly differing views about exactly what type of forgiveness Jesus taught. 1265:

after the library where Lessing worked. Reimarus distinguished between what Jesus taught and how he is portrayed in the New Testament. According to Reimarus, Jesus was a political

13268: 12321: 11954: 11513: 12236: 2836:(an atheist who denies the existence of Jesus) agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars: Robert M. Price "Jesus at the Vanishing Point" in 640:

personages whose reality as historical figures is never questioned." There is no indication that writers in antiquity who opposed Christianity questioned the existence of Jesus.

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meaning in its original historical context and its literal sense. Historical criticism began in the 17th century and gained popular recognition in the 19th and 20th centuries.

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Representative of many is the position of E. P. Sanders and Marcus Borg, who have concluded that it is possible to recover a fairly reliable picture of the historical Jesus."

12340: 11937: 10001: 1088:), and a reference to Jesus' miracles as "black magic" learned when he lived in Egypt (as a toddler). Ehrman writes that few contemporary scholars treat this as historical. 2978:

That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus ... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact.

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In addition to biblical sources, there are a number of mentions of Jesus in non-Christian sources that have been used in the historical analyses of the existence of Jesus.

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The Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus and of the religious movement he founded. These religious gospels – the

13069: 11646: 1526:" trends of the early 20th century, which totally rejected them, were abandoned and scholars began to focus on what is historically probable and plausible about Jesus. 13982: 11501: 5521: 1388:

Since the late 1900s, concerns have been growing about the usefulness of the criteria of authenticity. According to Le Donne, the usage of such criteria is a form of "

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quest for the historical Jesus have often differed from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts. These portraits include that of Jesus as an

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had taken place for centuries, these quests introduced new methods and specific techniques in the attempt to establish the historical validity of their conclusions.

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An emerging scholarly consensus suggests Jesus and his inner-circle claimed "a degree of hardened 'servant' masculinity for themselves as an example to the world."

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have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and developing new and different research criteria. Historical Jesus scholars typically contend that he was a

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supports the "Wisdom Sage" view and states that Jesus is best understood as a teacher of wisdom who saw himself as the embodiment or incarnation of God's Wisdom.

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and James Dunn. Although scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason and context for it, e.g. both E. P. Sanders and

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Scholars such as Robert Van Voorst see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the "king of the Jews" is about the death of Jesus. Others such as

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states that it is rarely disputed that Jesus was from Nazareth, an obscure small village not worthy of invention. Gerd Theissen concurs with that conclusion.

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J. Klawans, Purity, Sacrifice, and the Temple: Symbolism and Supersessionism in the Study of Ancient Judaism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 111-14

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and Bart D. Ehrman argue this material is too late to be of much use. Ehrman explains that "Jesus is never mentioned in the oldest part of the Talmud, the

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Price, Robert M. (14 September 2007). "The New Testament Code: The Cup of the Lord, The Damascus Covenant, and the Blood of Christ – By Robert Eisenman".

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Jesus lived only in Galilee and Judea: Most scholars reject that there is any evidence that an adult Jesus traveled or studied outside Galilee and Judea.

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Fire of Mercy, Heart of the Word (Vol. II): Meditations on the Gospel According to St. Matthew – Dr Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis, Ignatius Press, Introduction

12304: 2111:'s ideas are close to those of Horsley, but have a more religious focus and base the actions of Jesus on covenant theology and his desire for justice. 1890:

differences among the followers of each portrait. The subsections below present the main portraits that are supported by multiple mainstream scholars.

1616:, Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader. Meier states that a number of other criteria – the criterion of 893: 12376: 7724: 666:

Jesus having existed is so high, Ehrman says "virtually all historians and scholars have concluded Jesus did exist as a historical figure." Historian

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Beilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul Rhodes (2009), "The Quest for the Historical Jesus: An Introduction", in Beilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul Rhodes (eds.),

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Eisenman, Robert (1998), "James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls" (Watkins)

1395:." According to Chris Keith, a historical Jesus is "ultimately unattainable, but can be hypothesized on the basis of the interpretations of the 13835: 13419: 13331: 11639: 9450: 7898: 2415:, a census of Judaea which was taken by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, Roman governor of Syria, upon the imposition of direct Roman rule in AD 6. 1786: 1011: 694:

has written that Jesus may have been a real person, but that the biblical accounts of him are almost entirely fictional. Many proponents use a

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Green, J.B., Brown, J., & Perrin, N. (2018). Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship. IVP.

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Telford, William R. (1998). "Major trends and interpretive issues in the study of Jesus". In Chilton, Bruce David; Evans, Craig Alan (eds.).

2347:(although Tolstoy never actually used the term "Christian anarchism"; reviews of his book following its publication in 1894 coined the term.) 1404: 8154:

Murray, Evan D.; Cunningham, Miles G.; Price, Bruce H. (September 2011). "The Role of Psychotic Disorders in Religious History Considered".

2234:-observant Jewish rabbi. Boteach says he was a beloved member of the Jewish community. At the same time, Jesus is said to have despised the 12995: 11600: 8096:"Health: A madman can look a lot like a messiah: There is no easy way for cult followers to tell if their leader is sane, says Raj Persaud" 5547: 1110:, a Syriac Stoic, who wrote a letter to his son, who was also named Serapion, from a Roman prison. He speaks of the execution of 'the wise 13917: 13523: 13192: 12894: 12345: 11819: 7854:. Europäische Hochschulschriften; Reihe 1, Deutsche Sprache und Literatur; 1098 (in German). Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang. pp. 40–91. 4310:

Davies, W. D.; Sanders, E.P. (2008). "20. Jesus: From the Jewish Point of View". In Horbury, William; Davies, W.D.; Sturdy, John (eds.).

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also views the crucifixion as a historical event but believes this was due to Jesus’ challenging of Roman authority. On the other hand,

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Herzog, W. R. (2005). Prophet and teacher: An introduction to the historical Jesus. Louisville, Ky: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 6

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Given that Jesus was poor, long-established historiographical approaches associated with the study of the poor in the past, such as

1657:

and John P. Meier state that Jesus did predict his death, and this actually strengthened his followers' belief in his Resurrection.

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between the content of the Jewish Messianic prophecies and the life of Jesus undermine the idea that Jesus was invented as a Jewish

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Kinman, B. (1999). Parousia, Jesus "A-Triumphal" Entry, and the Fate of Jerusalem. Journal of Biblical Literature, 118(2), 279-294

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characterized by the latest research approaches. One of the modern aspects of the third quest has been the role of archaeology;

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The Narratives of the Gospels and the Historical Jesus: Current Debates, Prior Debates and the Goal of Historical Jesus Research

710:, an atheist who denies the existence of Jesus, agrees that his perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars. 14072: 13758: 13746: 13734: 13702: 13616: 13592: 13560: 13548: 13249: 13231: 13182: 12836: 12124: 11427: 10410: 9121: 1984:

The charismatic healer portrait positions Jesus as a pious and holy man in the view of Géza Vermes, whose profile draws on the

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to determine which gospel variants could theoretically be taken as original. To answer this question, scholars have to ask

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p.16 states: "biblical scholars and classical historians regard theories of non-existence of Jesus as effectively refuted"

13383: 13161: 13039: 13029: 12819: 12665: 12500: 11702: 11432: 11382: 10124: 9934: 9894: 2127: 2099:, the core group of disciples that followed him, and his localized supporters as he journeyed through Galilee and Judea. 1508: 13709: 11942: 7984:

Perhaps, even earlier, Jesus Christ might simply have returned to his carpentry following the use of modern treatments.

3296:

four Aramaic words appear as titles for Jesus: Rabbi, or teacher; Amen, or prophet; Messias, or Christ; and Mar, or Lord

1326:'s critique of 1906 in which he pointed out various shortcomings in the approaches used at the time. After Schweitzer's 960:). This book likewise was lost, but not before one of its citations of Thallos was taken up by the Byzantine historian 14263: 13338: 13100: 12463: 12245: 11784: 9803: 8867: 8851: 8480: 5604: 4676: 4420: 4118: 4016: 3785: 3733: 3653: 3629: 3624:(2007). "Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus". Sacrifice and Redemption. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–36. 3606: 3091: 3063: 2463: 1948: 1519: 807: 12738: 8275: 5404:

Tabor, James (2007), "The Jesus Dynasty: The Hidden History of Jesus, His Royal Family, and the Birth of Christianity"

2126:

argue that Jesus was an anti-Roman revolutionary that tried to overthrow Roman rule in Palestine and re-establish the

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Moore, Daniel (2014). "Jesus, An Emerging Jewish Mosaic". In Charlesworth, James; Rhea, Brian; Pokorný, Petr (eds.).

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Historiography and Hermeneutics in Jesus Studies: An Examination of the Work of John Dominic Crossan and Ben F. Meyer

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p. 339 states of baptism and crucifixion that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent".

2915: 2751: 2726: 2333:, a view based on the presentation of Jesus in later Jewish sources and on (dubious) apocryphal writings such as the 1928: 1430: 1332: 211: 12902: 11885: 7701: 6896: 2642: 1049: 13845: 13471: 13187: 12863: 12826: 12699: 12570: 11400: 11395: 11054: 10011: 9032:

Christian Origins and the Question of God, a projected six-volume series of which three have been published under:

5565:[https://web.archive.org/web/20220607111843/https://brill.com/view/journals/jshj/19/3/article-p261_261.xml Archived 768:

Non-Christian sources that are used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include Jewish sources such as

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support the historicity of the crucifixion, but contend that Jesus did not foretell his own crucifixion, and that

14465: 13887: 12930: 12912: 12745: 12436: 11405: 11258: 10788: 10406: 9637: 9578: 8601: 8316: 8293: 7800: 6383: 1073: 869:. There are different hypotheses regarding the origin of the texts because the gospels of the New Testament were 582:

expectations. Some scholars credit the apocalyptic declarations of the gospels to him, while others portray his "

567: 494: 347: 11747: 2112: 931:. Thallos' history, like the vast majority of ancient literature, has been lost but not before it was quoted by 14067: 14059: 14022: 14004: 13825: 13658: 13513: 13368: 13316: 13289: 13051: 12648: 12446: 12257: 12112: 11824: 11779: 11764: 11288: 9944: 9939: 9887: 9650: 9473: 9314: 9012: 8488:

Craffert, Pieter F. and Botha, Pieter J. J. "Why Jesus Could Walk On The Sea But He Could Not Read And Write."

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is the proposition that Jesus of Nazareth never existed, or if he did, he had virtually nothing to do with the

314: 290: 10840: 2768: 1741:: John P. Meier sees the calling of disciples a natural consequence of the information available about Jesus. 14163: 14131: 14054: 13860: 12887: 12779: 12653: 11774: 11697: 11651: 10346: 10021: 9739: 9356: 9217: 8111:

Two thousand years ago Jesus received a crown of thorns. Today the Messianic have electro-convulsive therapy.

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scholarship and wider reception histories of the historical Jesus. The book by Crossley and Robert J. Myles,

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are mostly subjective, based on cultural stereotypes and societal trends rather than on scientific analysis.

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Jesus, the Gospels, and the Galilean Crisis: The Origins, Reception, and Value of an Influential Hypothesis

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can be estimated from non-Christian sources, and confirmed by correlating them with New Testament accounts.

334: 251: 12980: 12032: 7301:, The Gospel of Mark, New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002), 498–543 7017:

Jesus Research: New Methodologies and Perceptions: The Second Princeton-Prague Symposium on Jesus Research

1377:

studies." Reflecting this shift, the phrase "quest for the historical Jesus" has largely been replaced by

1364:

states that modern scholars now want to use archaeological discoveries that clarify the nature of life in

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Jesus, the Tribulation, and the End of the Exile: Restoration Eschatology and the Origin of the Atonement

2171:, painted Jesus as a devout student of John the Baptist who came to see it as his mission to restore the 1874:, advocate for a non-eschatological Jesus, one who is more of a Cynic sage than an apocalyptic preacher. 1796: 206: 12641: 12294: 4988: 2086:

and usher in a new messianic era in which God would improve this world through the faith of his people.

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Jesus Research: An International Perspective (Princeton–Prague Symposia Series on the Historical Jesus)

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The date of the crucifixion of Jesus was earlier than 36 AD, based on the dates of the prefecture of

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Tabor, James (2012)"Paul and Jesus: How the Apostle Transformed Christianity" (Simon & Schuster)

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Key Events in the Life of the Historical Jesus: A Collaborative Exploration of Context and Coherence

1236:

The scholarly effort to reconstruct an "authentic" historical picture of Jesus was a product of the

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Jesus Christus vom Standpunkte des Psychiaters = Jesus Christ from the Standpoint of a Psychiatrist

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The historical reliability of the gospels refers to the reliability and historic character of the

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Book Review: Jesus, Criteria, and the Demise of Authenticity, by Chris Keith and Anthony Le Donne

5277:

The Symbolic Jesus: Historical Scholarship, Judaism and the Construction of Contemporary Identity

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When his family heard this they went out to restrain him, for they said, ″He is out of his mind.″

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Soundings in the Religion of Jesus: Perspectives and Methods in Jewish and Christian Scholarship

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In the 1980s a number of scholars gradually began to introduce new research ideas, initiating a

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pp. 35–36 states that the theories of the non-existence of Jesus are "a thoroughly dead thesis"

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The baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist can be dated approximately from Josephus' references (

736: 711: 329: 260: 156: 13668: 11923: 7610: 5395:

Butz, Jeffrey "The Brother of Jesus and the Lost Teachings of Christianity" (Inner Traditions)

5225: 5112:"A Brief history of Historical criticism: the nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century" 4837:(3rd., rev. and expanded ed.). Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 78. 4110: 4104: 3978: 2610: 1460:. This took the form of textual and source criticism originally, which were supplemented with 14313: 14204: 14184: 14049: 13999: 13892: 13882: 13572: 13538: 13447: 12458: 12196: 12091: 12018: 11890: 11293: 11010: 10964: 10959: 10908: 10572: 10553: 10369: 10264: 9722: 9655: 9560: 9540: 9535: 9375: 9289: 9179: 9107: 8217: 7968:

Sargant, William (22 August 1974). "The movement in psychiatry away from the philosophical".

6560: 2334: 2066: 2010: 1143: 1020: 858: 603: 524: 426: 421: 359: 221: 136: 121: 84: 42: 14117: 13528: 13064: 8709:. Cuestiones Teológicas, 51(116) (2024), pp. 1–23. {{doi: 10.18566/cueteo.v51n116.a01.| url= 5758: 5083:

Hermann Samuel Reimarus (1694–1768): Classicist, Hebraist, Enlightenment Radical in Disguise

3047: 2200:

Aramaic name, it seems safe to say that it was as Rabbi that Jesus was known and addressed.

1126:

see less value in the letter, given its uncertain date, and the ambiguity in the reference.

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Hägerland, Tobias, ed. (2016). "Problems of Method for studying Jesus and the scriptures".

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Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of

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The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of Its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede

1918:

The apocalyptic prophet view primarily emphasizes Jesus preparing his fellow Jews for the

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The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus

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The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition.

636:, "we can no more reject Jesus' existence than we can reject the existence of a mass of 566:

also support his historical existence. Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly

14420: 14415: 14350: 14233: 14146: 13977: 13653: 12985: 12769: 11834: 11789: 11148: 11104: 11059: 10682: 10628: 10549: 10120: 10047: 9924: 9850: 9835: 9830: 9717: 9696: 9517: 9507: 9380: 9324: 9304: 8608: 8247: 7892: 7442: 7438: 7107: 4701:

The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition

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The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition

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Aramaic and may have also spoken Hebrew and Greek. The languages spoken in Galilee and

1457: 1361: 1225: 1010:, written around AD 93–94, includes two references to the biblical Jesus in Books 706:

and classical historians view the theories of his nonexistence as effectively refuted.

675: 536: 431: 414: 386: 324: 319: 255: 141: 11690: 9091:. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. The first section, on Jesus' life and ministry 8707:

The third historical Jesus research and its agendas: A meta-critical phase of research

8551:

Dunn, James D.G. (2005), "The Tradition", in Dunn, James D.G.; McKnight, Scot (eds.),

7087: 6559:, Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester, 1970; 53(1) pp. 9–29 4621:

Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war

1348:

began in 1953 and introduced a number of new techniques, but faded away in the 1970s.

1336:

in 1910, the book's title provided the label for the field of study for eighty years.

1028:

has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus' reference to Jesus in

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Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity

7316:

The Olivet Discourse: Second Coming Prophesy or Prophetic Warning against Jerusalem?

2374:. This theory is based on the fact that the Gospel of Mark (Mark 3:21) reports that 2277: 2230:

was published in which Boteach takes the position that Jesus was a wise and learned

14405: 14112: 13935: 13911: 13452: 12609: 11999: 11858: 11846: 11138: 11098: 11093: 10918: 10805: 10740: 10567: 10562: 10544: 10402: 10203: 10156: 9929: 9488: 9309: 9299: 9267: 9262: 9227: 9207: 9141: 8470: 8426: 8364: 8229: 8218:"Psychobiography of Jesus Christ in view of Władysław Witwicki's theory of cratism" 8163: 7099: 6181: 5423: 4917:“The Historical Figure of Jesus," Sanders, E.P., Penguin Books: London, 1995, p. 3. 4639: 4579: 3885: 3800: 3775: 3324: 2780: 2302: 2282: 2259: 2221: 2176: 2119: 2071: 1870:. In contrast to the Schweitzerian view, certain North American scholars, such as 1756:

After his death his disciples continued, and some of his disciples were persecuted.

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also reached the conclusion that Jesus was seen by his contemporaries as a rabbi.

2015: 1495:

provided the foundation for multiple attestation. The Second Quest introduced the

1187:

of the documents, to see if, for example, a document has misquoted texts from the

632:

asserts that if conventional standards of historical criticism are applied to the

13830: 13437: 13011: 12687: 12051: 11873: 11658: 11422: 11248: 10893: 10208: 9813: 9776: 9363: 9341: 9196: 8978: 8721: 8342: 8279: 7725:"Koshering Jesus More: An Evangelical Review of Shmuley Boteach's 'Kosher Jesus'" 7646: 7583: 7562: 7493: 7310: 7126: 7088:"'More Ingenious than Learned'? Examining the Quest for the Non-Historical Jesus" 6566: 6306: 6230: 6084:

The relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth: A Critical Study

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Some scholars have proposed further additional historical possibilities such as:

1738: 1712: 1612:

views the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical fact and states that based on the

1409: 1164: 827:

An 11th-century Byzantine manuscript containing the opening of the Gospel of Luke

758: 707: 191: 131: 11931: 7564:

Jesus and the Zealots: A Study of the Political Factor in Primitive Christianity

7474:

Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Dr Craig L Blomberg (2009)

5316:"Jesus Research and Archaeology: A New Perspective" by James H. Charlesworth in 732: 14211: 13902: 13321: 12949: 12945: 12596: 12214: 12153: 11993: 11464: 11298: 11086: 11074: 10760: 10645: 10321: 10306: 10296: 10198: 10100: 9868: 9808: 9667: 9568: 9428: 9418: 9413: 9408: 8717: 8667: 8404: 7773:

Falk, Harvey (2003) "Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus"

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Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee

7641: 7204:

Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching

7103: 6205:

Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching

5981:

Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching

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From Rebel to Rabbi: Reclaiming Jesus and the Making of Modern Jewish Culture

7362: 7198: 7167: 6866: 6751:

The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France

6644:

Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee

6631:(referenced above) states that Aramaic has the widest support among scholars. 6333: 5941:

Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee

5811: 5435: 5348: 5344: 4530: 4185: 3621: 3127:

Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee

2997:

Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee

2719:

The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings.

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South Seminole Church Of Christ. April 20, 2003. Accessed January 21, 2024.

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Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research

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Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research

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goes further and presents Jesus as a more radical reformer who initiated a

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The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament

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The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament

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The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament

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The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament

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The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament

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Ehrman says, "There is historical information about Jesus in the Gospels."

2247:, that "the hyphen between Jewish and Christian values is Jesus himself." 1202: 14410: 12692: 12334: 12310: 11680: 11668: 11590: 11166: 10979: 10783: 10519: 10467: 10442: 10425: 10364: 9734: 9585: 9319: 7336: 7271:, Jesus and the Victory of God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996), pp. 329–365 6719:

The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world

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by Andreas J. Kostenberger, L. Scott Kellum and Charles L Quarles (2012)

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Vermes, Geza. The authentic gospel of Jesus. London, Penguin Books. 2004.

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Jesus taught an ethic of forgiveness, as expressed in aphorisms such as "

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that are examples of the wide variety of writings in the first centuries

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Kostenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott; Quarles, Charles L. (2009).

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